Improving The Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables: A Training Manual For Trainers

Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers
IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY

OF FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLES:
A TRAINING MANUAL FOR TRAINERS
Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced

and redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration and without prior
written permission, for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes
provided all copies contain the following statement: 2002 University of
Maryland. This work is reproduced and distributed with the permission of
the University of Maryland. No other use is permitted without the express
prior written permission of the University of Maryland. For permission,
contact JIFSAN, University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD
20742
i
IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY

OF FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLES:
A TRAINING MANUAL FOR TRAINERS
Table of Contents
Introduction
Table of Contents ......................................................................................i
Introduction .................................................................................................v
About This Manual .....................................................................................v
Acronyms......................................................................................................ix
Principles
SECTION I.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING FOR IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND

QUALITY OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Module 1. Safety Hazards In Fresh Produce
Biological, Chemical and Physical........................................I-2
Module 2. Fresh Produce Safety and Consumer Health ...................I-13
Module 3. Impact of Produce Safety on Trade ......................................I-18
References..................................................................................................I-22
SECTION II. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Module 1. Soil and Water .........................................................................II-3
Module 2. Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers .........................................II-16
Module 3. Animal Exclusion and Pest Control .....................................II-27
Module 4. Worker Health and Safety ......................................................II-39
Module 5. Harvesting and Cooling .........................................................II-50
References .................................................................................................II-63
SECTION III. GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR HANDLING, PACKING, STORAGE
AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH PRODUCE
Module 1. Produce Cleaning and Treatment .......................................III-2
Module 2. Packing, Storage and Transportation .................................III-15
Module 3. Equipment Cleaning and Sanitation ...................................III-25
References .................................................................................................III-33
ii
SECTION IV. FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Module 1. The U.S. Food Safety System................................................IV-2
Module 2. Investigating Foodborne Disease Outbreaks....................IV-9
Module 3. International Food Laws and Regulations..........................IV-16
References .................................................................................................VI-23
SECTION V. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES
Module 1. Safety and Quality Assurance ...............................................V-2
Module 2. Quality Attributes, Grades and Standards ..........................V-10
Module 3. Quality Attributes and Spoilage ............................................V-18
References .................................................................................................V-25
SECTION VI. DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING COURSE
Module 1. Planning for Effective Training: Identifying Needs
and Setting Objectives ............................................................VI-2
Module 2. Preparing and Organizing the Training Content ...............VI-9
Module 3. Conducting and Evaluating the Course ..............................VI-18
References .................................................................................................VI-25
Practical
Introduction ........................................................................................................................P-3
Experiments/Demonstrations
Water as a Contamination Agent ............................................................P-4
Product Integrity and Produce Contamination .....................................P-6
Handwashing ............................................................................................P-8
Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management ..................P-10
Fruit Spoilage .............................................................................................P-13
Experiments Using Artificial Germs:
Handwashing .................................................................................P-15
How Germs are Spread - I............................................................P-16
How Germs are Spread II .........................................................P-16
Germs and Produce ......................................................................P-16
Fresh Produce Quality ..............................................................................P-18
Discussion Questions .....................................................................................................P-19
Problem Solving Exercises
Traceback Investigation.............................................................................P-20
Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios .
............................................................................................................P-22
Field Site Visit Guide ........................................................................................................P-24
iii
Additional Resources
Part I. Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce
Table 1 Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables .Res-2
Table 2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with

Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ....................................................Res-6
Part II. FDA Publications
The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for
Fresh Fruits and Vegetables - In Brief ......................................Res-10
Farm Investigation Questionnaire ............................................................Res-14
Do Your Own Establishment Inspection A Guide to Self Inspection
for the Smaller Food Processor and Warehouse ...................Res-25
Guidance for Industry: Reducing Microbial Food Safety Hazards
for
Sprouted Seeds ...........................................................................................Res-36
FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of Fruit and
Vegetable Juices .........................................................................................Res-39
Part III. Disinfecting Contaminated Wells .................................................................Res-41
Part IV. Composting Facility ........................................................................................Res-43
Part V. Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables ..........................................Res-46
Part VI. Fundamentals of HACCP .................................................................................Res-48
Part VII. Choosing the Correct Training Aids ............................................................Res-60
Part VIII. Glossary of Terms ...........................................................................................Res-64
Part IX. Where to Find Additional Information ..........................................................Res-68
iv
Introduction
The health benefits associated with regular consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables
have been clearly demonstrated and encouraged by national and international nutrition
and health authorities. However, increased consumption of these products has been
associated with a increased proportion of reported outbreaks of foodborne illness that
can be traced to fresh produce. Recent outbreaks of foodborne illness, such as those
in the U.S. involving E. coli O157:H7 in lettuce and Salmonella in cantaloupe, and the
fact that most fresh produce is not processed, a step which generally reduces or
eliminates pathogens, have raised concerns regarding the potential safety of fresh
fruits and vegetables.
Background
In 1998, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) issued the document "Guidance for Industry -- Guide to Minimize
Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables." This document,
referred to as the Guide, addressed microbial food safety hazards and good agricultural
and manufacturing practices (GAPs and GMPs) common to the growing, harvesting,
cleaning/washing, sorting, packing, and transporting of most fruits and vegetables sold
to consumers in an unprocessed or minimally processed (raw) form. This voluntary,
science-based guidance was designed to be used by both domestic and foreign fresh
fruit and vegetable producers to help ensure the safety of their produce. The voluntary
guidance is consistent with U.S. trade rights and obligations and does not impose
unnecessary or unequal restrictions or barriers on either domestic or foreign
producers.
That same year, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in
conjunction with the Institute of Food Science and Engineering, University of Arkansas
(IFSE/UA) initiated plans to develop a regional training course for Mexico and Central
America on quality assurance and safety of fresh produce. The Government of
Guatemala hosted a planning Workshop for this training in Guatemala City in
December 1998. The 10-day FAO Regional Training Course took place in June 1999 at
the School of Tropical and Humid Agriculture (EARTH) and was hosted by the
Government of Costa Rica. The participants at both the planning workshop and the
training course indicated a critical need for more training opportunities and greater
availability of training materials on safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables.
About This Manual
The objective of this manual is to provide uniform, broad-based scientific and practical
information on the safe production, handling, storage, and transport of fresh produce.
This manual will:
v
1. Provide a teaching tool to train trainers who will be conducting courses to facilitate
the safe production, handling, storage, and transport of fruits and vegetables
produced in countries exporting to the United States and elsewhere
2. Serve as a resource for trainers preparing and conducting courses to assist those
in the produce industry with identifying and implementing appropriate measures to
minimize risks of microbial contamination while also reducing other hazards
(chemical and physical) and maintaining market quality
The information and recommendations presented expand on the Guide and the
material developed for the Regional course in Costa Rica. The material in this manual
is guidance and not regulation and should be applied as appropriate and feasible to
individual fruit and vegetable operations.
Use of This Manual
Information presented includes:
Principles science-based information regarding elements of produce safety
and quality. Topics included are:
The importance of training for improving the safety and quality of fresh
fruits and vegetables
Good agricultural practices (GAPs)
Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) for handling and packing
Quality and phytosanitary issues for fresh produce
Safety hazards and quality attributes of fresh produce
Developing an effective training course

Practical - materials to accompany and complement lectures. Included are
experiments/demonstrations, discussion questions, problem solving
activities and a Field Site Visit Guide. Volume II of this manual contains
commodity specific case studies that provide an opportunity for
participants to apply material learned to actual agricultural situations.
Additional Resources- includes relevant reference documents and information
on obtaining additional resource material.
Although background data and examples have been specifically targeted to Latin
America and the Caribbean, the recommendations contained in this manual are
globally applicable and independent of location or agricultural and industrial
circumstances. For use in other regions, presentation style and teaching resources
may vary, depending upon cultural and political circumstances.
vi
As training needs vary by country, the time frame for training and the extent of training
will also vary. It is anticipated that the length of time to present the Principles and
Practical information will be 5-7 days with the inclusion of a field site visit. The
backgrounds and needs of the course participants will determine how much time
should be spent on each of the training modules. Logistics, budget, and schedules
may dictate shorter or split sessions and the number of Practical activities that are
included. Since interactive sessions with discussions, lab demonstrations, field visits,
and case studies are an important part of the training process, the number of
participants needs to be limited to a manageable level for trainers and facilities.
Included throughout the Principles section are suggestions for information that may be
highlighted as visuals. These are intended as suggestions for visuals, not as actual
visual masters. Depending on the amount of material to be presented, the type of visual
aids to be used, and the size of the training group, the trainer may choose to present
each as a single visual or as multiple slides, overheads, charts, or posters.
The Practical section of the manual includes activities to involve participants in the
training. Use of these activities will enhance training of trainers by complementing
lecture material and by providing the participants with ideas for activities to enrich their
own training efforts. Suggestions for activities related to training topics are included at
the beginning of each of the training modules. Trainers of trainers are encouraged to
use as many of these as time and resources will allow.
In Volume II, the commodity specific case studies allow participants to apply the
recommended GAPs and GMPs in examples relevant to Latin America and the
Caribbean. These case studies have been developed with direct input from producers
in the region to ensure that topics and presentation are appropriate. They are intended
to build understanding and awareness of practices that may be presented to individual
growers, packers, and shippers for consideration and incorporation into their own
operations.
Users of the Guide are reminded of several important considerations in applying its
recommendations. These considerations also are important for those using this
manual:
1) The manual focuses on microbial hazards for fresh produce. It addresses in only
the broadest terms other areas of concern to the food supply or the environment
(such as pesticide residues or chemical contaminants). When providing
recommendations to growers, packers, and shippers it is important to
encourage them to apply the techniques that are most appropriate for reducing
hazards in their individual operations. They should also strive to establish
practices that do not inadvertently increase other risks to the food supply or the
environment (e.g., excessive packaging or improper use and disposal of
vii
antimicrobial chemicals).
2) This training manual focuses on risk reduction not risk elimination. Current
technologies cannot eliminate all potential food safety hazards associated with
fresh produce that will be eaten raw.
3) This training manual provides broad, scientifically-based principles. Trainers
should encourage operators to use the information to help assess
microbiological hazards within the context of the specific conditions (climatic,
geographical, cultural, economic) that apply to their own operation and
implement appropriate and cost effective risk reduction strategies.
4) Users of the manual should constantly be alert for new information and
technological advances that expand the understanding of those factors
associated with identifying and reducing microbial food safety hazards.
Awareness of these advances will allow updating the recommendations and
information contained in this manual as appropriate to keep training content
current.
viii
ACRONYMS
The following acronyms are used in this manual. Each is identified when first
introduced in the text but are also listed here for easy reference.
APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture
CAC- Codex Alimentarius Commission
CCP Critical Control Point
CDC U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CFSAN Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/U.S. Food and Drug
Administration
CODEX ALIMENTARIUS a code of food standards for all nations
CSREES Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service/U.S.
Department of Agriculture
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration
GAPs - Good Agricultural Practices
GATT- General Agreement on Tariff and Trade
GDP- Gross Domestic Product
GMPs - Good Manufacturing Practices
HACCP - Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
IFSE Institute of Food Science and Engineering/University of Arkansas
ix
IPM Integrated Pest Management

JIFSAN Joint Institute of Food Safety and Applied Nutrition/University of Maryland
MAQ Minimum Acceptable Quality
PAHO Pan American Health Organization
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
SOPs Standard Operating Procedures
SPS Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
SSOPs Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures
TBT Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture
USDA-AMS USDAs Agricultural Marketing Service
WHO World Health Organization of the United Nations
WTO World Trade Organization of the United Nations
SECTION I
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING FOR
IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY OF
FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and

redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration and without prior written
permission , for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes provided all
copies contain the following statement: 2002 University of Maryland. This
work is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the University of
Maryland. No other use is permitted without the express prior written permission
of the University of Maryland. For permission, contact JIFSAN, University of
Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742
I-1
SECTION I
The Importance of Training for Improving the Safety
and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
Module 1
Safety Hazards in Fresh Produce Biological, Chemical and
Physical*
Learning Outcomes
Participants will gain awareness of the potential biological, chemical and
physical hazards associated with the production and distribution of fresh fruits
and vegetables.
Participants will increase their knowledge of the characteristics and growth
requirements of microorganisms.
Practical
Experiment/Demonstration: Water as a Contamination Agent
Table 1 Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
Table 2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh Fruits and
Vegetables
There are many activities that take place as fruits and vegetables move from the
farm to the table. These include activities related to production, post-harvest
operations, packaging, transportation, and storage. Implementing programs such
as the use of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMPs) are important steps to reducing possible hazards associated
with the produce throughout the production and distribution chain. These will be
discussed later in this manual.
Prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

I-2
Visual I.1-1
Hazard - something that could cause harm to the consumer.
There are three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce:
Biological hazards
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards
A hazard is something that could cause harm to the consumer. There are three
main types of hazards associated with fresh produce:
Biological hazards
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards
Biological Hazards
Foodborne microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites are often
referred to as biological hazards (FAO, 1998). Some fungi are able to produce
toxins and also are included in this group of hazards.
Visual I.1-2
Microorganisms
Microorganisms are small organisms that can be observed through a microscope.
In order to facilitate the study of microorganisms they are divided into five major
classifications:
Bacteria
Yeasts
Molds
Parasites
Viruses
Microorganisms are small organisms that can only be observed through a

microscope. Many of these organisms consist of a single cell. They can be found
everywhere in the environment. Some have the ability to take up nutrients and
metabolize them into a large number of end products. Microorganisms often have
the ability to react to changes in their environment and some have been known to
adapt to new environments.
I-3
Many microorganisms are beneficial to humans. Some are involved in the

production of fermented foods such as bread, cheese, wine, beer, and
sauerkraut. Other microorganisms are used by industry in the production of such
products as some enzymes, antibiotics, and glycerol. Additional microbial
functions such as degradation of organic matter and enrichment of soils also
benefit mankind. However, some microorganisms have the potential for causing
foodborne illnesses.
Microorganisms able to cause human disease may be found on raw produce.
Sometimes they are part of the fruit or vegetable microflora as incidental
contaminants from the soil, dust and surroundings. In other instances they get
introduced onto the food through poor production and handling practices such as
the application of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation water or
unsanitary handling practices.
Bacterial Hazards
Because bacterial pathogens are part of the environment, they can easily
contaminate fruit and vegetables when these commodities are not properly
handled prior to consumption. A list of bacterial pathogens that have been
isolated from raw produce can be found in Table 1 in the Additional Resources
section. A thorough discussion of the pathogenic microorganisms associated with
food may be found in the FDA/CFSAN Bad Bug Book (FDA, 2001).
Visual I.1-3
Pathogenic bacteria associated with fruits and vegetables include:
Salmonella
Shigella
Escherichia coli (pathogenic)
Campylobacter species
Yersinia enterocolitica
Listeria monocytogenes
Staphylococcus aureus
Clostridium species
Bacillus cereus
Vibrio species
A large number of bacterial pathogens have been implicated in foodborne
outbreaks associated with the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables
(Beuchat, 1998). Table 2 in the Additional Resources section provides a list of
many of these outbreaks and the organisms associated with them.
Bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus cereus and Listeria
monocytogenes can be found in the soil and can easily contaminate produce.
I-4
Other bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, pathogenic Escherichia coli and

Campylobacter reside in the intestinal tract of animals and/or humans. They can
contaminate fruit and vegetables through infiltration of sewage waters into fields,
irrigation with contaminated water, presence of animals in the field or
inappropriate composting. Contamination also can take place during handling at
harvest and packaging and in other steps in the distribution and marketing chain.
The number of bacteria that must be present to cause human illness varies with
organism type and age and condition of the host. In some instances it is
necessary to have over a million pathogenic bacteria per gram or cm2 of food
surface before any illness occurs. However some pathogens are able to cause
disease at much lower numbers. For example, Shigella spp. are highly infectious
agents with an infective dose of as few as 10 cells.
Because some bacteria have such low infective doses, prevention of bacterial
contamination is the most important control factor to enhance produce safety. It
is also important to take steps to assure that pathogens present cannot
reproduce to hazardous levels.
Visual I.1-4
To prevent pathogen reproduction in produce, control:
Nutrient availability
Humidity
Acidity
Temperature
Oxygen
In order to reproduce bacteria require adequate nutrients and appropriate

environmental conditions such as humidity, oxygen and temperature (FDA,
1998). Each type of bacterium has specific requirements to achieve optimum
development, but bacteria can multiply and cause disease outside of these
optimum conditions. For example, for most rapid growth, E. coli requires a
temperature of 37C (98.6 F). It can, however, multiply in a range of 10o to 46C
(50o to 114.8 F). Bacillus cereus has an optimal growth temperature of 30C, but
can grow in the temperature range of 10o to 49C (50o to 120.2 F) (Frazier and
Westhoff, 1991).
I-5
Visual I.1-5
Bacterial reproduction
scheme:
Each bacterial cell
divides into two when
conditions are
appropriate for its
growth
Bacteria reproduce through a mechanism referred to as binary fission. During

this process, each cell divides in two. These two cells then divide in two and so
on. When conditions are appropriate, a bacterial population can grow rapidly in a
very short time.
Visual I.1-6
Time (hrs)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
# of bacteria
1
8
32
256
2,048
16,384
131,072
1,048,576
16,777,216
134,217,728
1,073,741,824
In 7 hours one bacteria cell can

generate over a million bacteria
cells
The time needed for a cell to divide (or a population to duplicate) is known as
generation time. Generation times vary for different types of bacteria. Bacterial
generation times depend to a large extent on nutrient availability and
environmental conditions such as humidity, oxygen availability, acidity and
temperature. Consider E. coli which has a generation time that ranges between
15 and 20 minutes. Under optimum conditions, in 10 hours a single cell could
produce over a million cells.
When conditions for reproduction are favorable, bacterial cells start their
multiplication process. This process usually takes place in a series of steps or
phases. In general, the bacterial reproduction process for a given population of
cells follows a pattern similar to that illustrated in Visual I.1-7.
I-6
Visual I.1-7
(4) Stationary
Phase
(5) Death Phase
Number of
bacteria
(3) Logarithmic or
ExponentialGrowth Phase
(2) Positive Growth Phase

(1) Lag or Latent Phase
Time
Knowledge of the population growth process provides insight into opportunities

for prevention and control of bacterial growth. In order to keep bacterial numbers
from reaching levels that can be a threat to human health, it is necessary to keep
the initial numbers low and to assure that organisms that reach the product are
not allowed to grow beyond the lag phase.
Some of the control strategies that will be discussed in this course are preventive
and attempt to maintain low initial numbers of microorganisms. These include
Good Agricultural Practices like controlling microbial hazards from water, proper
use of manure and biosolids, appropriate worker hygiene and provision of worker
sanitation facilities, and proper sanitation during product handling and
transportation. Other recommendations such as temperature control and some of
the more novel technologies are used to slow bacterial growth.
A processing step which can lower initial bacterial numbers is washing, provided
wash water is of good quality and is not allowed to accumulate dirt and
contaminants. The surface of a well-washed tomato may have less than 1000
microorganisms per square centimeter, while an unwashed one may have a
several thousand. Before washing, the number of microorganisms on the
external tissue of cabbage could be as high as one or two million per gram.
Washing decreases this number to the range of 200,000 to 500,000 (Frazier and
Westhoff, 1991).
I-7
Visual I.1-8
The surface of fruits and vegetables can be contaminated with pathogenic
microorganisms due to contact with:
soil
water
manure
sewage fluids
air
humans
animals
Pathogens can be found among the microflora of fruits and vegetables because it
is fairly easy for external surfaces of these commodities to come in contact with
soil, water, sewage fluids, air, humans and animals. When conditions become
favorable for the natural flora to reproduce, these pathogens reproduce.
Parasitic Hazards
Visual I.1-9
Parasites most commonly associated with human infections include:
Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora
Giardia
Entamoeba
Toxoplasma
Sarcocystis
Isospora
Helminthes:
- Nematodes (i.e. Ascaris lumbricoides, Thricuris trichiura)
- Plathelminthes (i.e. Fasciola hepatica and Cysticercus spp.)
Parasites are organisms that live in another living organism, called the host. They
are only able to grow in a host, however, they may be passed from one host to
another through some non-host vehicle. Parasites most commonly associated
with human infections include Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, Entamoeba,
Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Isospora, and Nematodes.
Because produce is often eaten raw, it can serve as a vehicle to pass a parasite
from one host organism to another (Beuchat, 1998 and Murray et al., 1995).
Water contaminated with fecal material, infected food handlers, and animals in
the field may be vehicles for contamination of produce with parasites that may
then be passed on to humans consuming the raw produce.
I-8
Viral Hazards
Visual I.1-10
Viruses that have been reported as transmitted by foods include:
Hepatitis A
Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like virus
Rotaviruses, astroviruses, enteroviruses (polioviruses, echoviruses and

coxsackie viruses), parvoviruses, adenoviruses and coronaviruses.
Viruses are very small and unable to reproduce outside of a living cell. Therefore
they do not grow in or on foods. However, raw fruits and vegetables may become
contaminated by exposure to contaminated water or during handling by infected
people. The viruses infect susceptible persons consuming the raw produce.
Since an infective dose of most viruses is extremely small, sometimes as few as
10 virus particles, prevention of produce contamination is critical to controlling
viral disease.
Sources of Biological Hazards
Characteristics of some of the microorganisms causing disease in humans are
described in Table 1 in the Additional Resources section. Also presented are
examples of sources of contamination and symptoms associated with the
illnesses they cause. Diagnosis of these illnesses requires clinical testing,
however, recognizing the symptoms associated with various forms of
contamination can aid in preventing contamination by providing a means of
identifying potentially infected handlers so that their contact with fresh produce
can be avoided.
Many of the diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and viruses that
have been linked to fruits and vegetables can be transmitted when human feces
contaminate the produce. It is important that individuals handling produce at
every stage, from field to table have a good understanding of proper hygiene
practices to prevent contamination. Training of workers at every level of the
production chain and education of consumers have been identified as key
elements to reduce foodborne illnesses associated with fresh fruits and
vegetables (Beuchat, 1998).
Chemical Hazards
Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally occurring
or may be added during agricultural production, post-harvest handling and other
unit operations (FAO, 1998). Harmful chemicals at high levels have been
associated with acute toxic responses and with chronic illnesses.
I-9
Visual I.1-11
Some Naturally Occurring
Chemicals Hazards
Allergens (e.g. weeds)

Mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin)
Mushroom toxins
Phytohaemagglutinin
Alkaloids
Visual I.1-12
Added Chemical Hazards
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Contaminants
Agricultural chemicals
Pesticides
Fertilizers
Antibiotics
Prohibited substances
Direct
Indirect
Lubricants
Cleaners
Sanitizers
Coatings
Paints
Refrigerants
Water or steam treatment
chemicals
Pest control chemicals
Toxic elements and compounds

Lead
From packaging materials
Zinc
Cadmium
Mercury
Arsenic
Cyanide
Plasticizers
Vinyl chloride
Painting/coding inks
Adhesives
Lead
Tin
Data collected by the WHO Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment

Program (GEMS/Food) indicate that, in many countries, chemical contamination
levels are tending to decline. This is due, in large part, to increased restriction on
the use of toxic chemicals and pesticides that persist in the environment and to
improved control of environmental pollution.
Physical Hazards
Physical hazards may be introduced into fresh fruit and vegetable products at
numerous points in the production chain.
I-10
Visual I.1-13
Material
Glass
Injury potential
Cuts, bleeding; may require
surgery to find or remove
Sources
Bottles, jars, light,
fixtures, utensils,
gauge, covers, etc.
Wood
Cuts, infection, choking; may

require surgery to remove
Field sources, pallets,

boxes, building
materials
Stones
Choking, broken teeth
Fields, buildings
Insulation
Choking long-term if
asbestos
Building materials
Plastic
Choking, cuts, infection; may

require surgery to remove
Packaging, pallets,
equipment
Personal
effects, i.e.
jewelry, hair
clips, pens
Choking, cuts, broken teeth;

may require surgery to
remove
Employees
Illness and serious injuries can result from foreign material in produce. These
physical hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing,
sorting and packaging operations (FAO, 1998). Filth and foreign matter in fruit
and vegetables are listed, in many instances, among the main barriers for
international trade.
Summary
1. A hazard is something that could cause harm to the consumer. There are
three main types of hazards associated with fresh produce:
Biological hazards
Chemical hazards
Physical hazards
2. Foodborne microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites are often
referred to as biological hazards. Some fungi are able to produce toxins and
also cause a hazard.
3. Microorganisms able to cause human disease may be found on raw produce.
Sometimes they are part of the fruit or vegetable microflora as incidental
I-11
contaminants from the soil, dust and surroundings. In other instances they get
introduced into the food through poor production and handling practices such
as the application of untreated manure, the use of contaminated irrigation
water or unsanitary handling practices.
4. Fresh fruits and vegetables may be vehicles for the transmission of parasites
and viruses.
5. Training of workers at every level of the production chain and education of
consumers have been identified as key elements to reduce microbial hazards
associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.
6. Chemical contaminants in raw fruits and vegetables may be naturally
occurring or may be added during agricultural production, post-harvest
handling and other unit operations.
7. Illness and serious injuries can result from foreign material in produce. These
physical hazards can result from poor practices during harvesting, washing,
sorting and packaging operations.
I-12
Module 2
Fresh Produce Safety and Consumer Health*
Learning Outcome
Participants will gain greater awareness of the consequences of foodborne
disease.
Practical
Discussion Question 2
In 1983, the Expert Committee on Food Safety convened jointly by the World
Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the
U.N. concluded that illness due to contaminated food is the most widespread
health problem in the contemporary world (FAO/WHO, 1984).
Despite efforts to reduce foodborne illnesses, there are still significant health
hazards associated with food.
Visual I.2-1
Sources of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in Latin America and the
Caribbean 1995-1997
Agent
Bacteria
Viruses
Parasites
Total Microbial
% Cases
46.3
1.8
1.8
49.9
Marine Toxins
Plant Toxins
Chemicals
44.2
0.4
5.4
The relative importance of these hazards can be determined by studying disease

surveillance data. Data from Latin America and the Caribbean reveal that almost
half of all foodborne diseases with identifiable sources were caused by microbial
sources and bacterial pathogens represented the largest single share of all
known sources (PAHO/WHO, 1998). In the U.S during 1993-1997, a total of
*
Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

I-13
2,751 outbreaks of foodborne disease (two or more cases of a similar illness

resulting from the ingestion of a common food) were reported (Olsen et al.,
2000). These outbreaks caused a reported 86,058 persons to become ill. Among
outbreaks for which the cause was determined, the largest percentage of both
outbreaks (75%) and cases (86%) were caused by bacterial pathogens.
Chemical agents caused 17% of outbreaks and 1% of cases; viruses, 6% of
outbreaks and 8% of cases; and parasites, 2% of outbreaks and 5% of cases.
According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
produce-associated foodborne disease outbreaks are a relatively small
percentage of all foodborne disease. However, the number of cases is
increasing. In 1973-1979, only 2% of U.S. foodborne disease outbreaks were
associated with fresh produce. In 1990-1997, this had increased to 6%. Of these
produce-related outbreaks, 50% were attributed to bacterial contamination, 7% to
viruses, 6% to parasites, and 35 % to unidentified causes (Liang, 2000).
Visual I.2-2
Incidences of Foodborne Diseases in Venezuela
Despite efforts to decrease the occurrence of these diseases, it is estimated that

5 to 10% of the populations in developed countries suffer from foodborne illness
each year and the numbers are even higher in less developed areas (Kaferstein,
et al. 1997). Since many of these illnesses are not reported to public health
officials, it is difficult to get an exact count on actual numbers. However, statistics
from both developed and developing countries show a trend toward more
foodborne illnesses in recent years. In part, this trend may be due to
improvements in disease reporting systems in some countries. However, most
authorities agree that there also is an increase in the actual number of cases.
I-14
Health Effects of Foodborne Disease

Visual I.2-3
Some Effects of Foodborne Disease
Vomiting
Gastroenteritis
Diarrheal disease
Non-intestinal disease, i.e. neurological conditions, pre-mature labor, and stillbirths
For most adults in the industrialized world, incidents of foodborne disease are
unpleasant but are generally mild and self-limiting (WHO, 1999a). Symptoms are
generally restricted to gastroenteritis and are not usually life-threatening.
However, for susceptible individuals, such as the elderly, pregnant women, the
very young, and those with compromised immune systems, foodborne illness
may lead to serious consequences including death.
In developing countries, diarrheal diseases, particularly infant diarrhea, are a
major public health problem. It has been estimated that annually over 1,500
million children under the age of five years suffer from diarrhea and over 3 million
die as a result (WHO, 1999a). Diarrhea may also lead to malnutrition that can
make children more susceptible to longer periods of diarrhea and to infections.
These occurrences can lead to a downward spiral of poor health and, eventually,
to premature death.
Not all foodborne disease results in intestinal illnesses (WHO, 1999a). The WHO
estimated that 2-3% of the cases of foodborne illness lead to other conditions,
which may result in chronic diseases having long-term effects on those afflicted
and/or death. Clostridium botulinum causes a severe neuroparalytic disease that
is often fatal. Effects of Listeria monocytogenes can vary from mild flu-like
symptoms to meningitis and meningoencephalitis. This organism is especially
serious for pregnant women since infection may result in abortion, stillbirth, or
premature labor. For persons with compromised immune systems, infections
may result in serious illness and even death.
I-15
Costs of Foodborne Disease

Visual I.2-4
Costs of Foodborne Disease
Costs for Individuals
3 Medical costs
3 Missed work and lost wages
3 Travel to get care
3 Expenses for care taker
3 Chronic disease
Cost to Society
3 Loss of productivity
3 Cost of disease investigation
3 Loss of revenue due to business
closure and product avoidance
3 Chronic disease
Although the difficulty in identifying the actual number of cases of foodborne

illness makes it hard to estimate the cost of these diseases, no one can dispute
that foodborne illness is very expensive. The economic impacts affect not only
the individuals and families involved but also the communities, industries, and
nations (Doores, 1999). The most obvious costs are those associated with health
care for the afflicted individuals. Additional costs related to caring for those who
are ill, absenteeism from work and school, and travel costs to seek medical care
add to the financial burden. Costs to society include lost worker productivity, the
costs of investigating and controlling outbreaks, lost revenue due to business
closure and product avoidance, legal costs for litigations related to the illnesses,
and costs related to public services for those suffering from chronic disease.
One study estimated that, in the U.S., the cost of foodborne disease caused by
seven common pathogens was US$ 5.6 to 9.4 billion (WHO, 1999b). The
estimated cost of salmonellosis in England and Wales in 1992 was placed at
US$560 to 800 million.
Fresh produce is a particular food safety concern since it is generally eaten
without any processing to eliminate or reduce the number of microorganisms
present. In addition, since the 1980s, several foodborne infectious agents have
been either newly described or newly associated with fruits and vegetables
(Tauxe, 1997). For example E. coli O157:H7 was first identified as a pathogen
associated with hamburger in 1982. In 1993, an outbreak of disease caused by
this organism in unpasteurized apple juice demonstrated that it could survive in a
low acid environment.
I-16
Summary
1. A majority of foodborne illness for which causes have been identified have
been associated with biological hazards.
2. Produce-associated foodborne disease outbreaks are a relatively small
percentage of all foodborne disease however, the number of cases is
increasing.
3. For susceptible individuals, such as the elderly, pregnant women, the very
young, and those with compromised immune systems, foodborne illness may
lead to serious consequences including death. It has been estimated that
annually over 1,500 million children under the age of five years suffer from
diarrhea and over 3 million die as a result.
4. Costs related to foodborne illness include caring for those who are ill,
absenteeism from work and school, travel costs to seek medical care, lost
worker productivity, the costs of investigating and controlling outbreaks, lost
revenue due to business closure and product avoidance, legal costs for
litigations related to the illnesses, and public services for those suffering from
chronic disease.
I-17
Module 3
Impact of Produce Safety on Trade*
LEARNING OUTCOME
Participants will increase their knowledge of the impact of produce safety on a
countrys economy.
PRACTICAL
Discussion Question 1.
The effects of unsafe fruits and vegetables on health are important reasons for
studying produce safety but they are only part of the cause for concern about the
safety of these products.
Visual I.3-1
Economic Impact of Agriculture
Country
Belize
Brazil
Chile
Costa Rica
Dominican Republic
Guatemala
Mexico
Nicaragua
Trinidad & Tobago
1999 GDP*
(billion$)
0.74
1,057.00
185.10
26.00
43.70
47.90
865.50
12.50
9.41
GDP Employment
agriculture in agriculture
22%
38%
14%
31%
6%
14%
14%
20%
14%
17%
23%
50%
5%
24%
34%
42%
2%
10%
* GDP = Gross Domestic Product
Food and agricultural production plays an important role in the economy of many
countries, especially those of Latin America and the Caribbean. 1999 figures
indicated that, depending on the country, total agriculture (production of both
food and non-food crops of plant and animal origin) contributed from as little as
2% to over 34% of the gross domestic product (FAOSTAT, 2000). These figures
represented not only the value of products but also income generated by persons

I-18
employed in the agricultural sector. For many countries in the region a significant
proportion of the population is employed in agriculture.
Trade is an important part of the economy of most countries and agricultural
products make up a significant portion of this trade. According to the World Trade
Organization (WTO), total world trade in 1999 was valued at $5,473 billion with
approximately 10% of this total, or $544 billion, in agricultural products (WTO,
2000).
Visual I.3-2
1999 Export Values from Selected Countries (1000$ U.S.)
Country
Belize
Brazil
Chile
Costa Rica
Dominican Republic
Guatemala
Mexico
Nicaragua
Trinidad & Tobago
Total
Agriculture
108,299
13,824,401
2,966,674
1,802,773
332,094
1,431,210
7,006,363
312,854
221,261
Produce
Total
59,007
1,690,870
1,804,797
927,902
66,155
276,827
3,213,241
34,109
20,400
%
Agriculture
54%
11%
52%
51%
20%
19%
46%
11%
9%
In 1999, exports of agricultural products from countries in Latin America and the
Caribbean were valued at over $36 billion (WTO, 2000). For some countries,
exports of fruits and vegetables made up close to half of the total agricultural
exports. Thus, assuring the acceptability of these products to importing countries
is a major economic consideration. In addition, it is important keep in mind that
fruits and vegetables are produced for domestic consumption as well as for
export. Therefore, the production of safe products is important for the health and
welfare of the people within a country as well as for potential export revenue.
The safety of foods has a wide reaching effect on world trade. The World Health
Organization estimated that in 1993, foodborne diseases produced worldwide
losses in international food trade of approximately US$380 million (PAHO/WHO,
1998). In addition to the economic burden on those afflicted with disease,
foodborne illness also led to economic effects on industry and healthcare
systems.
Countries importing product have strong economic reasons for demanding safe
product. Unsafe imports may pose a threat to the health and safety of
consumers. Detention and/or rejection of unsafe product and decreased
I-19
consumer confidence in a product or in a countrys ability to produce safe product

can lead to major losses of revenue for both exporting and importing countries.
These lost markets and decreased revenues can translate to reduced community
services, lower wages, and lost jobs. An example of this was seen with the 1996
U.S. outbreak of Cyclospora. Preliminary investigation identified domestic
strawberries as the vehicle for this outbreak. Although further investigation
proved the source of the outbreak was imported raspberries, the California
Strawberry Commission reported that decreased consumer confidence in product
safety resulted in over $40 million in lost revenue, 5,000 lost jobs, and a 10%
reduction in crop acreage the following year (CDFA, 1997).
In the U.S., consumers are demanding year-round access to fresh fruits and
vegetables. Produce from Latin America and the Caribbean helps meet this
demand since much of it arrives when cold weather prevents the production of
produce domestically (Zepp, et al., 1998). In 1998, U.S. fresh produce imports
reached record levels with values totaling over $2.7 billion for fresh fruits and
$2.1 billion for fresh vegetables (FASonline, 1999). Countries in Latin America
and the Caribbean supplied over 80 percent of the U.S. imported fruits and over
70 percent of the imported vegetables.
Visual I.3-3
Examples of Recent U.S. Multistate Foodborne Disease Outbreaks
Associated with Fresh Produce
Year
2001
2000
1998
1997
1997
1996
1996
1996
1993
1991
# of
States
6
8
3
14
3
2
2
20
3
23
# of
Cases
>40
86
>400
864
305
49
72
1,500
84
400
Pathogen
Salmonella
Salmonella
Shigella
Cyclospora
Cyclospora
E.coli O157:H7
Shigella
Cyclospora
Salmonella
Salmonella
Associated food
Cantaloupe
Tomatoes
Parsley
Berries
Basil
Leaf lettuce
Scallions
Raspberries
Tomatoes
Cantaloupe
Although the number of foodborne illness outbreaks associated with fresh

produce is still relatively low, as produce consumption has increased, there has
been a greater incidence of foodborne illness outbreaks associated with fresh
fruits and vegetables (Guzewich and Salsbury, 2000). Some of these outbreaks
have been associated with imported produce. However, the proportion of
foodborne illness associated with imported produce is no greater than that from
produce grown in the U.S.
I-20
When looking at the safety record of produce exported to the U.S., it is important
to consider that although disease outbreaks may have been associated with
produce from another country, the actual site of contamination may never be
determined. This is because product contamination can occur anywhere in the
production and marketing chain (Zepp et al., 1998). Furthermore, by the time an
outbreak is traced to a farm, packinghouse or other site, the actual source of
contamination may no longer be there. An example of this problem was seen in a
1991 Hepatitis A outbreak associated with frozen strawberries. The berries were
grown in Mexico and processed and distributed in the United States. Outbreak
investigators were unable to determine if the contamination occurred before the
berries entered the U.S. or during processing and distribution (See Table 2 in
Additional Resources section for a list of produce-related outbreaks in the U.S.).
Summary
1. Food and agricultural production plays an important role in the economy of
many countries.
2. Exports of fruits and vegetables make up a large percentage of the export
income of many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.
3. Unsafe imports may pose a threat to the health of the people consuming them
and result in significant economic loss for the exporting country.
4. Foodborne disease outbreaks in the U.S. have been associated with produce
from both domestic and imported sources. The proportion of foodborne
illnesses associated with imported produce is no greater than that from
produce grown in the U.S.
I-21
REFERENCES
Beuchat, L.R. 1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw:
a review. World Health Organization. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2. Available via
the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf
CDFA. 1997. Secretary praises strawberry industry for establishing voluntary
quality assurance program. California Department of Food and Agriculture
Press Release, 1/27/97.
Doores, S. 1999. Food Safety Current Status and Future Needs. Amer.
Academy of Microbiology Report. p. 21.
FAO. 1998. Food Quality and Safety System: A training manual on food hygiene
and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system.
Publishing Management Group, FAO Information Division, Rome.
FAO/WHO 1984. The role of food safety in health and development. Report of
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Safety. WHO Tech. Rep:705.
FAOSTAT. 2000. Agriculture Data. FAO. http://apps.fao.org/page
/collections?subset=agriculture
FASonline. 1999. Fruit and Vegetable Imports Calendar Year 1998. USDA/FAS
Horticultural and Tropical Products Division. Available via the Internet at
www.fas.usda.gov /htp2/highlights/1999/99-04/fvimp98/fvimpCY98.html
FDA. 1998. Guide to minimize microbial food safety hazards for fresh fruits and
vegetables. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available via the Internet
at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/prodguid.html
FDA. 2001. Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins
Handbook The Bad Bug Book. U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationCenter for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Available via the Internet at
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.cfm
Frazier and Westhoff, 1991. Microbiologa de los Alimentos. Tercera Edicin.
Editiorial Acribia, S.A. Zaragoza, Spain. pp. 439.
Guzewich, J.J. and Salsbury, P.A. 2000. FDAs role in traceback investigations
for produce. Food Safety Magazine. December, 2000/January, 2001.
Kaferstein, F. K., Motarjemi, Y., and Bettcher, D. W. 1997. Foodborne disease
control: A transnational challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(4) 503.
I-22
Liang, A.P. 2000. The epidemiology of produce-related outbreaks in the United

States. Presentation at the IFT Food Safety Conference, Orlando, FL.
Murray, P., Drew, W., Kobayashi, G. and Thompson, J. 1995. Medical
Microbiology. Mosby-Doyma Libros, S.A. Madrid, Spain. pp. 423.
Olsen, S.J., MacKinon, L.C., Goulding, J.S., Bean, N.H. and Slutsker, L. 2000.
Surveillance for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks --United States, 19931997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summary
49(SS01): 1.
PAHO/WHO. 1998. Health in the Americas. 1998 edition Vol. 1. Pan American
Health Organization/World Health Organization Scientific Publication No.
569.
Tauxe, R.V. 1997. Emerging foodborne disease: An evolving public health
challenge. Emerg Infect Dis 3(4):425.
WHO. 1999a. Basic Food Safety for Health Workers. World Health Organization.
WHO/SDE/PHE/FOS/99.1.
WHO. 1999b. Food Safety An Essential Public Health Issue for the New
Millennium. Food Safety Program, Depart of Protection of the Human
Environment, World Health Organization, WHO/SDE/PHE/FOS/99.4.
WTO. 2000. International Trade Statistics 2000. World Trade Organization,
Geneva, Switzerland. Available via the Internet at
www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/stat_toc_e.htm
Zepp, G, Kucher, F. and Lucier, G. 1998. Food safety and fresh fruits and
vegetables: Is there a difference between imported and domestically
produced products? Vegetables and Specialties, Economic Research
Service/USDA, VGS-274:23.
I-23
SECTION II
GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

permission, for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes provided all
Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico
II-1
SECTION II
Good Agricultural Practices
Introduction*
Produce may become contaminated with pathogens anywhere in the farm-totable chain. If produce becomes contaminated, there is no process other than
thorough cooking to ensure elimination of the pathogens. Since cooking is not
appropriate for produce bound for fresh markets, prevention of contamination is
imperative to assure a safe product.
The use of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) during growing, harvesting,
sorting, packaging, and storage operations for fresh fruits and vegetables is key
to preventing pathogen contamination. Key areas of concern when implementing
a GAP program are prior land use, adjacent land use, water quality and use
practices, soil fertility management, wildlife, pest, and vermin control, worker
hygiene and sanitary facilities, and harvesting and cooling practices.
The following modules provide a look at these operations and the GAPs
associated with each. The intent of this manual is not to cover every detail of
each operation in the production and handling of fresh produce but rather to
educate on the importance of the topic and to use pertinent examples to illustrate
some concerns. Because of the diversity of agricultural production practices and
commodities, procedures recommended to minimize microbial contamination will
be most effective when these general concepts are adapted to specific
operations.
II-2
Module 1
Soil and Water
Learning Outcomes
Participants should be able to identify the potential for produce contamination
resulting from current and prior uses of the soil.
Participants should be able to recognize the potential for produce
contamination associated with water quality and use practices.
Practical
Laboratory Exercise: Water as a Contamination Agent
Part III Disinfecting Contaminated Wells
In order to reduce risks associated with the production of fresh fruits and
vegetables, it is necessary to first assess the potential hazards in the production
environment. Once the potential sources of produce contamination have been
identified, practices should be implemented to reduce or eliminate them.
For example, human and animal feces are one of the most important sources of
contamination of soil and water. This contamination can be easily spread to fresh
produce. When assessing the possible produce contamination associated with a
production site, it is important to look at the potential for fecal contamination and,
if it exists, to determine steps to eliminate this hazard source.
Soil
Agricultural land and land that has been used for activities other than agriculture
can be contaminated with pathogenic organisms or toxic chemical substances.
Obtaining a history of the prior use of the land is important because it helps
identify these potential hazards. In addition, the failure of prior users to follow
Good Agricultural Practices can offer risks of contamination to produce grown on
the soil.
Visual II.1-1
Identification Of Hazards Associated With Soil History
As part of a Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) program it is necessary to identify
possible sources of microbial and chemical contamination associated with the
prior use of land that it is being used for agricultural production.
II-3
It is important to obtain information about the previous use of the land where
agricultural production is taking place. This can be done through interviews with
prior owners, a review of municipal permits or from other sources. This
background information can help in the identification of situations that can
increase the risk for fresh produce contamination (FDA, 1998).
Visual II.1-2
Cultivated Land Information
Important information that needs to be obtained about the history of the land
includes if the land has been used:
For animal feeding
For domestic animal production
As a garbage or toxic waste disposal site
As a sanitary waste management site
For mining activities, oil or gas extraction
For the disposal of incinerated material, industrial waste or if mineral residues
exist on the site
For barns and/or if farm animals are being produced on land adjacent to or a
short distance from the cultivation site.
Other information that should be obtained include if the land has:
Experienced any serious flooding.
Been treated in an uncontrolled manner with organic or inorganic fertilizers
and/or pesticides.
Prior use of the land for animal feeding or domestic animal production can greatly
increase the risk of contamination of fruit and vegetables with pathogens
commonly found in the intestinal tract of animals. The potential for contamination
from this source is related to the time that has passed since the land was used
for animal feeding or production. The risk of contamination will also be influenced
by conditions such as atmospheric temperature, sunlight and relative humidity.
The presence of barns or farm animals a short distance from the cultivation site
increases the risk of product contamination. Assessment of the location of the
animals and their facilities and evaluation of drainage systems and water
currents flowing near these areas will help determine the potential for
contamination. In some instances it may be necessary to create physical barriers
or channels to divert water which may carry contamination from the animals.
When the land has been used for garbage disposal or as a waste management
site, it may contain decomposing organic matter and, perhaps, fecal material.
II-4
Depending on the garbage contents, soil microbial loads can be extremely high
and the soil may also contain harmful chemicals or toxic contaminants.
Land that has been used for mining or petroleum extractions can be
contaminated with heavy metals or hydrocarbons. Even if the contamination is
located on a small portion of the land, factors such as rainfall and subterraneous
water flow should be evaluated. Analysis of toxic substances in the soil and a
review of the environmental compliance of the extraction operation are
recommended when the ground history indicates a high risk for chemical
hazards.
Heavy flooding also can increase the sources of contamination. Water run-off
can introduce pathogens and chemical contaminants from further regions. Dead
animals and still water remaining after the floodwaters have receded can lead to
significant bacterial hazards. Individual assessment of each flooding situation will
be needed along with a review of the time that has passed since the flood and
other conditions that can mitigate or reduce the risks. When there is concern
about the safety of the growing site, microbiolgical analyses after a contamination
has occurred (e.g. flooding or run-off) may assist in identifying contamination.
Even if the investigation of the prior use of the land indicates that it has been
used solely for agricultural production, prior production practices should be
reviewed. Improper use of organic fertilizers may result in microbiological
contamination of the soil while inorganic fertilizer and/or pesticides used
improperly can cause serious chemical hazards. Chemical compounds should
have been used according to label recommendations and the products should be
registered for use on the specific crop.
Visual II.1-3
Current or Prior Use of Adjacent Land
Information about the use of land adjacent to the production site is critical since
this helps identify situations that can increase the risk of contamination of fresh
produce with pathogenic bacteria or toxic substances.
Contamination can reach produce through a variety of means including water
or wind flow, workers, vehicles, or equipment.
The land owner or operator should research both the present and prior use of
adjacent lands to identify potential produce contamination and precautions that
need to be taken to prevent contamination of fresh produce in the field.
Contamination from areas away from the actual growing area can reach produce
through a variety of means including water or wind flow, and workers, vehicles, or
equipment moving from one area to another.
II-5
Water Resources and Irrigation Practices

Visual II.1-4
Water used in the production of fruits and vegetables can be a source of pathogen
contamination and dissemination.
During agricultural production of fruits and vegetables, water is used for
numerous activities in the field, including irrigation and pesticide and fertilizer
application (FDA, 1998). Other water uses during produce handling include
cooling, washing, waxing and transportation. In addition to activities where water
comes in direct contact with produce, field and packing shed workers use water
for drinking and hand washing.
Visual II.1-5
Water used in agricultural activities can be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria
that may cause severe health problems to consumers.
It can be a source of and vehicle for biological hazards such as:
Enterohemorrhagic and
Enterovirulent Escherichia coli
Vibrio cholerae
Cryptosporidium parvum
Cyclospora cayetanensis
Norwalk virus
Salmonella spp.
Shigella spp
Gardia lamblia
Toxisplasm gondii
Hepatitis A virus
Such microorganisms are associated with gastrointestinal diseases that, in severe

cases, can cause death.
Poor quality water may be a direct source of contamination and also an important
vehicle for spreading microorganisms in the production field (Bern et al., 1999).
Every time water comes in direct contact with fruits or vegetables, the possibility
of contaminating the produce with pathogens exists. This includes water used for
produce production, fresh produce washing, in packaging facilities and during
transportation. The severity of the hazard resulting from poor quality water will
depend on the type and number of microorganisms in the water and their
capacity to survive on the produce.
II-6
Visual II.1-6
The chances of contamination of fruits and vegetables with microorganisms
present in water can increase depending on factors such as:
Product growth stage

Type of crop
Time between water application and harvest
Water and product handling practices
In addition to the quality of the water other factors that can increase the risk of
contamination of produce by water include the stage of development and type of
crop, the time between the contact of the produce with the water and harvest,
and other water and produce handling practices. Fruits and vegetables with large
surface areas, like leafy vegetables, or those where the surface structure allows
pathogens to adhere easily are at a greater risk of contamination from water.
This risk can be further increased when the contact with contaminated water
takes place near harvest time or during post harvest handling.
Potential Produce Contamination Associated with Water Sources
Visual II.1-7
Usually, water for agricultural uses comes from:
Surface sources such as rivers, streams, and reservoirs
Ground water from wells (open or capped)
Public water systems such as those provided by towns or other municipalities
Among the most common sources of agricultural water are surface rivers,
streams, open canals, etc. Other sources include reservoirs such as swamps,
lakes, tanks, ground water from wells (open or capped) and, occasionally, public
water systems.
Surface and reservoir sources vary considerably in their microbial content.
Microbial loads of surface water range from several thousand organisms per
milliliter after a rainfall to a relatively low number after auto purification, a
normally occurring process in smooth waters.
Surface waters can be exposed to temporary or intermittent contamination. This
contamination can come from raw human and animal wastes, sewage water
discharges, and water coming from adjacent lots dedicated to animal production
or other contamination. Surface water generally flows some distances before it
reaches the crop. It is important to identify upstream sources of contamination to
this flow. Elimination of this contamination may involve modification of the waters
route or the introduction of intervention methods, such as filters.
II-7
Visual II.1-8
Water destined for agricultural production can easily become contaminated with
human and/or animal feces.
To protect water sources:
Keep animals and children out of the fields;
Provide field workers with properly constructed and maintained restrooms or
sanitary mobile units;
Properly develop wells and water systems.
Water destined for agricultural production can easily become contaminated with
human and/or animal feces. It is important to keep animals and children out of
the fields and to provide field workers with properly constructed and maintained
restrooms or mobile sanitary units. Water contamination with human fecal
material also can occur if wells and water systems are not properly developed, if
septic systems fail or have deficiencies in their design, and from discharges that
come from sewage treatment plants.
Wildlife, including insects, rodents, reptiles, and birds, can carry disease. Since
these are found even in the most pristine environments, absolute protection of
water is difficult and minimization of potential contamination by wildlife should be
the goal.
Visual II.1-9
Ground water may be contaminated by a variety of biological and chemical
hazards, which include:
Bacteria, viruses, parasites, and protozoans
Domestic waste
Nitrate nitrogen
Synthetic organic chemicals
Heavy metals
Petroleum residues
Combustion products from roadways
It is generally believed that ground water is less likely than surface water to be
contaminated with pathogens since ground water generally loses much of its
bacterial and organic compound content after filtration though rock and clay
layers. (Buttler et al, 1993). The bacterial content of ground water may vary from
a few to a few hundred organisms per milliliter. However, under certain
conditions, such as with shallow, old, or improperly constructed wells, the
potential for contamination of ground water by surface water is a great risk.
II-8
Prevention of well contamination begins with proper placement of the well (Engel
et al., 1998). The distance that the well must be from sources of contamination
depends on many factors, such as geologic formations, depth of the aquifer,
direction of groundwater flow, effects of well pumping on groundwater movement,
and susceptibility of the site to flooding.
Both soil and slope characteristics make well location tricky. The following
standards apply to the placement of wells (Engel et al., 1998):
The well should be located away from septic tanks, sewage disposal areas
(such as a drain field), and other sources of contamination such as feed lots,
manure piles, chemical storage, chemical mixing areas, dumps or landfills,
fuel storage tanks, storm sewers, privies, or refuse dumps. Separating the
well from a contamination source may reduce the chance of pollution, but it
does not guarantee that it will be safe. Contaminants can come from great
distances, depending on the depth of the aquifer and of the well.
The well should be in an area free from flooding or extra precautions to
protect it must be planned. Floodwater can easily carry bacteria, oil products,
and pesticides from one place to another.
Surface drainage should be planned to run water away from the well on all
sides. Up-slope drainage should be diverted away from hillside wells. A well
downhill from a barnyard, a leaking tank or a failing septic system runs a
greater risk of contamination than a well on the uphill side of these
contamination sources.
The well should be located above (higher in grade) disposal areas if possible.
Surface land slope does not always indicate the direction a pollutant might
flow once it gets into the ground. Groundwater often moves toward surface
streams and lakes, but the aquifer supplying water to the well may be deep
below the surface, and its slope may be different than the land surface.
Finding out about groundwater movement on a farm may require special
monitoring equipment.
Once the well site is selected and the well is in place, proper maintenance is
important to assure the well water does not become contaminated. The well site
should be kept clean and well casings, seals and caps should be maintained to
prevent surface water and contaminants from entering the well. It is also
important to consider that ground water is not inactive. Rain, snowmelt, or
interchange with surface waters usually recharges a well. Because of this,
human activities can lead to contamination of ground water.
Pesticide handling in the vicinity of wells may result in chemical contamination of
ground water. The location of wells should be considered when mixing, applying,
storing and disposing of pesticides. Vegetation or other barriers should be
established as guard zones to help limit contact between the chemicals and
water sources (Nesheim, 1993).
II-9
Visual II.1-10
Summary of GAPs to Prevent Contamination of Water Sources
Identify the primary and secondary sources of water, and be conscious of

sources for possible pathogen contamination.
Identify sources of water shared with grass-lots, feed-lots and dairy farms.
Take necessary measures to prevent animal access to crop fields, water
sources and other related areas.
Be aware of uncontrollable wildlife vectors and treat water accordingly.
Identify if any adjacent fields are using untreated animal manure as fertilizer.
Avoid manure storage near the crop fields.
Identify topography of the landscape, its effect on water flow and the rainfall
pattern of the region.
Provide maintenance to water storage tanks.
Periodically verify water quality by submitting samples for microbiological
testing. Tests for standard indicators of fecal pollution, such as E.coli can be
performed but do not necessarily indicate the absence of protozoa and viruses.
Good agricultural practices also include the use of soil and water conservation
practices, such as channel construction, drain control structures, diversion tanks,
vegetation barriers, etc., which act as physical barriers in the event of a
contaminated water run off.
Hazards Introduced by Irrigation Practices
Visual II.1-11
Irrigation
Controlled application of water to the land or field with the purpose of providing the
moisture levels required for the appropriate development of the plant.
Irrigation is the controlled application of water to the land or field with the purpose
of providing the moisture levels required for the appropriate development of the
plant. Irrigation plays a major role in achieving cultivable lands, especially in arid
and semi-arid regions.
Visual II.1-12
Irrigation methods commonly used include:
Surface (furrow or flood)
Overhead (sprinklers)
Trickle (drip or buried)
Micro-sprinklers
II-10
Irrigation methods commonly used include (Solomon, 1988; ERS, 2001):

Surface (furrow or flood) where soil surface is used as a conduit for water
that is allowed to pond on the ground in furrows or throughout the field.
Overhead (sprinklers) water is delivered through a pressurized pipe network
to sprinklers, nozzles or jets which spray the water into the air, to fall onto the
plants and soil in an artificial "rain".
Trickle irrigation - the slow, frequent application of water to the soil though
emitters placed at or near the root zone of the plants. The term trickle
irrigation is general, and includes several more specific methods. Drip
irrigation applies the water through small emitters to the soil surface, usually
at or near the plant to be irrigated. Subsurface or buried irrigation is the
application of water below the soil surface.
Micro-sprinklers are a cross between sprinkler and trickle irrigation. These
systems use low-volume sprinkler heads located about 1 foot above the
ground to spray water over a wide area when low volume overhead irrigation
is desired. They are designed for areas where drippers are not practical, such
as large areas of ground cover or under trees. Their low-volume spray does
not reach high into the air so plant material not growing close to the ground is
not directly exposed to the water.
Irrigation methods are selected according to the environment, water source,
climate, soil characteristics, type of crop, and cost. The type of irrigation system
chosen is important to product safety since this determines the amount of contact
between the irrigation water and the produce. In general, the quality of water in
direct contact with the edible portion of produce may need to be better than that
with minimal product contact. Where water quality is unknown or cannot be
controlled, growers may want to consider irrigation practices that minimize
contact between water and the edible portion of the crop (FDA, 1998).
Visual II.1-13
Hazards associated with irrigation practices are influenced by:
Water source and quality
Amount of water applied
Irrigation program
Irrigation method - degree of contact with the edible portion of the fruit or
vegetable
Soil drainage properties
Time to harvest date
The closer to harvest irrigation occurs, the greater the chance for survival of
pathogens and for the presence of residual chemicals on the produce. Irrigation
methods, like drip system, where the contact between water and plant is
minimized, are generally less likely to lead to fresh produce contamination,
however, the use of good quality water is still important. Sprinklers offer a greater
II-11
degree of contact between the edible portion of the fruit or vegetable and the
water. Therefore, a greater risk of produce contamination may occur. With these
systems, the use of good quality water and the proper use and maintenance of
the equipment is especially important.
Visual II.1-14
Chemigation
Refers to the application of fertilizer or pesticides through irrigation systems.
Water used for the application of pesticides and foliar fertilizers can be a source
of microbial contamination. For this reason, the microbiological quality of the
water used for these activities should be considered.
In addition to biological hazards, water also can contain chemical contaminants.
When chemigation systems are not properly designed, they can result in serious
ground water contamination, increasing the risk of chemical contamination of
fresh produce. Safety equipment is available that can prevent back-flow and
subsequent groundwater contamination (Olexa, 1991). This equipment is
relatively inexpensive and can prevent serious hazards.
Additional safeguards against contamination during chemigation include training
and certification of applicators and water analysis at the source and at locations
near the water source. In addition, it is important to identify the runoff direction, if
runoff takes place. In the case of fertilizers, it important to know the plant toxicity
of the specific fertilizer and to pay close attention to calculated and
recommended dosage rates and schedules of application (Olexa, 1991).
Agricultural Water Microbiological Testing Procedures
Visual II.1-15
Microbiological testing is used to track safety, not for daily monitoring

activities.
It is important to document the frequency and results of each water test for
comparison purposes. Changes may help identify problems.
These records would become very important in the event of a microbiological
outbreak investigation.
Microbiological determinations are time consuming so are used to track safety

trends, not for daily monitoring activities. They are generally used to verify that
the appropriate preventive measures are in place. Microbiological analyses are
generally performed as indicators of contamination, especially for the verification
II-12
of cleaning programs for tanks, wells, or when contamination from a specific

source or event is suspected.
Proper records of water microbiological quality are an important good agricultural
practice. It is important to document the frequency and results of each water test
since changes in results may identify problems.
Testing for specific pathogenic bacteria in water may be inappropriate. They
could be present in very small amounts and thus not detected. Furthermore,
microbiological characteristics of water can vary considerably depending on such
factors as the water source, season, and sampling time. Since waterborne
disease is usually the result of fecal contamination of water supplies, it is more
efficient to determine if fecal contamination is present than to actually look for the
presence of pathogens.
The fecal indicator bacteria are used to identify when fecal contamination of
water has occurred. The fecal indicator bacteria are natural inhabitants of the
gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals. These
bacteria are released into the environment with feces and, in general, cause no
harm. However, relatively high numbers of fecal indicator bacteria in the
environment, suggest an increased likelihood of pathogens being present as
well. In the United States, coliform bacteria serve as the indicator organisms for
fecal contamination.
Visual II.1-16
Laboratory assays commonly performed to determine the quality of water for
agricultural usage include:
Total and fecal coliform bacteria

Enumeration of Escherichia coli
To test if the water being used in agricultural production is contaminated with

fecal material, the recommended laboratory tests should look for the presence of
fecal coliform bacteria, specifically E. coli.
Visual II.1-17
MCL (Maximum contaminant level) for total coliforms in drinking water is Zero
An MCL does not exist for agricultural water, however growers are urged to
minimize all hazards over which they have control.
II-13
The maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water for total coliform/E.coli
is zero (U.S. EPA, 2001b). An MCL does not exist for agricultural water, however
growers are urged to take a proactive part in minimizing sources of microbial
contamination over which they have control. If wells or water sources are
contaminated with these organisms, possible alleviation measures include
disinfecting with chlorine or another disinfectant or filtration of the water source.
Part III in the Additional Resources section gives general procedures for
disinfecting contaminated wells.
Visual II.1-18
Source
Possible Water Testing Frequency
Closed system, under the One annual test at the beginning of season
ground or covered tank
Uncovered well, open
canal, water reservoir,
collection pond
Every three months during the season
Municipal/District water
system
Keep records from the municipality/district water

system (monthly, quarterly or annual report)
The type of water source will determine the recommended frequency of testing
(CSC, 1998). With closed, covered, or underground systems, where
contamination is less likely to occur, annual testing is sufficient if the well is
properly developed. With open systems, like uncovered wells, open canals and
ponds, testing every three months is recommended to track the waters safety.
Additional testing should be considered after a significant event that might cause
water contamination such as heavy rain or flooding.
Visual II.1-19
Water Sample Collection

Sterile sample containers should be obtained from the testing laboratory
because containers may be specially prepared for a specific contaminant.
Sampling and handling procedures will depend on the specific water quality
concern and should be followed carefully.
If water has been chlorinated, the presence of residual chlorine or other
halogens can prevent the continuation of bacterial action. To prevent this
occurrence, sodium thiosulfate should be added to the collection tube.
If the water is collected from a tap, the water should be allowed to flow for 1-3
minutes before the sample is taken.
The sample should be analyzed as soon as possible and no more than 30 hrs
after its collection.
Samples should be kept cool (<10oC) during transportation from the source to
the laboratory.
II-14
When testing water, care should be taken in collecting and handling the sample
to assure the integrity of the sample, to avoid contamination during the sampling
process and to assure changes do not take place in the sample after it is
collected. Some water conditions and/or treatments can affect tests for
microorganisms so samples must receive special treatment if these conditions
exist. For example, if water has been chlorinated, the presence of residual
chlorine or other halogens can prevent the continuation of bacterial action. To
prevent this occurrence, sodium thiosulfate should be added to the collection
tube. Basic considerations for the collection of water samples (U.S. EPA, 2000)
are described in the visual above, however, precise procedures should be
obtained from the testing laboratory being used to assure appropriate samples.
Summary
1. Agricultural land and land that has been used for activities other than
agriculture can be contaminated with pathogenic organisms or toxic chemical
substances.
2. As part of a Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) program it is necessary to
identify possible sources of microbial and chemical contamination associated
with the prior use of land that it is being used for agricultural production. Use
of adjacent land is also important and should be investigated.
3. Every time water comes in direct contact with fruits or vegetables, the
possibility of contaminating the produce with pathogens exists. This includes
water used for produce production activities like irrigation and chemical
application, fresh produce washing, in packaging facilities and during
transportation. The quality of water used to produce ice for cooling and other
produce handling operations is also important since this can be a source of
contamination.
4. The severity of the hazard resulting from poor quality water will depend on the
degree of contact between the water and the produce, the type and amount of
microorganisms in the water and their capacity to survive on the produce.
5. Water destined for agricultural production can easily get contaminated with
human and/or animal feces. It is important to keep animals and children out of
the fields and to provide field workers with properly constructed and
maintained restrooms or mobile sanitary units.
6. The maximum contaminant level (MCL) for drinking water for total
coliform/E.coli is zero. If wells or water sources are contaminated with these
organisms, possible alleviation measures include disinfecting with chlorine or
another disinfectant or filtration of the water source.
II-15
Module 2
Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers
Learning Outcomes
Participants should be able to identify potential produce contamination
associated with the use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
Participants should be aware of recommended composting procedures for
manure.
Practical
Laboratory Exercise: Water as a Contamination Agent
Part IV Composting Facility
Visual II.2-1
Fertilizer
Natural or synthetic substance added to the soil or plants to provide them with the
necessary nutrients for plant development.
Fields used for agricultural production generally require the addition of plant
nutritional supplements for soil enrichment. Fertilizers are natural or synthetic
substances that are added to the soil or plants to provide them with the nutrients
necessary for plant development. The use of fertilizers is a common practice to
increase the soil quality, and consequently, the quantity and quality of the fruits
and vegetables grown in it.
Visual II.2-2
Categories of Fertilizers
Fertilizers can be divided into two large categories:
Organic
Inorganic
Fertilizers can be divided into two large categories, organic and inorganic,
depending on the source of the material.
II-16
Organic Fertilizers
Visual II.2-3
Raw materials commonly used for the production of organic fertilizers include:
Animal manure
Post-harvest material
Organic waste
Biosolids/sludge (human waste)
Organic fertilizers are derived from plant material or animals. They are obtained
by the conversion of animal manure, post-harvest material or organic waste into
compost. When properly treated, organic fertilizers can provide many advantages
to public health because their production eliminates waste material that otherwise
would constitute a source of bacterial contamination.
Associated Risks
Visual II.2-4
Hazards Associated with Animal Manure
When fecal material is used for fertilizer without proper treatment, there is
danger of contamination of fruits and vegetables with pathogenic bacteria.
These bacteria can cause gastrointestinal and other illnesses in humans.
Survival of viruses and protozoa in composted manure has not been clearly
determined.
Human and animal fecal materials are important sources of microbiological

contamination of produce. Organisms linked to these sources include
Salmonella, anaerobes such as, Enterococcus, and other intestinal bacteria. One
of the most infectious organisms prevalent in animal manure is E. coli O157:H7
that usually comes from the fecal material of ruminants like cows, sheep, and
deer. Other significant hazards found in human and animal fecal material include
Salmonella and Cryptosporidium (FDA, 1998).
Animal manure and solid biological waste may provide safe, effective fertilizer
when properly treated. If the treatment is inadequate, or if no treatment is used,
the risk of contamination of fruit and vegetables with pathogenic microorganisms
is extremely high. The rate of survival of contaminants in manure and their
transfer to crops depends on a number of factors. These include soil type,
manure application rate, soil pH, composting method and time of application.
II-17
Continued application of untreated manure on a site could lead to extended

pathogen survival and buildup which increases the risk of both contamination at
that site and the spread of contamination to nearby sites.
In addition to microbial hazards, the use of solid biological waste on land can
also introduce chemical hazards, such as heavy metals and toxic organic
compounds. These materials may accumulate to levels that will be harmful to
plants grown on the land. Another harmful effect from improperly treated manure
is decreased water quality due to the release of oxygen demanding substances,
suspended solids, and nitrogen.
Treatments to Reduce the Risks
Visual II.2-5
Composting
Composting is a natural, biological process by which organic material is broken
down and decomposed.
Because the fermentation process generates a lot of heat it reduces/eliminates
biological hazards in organic matter.
To convert organic waste into safe fertilizers (compost), practices should be

followed to reduce the presence of pathogenic bacteria. Composting is a natural,
biological process by which organic material is broken down and decomposed.
The composting process is carried out by bacteria and fungi which ferment the
organic material and reduce it to a stable humus. Because the fermentation
process generates a lot of heat it reduces/eliminates biological hazards in
organic matter.
The principles of composting are quite simple -- just provide the microorganisms
with an environment conducive to their growth -- a balanced diet, water and
oxygen (Merka et al., 1994):
The microorganisms best at composting are aerobic (require oxygen). During
the composting process oxygen is used up quickly by microorganisms inside
the compost pile. Aerating the compost pile allows oxygen to be resupplied to
these microorganisms so that the composting process continues at a rapid
rate.
Composting microorganisms thrive in moist, but not soggy, conditions.
Desirable moisture levels in the composting materials should be 40 to 60
percent. Too much water can cause the compost pile to become anaerobic;
too little will prevent microorganisms from reproducing to adequately high
numbers.
o
o
A temperature in the range of 130 to 150 F should be generated inside the
compost pile. These high temperatures are produced by the biological activity
II-18
of the microorganisms that are breaking down the organic material in the pile
and are beneficial to the composting process. High temperatures enhance the
growth and reproduction of thermophilic (heat loving) bacteria that are
especially good at digesting organic material. The heat produced by the
microorganisms not only contributes to their own growth, but also speeds up
the decomposition process and helps in killing pathogenic microorganisms.
The USDAs Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) has prepared
guidance on the development and use of a composting facility. This document is
included as Part IV of the Additional Resources section of this manual.
Visual II.2-6
Composting treatments can be divided in two groups:
Passive
Active
Composting treatments can be divided in two groups, passive treatments and
active ones.
Passive Composting Treatments
Visual II.2-7
Passive Composting Treatments
Passive treatments are based on maintaining organic waste under natural
conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and ultraviolet
radiation, given enough time, encourage the composting process and a reduction
in the numbers of pathogenic microorganisms.
Passive treatments are based on maintaining organic waste under natural

conditions. The compost piles are not turned and free oxygen in the piles is
quickly used up, resulting in anaerobic conditions in the pile, slowing the
composting process. However, environmental factors, such as temperature,
humidity, and ultraviolet radiation, given enough time, inhibit the growth of
pathogenic organisms and eventually destroy them.
The biggest obstacle to this approach is that it takes a long time to significantly
reduce the number of pathogens in the material and determining the time
required for this process to take place is difficult. The amount of time needed
depends on the climate, region and season, as well as the source and type of
manure and organic waste used. Due to these uncertainties, passive composting
treatments are not recommended.
II-19
Active Composting Treatments

Active treatments are those in which piles of materials are managed so that
conditions are created to speed up the process of converting waste materials to
compost. Active treatment to convert organic material into compost is the
treatment most widely used by farmers.
Visual II.2-8
Active Composting Treatments
Artificially induce the environmental conversion of waste to compost.

Compost piles are turned frequently or other aeration is provided to maintain
adequate oxygen (aerobic) conditions.
Temperature and moisture levels of the pile are monitored and supplements
are added as necessary
When properly applied, these treatments require less time than passive
treatments to reach the required microorganism reduction level.
With active composting compost piles are turned frequently or other aeration is
provided to maintain adequate oxygen (aerobic) conditions within the pile.
Temperature and moisture levels of the pile are monitored and supplements are
added as necessary to obtain optimum moisture and proper carbon:nitrogen ratio
for complete composting. The composting process is complete when the pile
stops heating. Under appropriate conditions, the high temperature generated
during the fermentation process destroys most of the pathogens in a relatively
short time
Microbial analysis of the compost may be performed to determine if the
procedure was effective in the eliminating pathogenic bacteria. The presence of
E. coli and Salmonella are generally used as indicators since, if they are still
present in the compost, the organic fertilizer should not be applied to crops and
additional treatments of the fertilizer are needed.
Additional active treatments such as pasteurization, drying with heat, anaerobic
digestion, stabilization with alkalis, aerobic digestion or a combination of these
may be applied to speed the composting process.
II-20
Figure1. Manure Composting Procedure currently being recommended by the

Fresh Produce Safety Committee of the State of Guanajuato, Mexico
(CESAVEG) (Ballesteros-Sandoval, 1999)
Composting Materials:
1000 kg of fresh cow manure (other sources include pig, chicken, veal and other farm
animals). Large agglomerations should be broken down.
10 stacks of hay (150 kg) - they could be made of wheat straw or from alternative
sources such as corn, sorghum, green remains from harvest, or organic waste (paper
and cardboard)
50 kg of sieved soil. It should not contain glass, plastic or metals.
10 kg of ground charcoal
2 bags of lime (45.4 kg)
Activator: 5 kg of molasses or sugar can be used. It is mixed in solution with bakers
yeast
Clean water
Turning instruments
Water hose
Thermometer
Active composting is generally performed away from the production site, protected from the
sun, wind and animals.
The first layer

should be
made of straw
NO
Re-activate by
the addition of
more fresh
manure or lime
if heating
cannot be
induced
Add manure over

the layer of straw
After 3 days the

temperature at
the center of the
pile should be
between 55-70C
(131-158oF)
Add soil over

the manure
Form piles not to

exceed a height of
1.2m by 1.5 of width.
Cover the piles with
dark plastic
Add lime, charcoal,

activation mixture
and water to reach a
humidity level of 60%
Mix the material
YES
Start the turning
process, if the
humidity level is
too high and
the temperature
readings start
to fall, add
more straw and
mII.2 again the
material
Cover the compost

again. Daily
temperature should
be between 5570C (131-158oF).
Fifteen days or
longer at 55C
(131oF) or higher is
a generally
required for
composting
Every 8 days compost

should be turned
(minimum 5 times). It
should be finished
when it stops heating,
(aprox. 50 days).
Microbiological Testing Conducted (Most Probable Number- MPN)

(E. coli < 1,000 MPN/gram and Salmonella < 3 MPN/4 grams)
II-21
Good Agricultural Practices in the Management of Organic Fertilizers

To assure that pathogenic microorganisms do not reach fruits and vegetables
and, ultimately, the consumers, it is necessary to follow certain practices when
manufacturing organic fertilizers, during their application and during harvest.
Visual II.2-9
Hazards Associated with Manure Treatment and Storage Location
The location for storage and treatment of animal manure should be away from
the produce production areas.
Barriers or some type of physical containment should be used as part of the
manure storage areas to prevent contamination of produce or production areas
by pathogens spread by rain wash, subterraneous water flow or wind spread
from the stored manure.
Contamination of ground water supplies can be minimized if animal manure is
stored on a cement floor or in special holes lined with clay.
Manure piles should be covered with plastic or other materials and/or stored
under a shed since rainfall on manure piles can result in run-off containing
pathogenic bacteria that can contaminate fields, equipment, etc.
The minimum distance from the manure storage facility to the production field
depends on many factors, such as the configuration of the plantation fields,
land slope, existing barriers to entrap water, and the possibility of bacterial
spread by wind or rain.
Treated manure should be kept covered and away from waste and garbage to
prevent recontamination by birds or rodents.
Manure should be confined for treatment. The location for storage and treatment
of animal manure should be far away from the produce production areas.
Barriers or some type of physical containment should be used as part of the
manure storage areas to prevent contamination of produce or production areas
by pathogens from the stored manure spread by rain wash, subterraneous water
flow or wind spread. Contamination of ground water supplies can be minimized if
animal manure is stored on a cement floor or in special holes lined with clay.
Rainfall on manure piles can result in run-off containing pathogenic bacteria that
can contaminate the fields, equipment, etc. so manure piles should be covered
with plastic or other materials and/or stored under a shed.
Equipment (tractors) that comes in contact with untreated manure can be a
source of produce contamination. Equipment should be cleaned with high
pressure water or vapor before it is allowed in the production areas. In a similar
way, personnel handling manure should not go into the production fields without
proper hygiene.
II-22
Treated manure should be kept covered and away from waste and garbage to
prevent recontamination by birds or rodents. It should be maintained away from
the plantation fields and separated from product packaging material so it will not
contaminate the fresh produce, water sources or packaged produce.
Visual II.2-10
Precautions for the Application of Organic Fertilizers
Properly treated organic fertilizer should be applied pre-planting or in the early

stages of growth of the plant. It should be applied near the roots and covered
with soil.
Organic fertilizers should NOT be applied when the fruit or vegetable is nearing
maturity or harvest.
Maximum time should be allowed between the application of organic fertilizers
and harvest of the product.
It is also suggested that crops on adjacent fields be grown in a way that
organic fertilizers are not applied near a field that is already cultivated or near
its harvest time.
Properly treated organic fertilizer should be applied prior to planting or in the

early stages of plant growth. It should be applied near the roots and covered with
soil. Organic fertilizers should NOT be applied when the fruit or vegetable is
nearing maturity or harvest. Maximum time should be allowed between the
application of organic fertilizers and harvest of the produce. It is also suggested
that crops on adjacent fields be grown in a way that organic fertilizers are not
applied near a field that is already cultivated or near its harvest time.
To properly assess the severity of the risk of biological contamination, the type of
fruit or vegetable that is being produced should be considered.
Visual II.2-11
Commodity specific considerations in determining the risk of disease from
contamination with organic fertilizers:
Characteristics of the crop (i.e. leafy vegetable vs. tuber) and mode of
consumption
Physical contact of the edible portions of fruits or vegetables with the ground
Shape and texture of the fruit or vegetable
Produce that grows in or on the surface of the soil is more susceptible to

contamination. Produce that grows close to the ground also is more easily
II-23
contaminated by the splash of water during rain or irrigation. Fruits and

vegetables that are produced on plants where they are not in direct contact with
the soil are not as susceptible to contamination provided they are not dropped on
the ground. The risk of contamination increases if the characteristics of the fruit
or vegetable make it easy for dust or bacteria to adhere to their surface.
Untreated Animal Manure
Visual II.2-12
The use of untreated animal manure (without composting) in the production of
edible produce results in a greater risk of contamination than treated manure and
is NOT recommended.
The use of untreated animal manure (without composting) in the production of
produce results in a greater risk of contamination than treated manure and is
NOT recommended.
Although raw manure is never recommended for use as a fertilizer, in some
regions, it is used. When untreated manure is used, it should be introduced into
the ground during soil preparation and prior to planting. Microorganisms in the
soil may reduce the number of pathogenic organisms in the manure, however
time is a critical factor. The manure should be incorporated into the soil and the
ground turned periodically to facilitate pathogen reduction. A maximum amount of
time should be allowed between application of manure and planting. The amount
of time that pathogenic bacteria can survive in manure is unknown but some
researchers estimate that, depending on environmental conditions, the survival
period can extend to a year or more.
Applying untreated animal manure (without composting) on the fields during the
cultivation period is not recommended.
Recommended Controls and Records
Keeping complete records of fertilizer preparation and use is part of a Good
Agricultural Practices program.
II-24
Visual II.2-13
Suggestions for information to record:
Origin of the organic material (Source and physical make-up of composted

material)
Date compost process started
Treatment applied
Turnings of windrows (minimum 5 times)
Temperatures during composting (daily temperature readings of 55C (131F)
or higher recommended).
Times at 55C (131F) or higher for windrow composting.
Amount used
Place of application
Date of the application
Method of application
Person responsible for the application
Microbiological Testing Conducted (Recommended: E. coli <1,000 MPN/gram
and Salmonella < 3 MPN/4 grams) [MPN= Most Probable Number]
Information should be kept about the preparation of the organic fertilizer,

including the source of the material, details of the composting procedures, and
the results of microbiological tests on the composted material. Information on the
dates, amounts and methods of applying the fertilizer as well as the person
responsible for the application should also be maintained. These records will help
verify that appropriate steps were taken to assure safety of the produce and will
be useful if a traceback is required.
Inorganic Fertilization
Inorganic fertilizers are obtained via commercial chemical processes. Although
the products themselves are generally not a source of microbial contamination,
care should be taken to assure that contamination is not introduced through the
use of contaminated water to mix the products or unclean equipment used in
their application.
II-25
Summary
The following table identifies points to consider when assessing the safety of
fertilizer selection and treatments.
Evaluating Contamination Risks of Fertilization
Organic and Inorganic Fertilization
Use of the following
Type of product being cultivated:
Organic Fertilizers
yes
no
Inorganic Fertilizers
yes
no
Origin of the Organic Matter
Animal manure
Animal type ______________
Post-harvest waste
Organic waste
Sewage sludge/biosolids
Type of composting treatment

Passive
Active Which one?
____________________
None
When are the fertilizers applied?

Before planting/during preparation
of the ground
During production
After harvesting
Do you have microbiological tests

and/or records that indicate that the
organic fertilizer has been treated to
reduce pathogens? yes
no
1. Is there a direct contact between edible portion of the fruit or

vegetable and the ground?
yes
2. Does the product morphology facilitate biological contamination? yes
Appropriate measures taken in
following areas to reduce risks at
production site
Adequate storage of manure
Adequate use of equipment
tractors.
Adequate traffic control through
field
the
the
or
the
II-26
no
no
Module 3
Animal Exclusion and Pest Control
Learning Outcomes
Participants should understand the potential for produce contamination
associated with animals in the production areas.
Participants should understand recommended practices for pest and vermin
control.
Practical
Experiments Using Artificial Germs: How Germs are Spread II
Germs and Produce
Animal Exclusion
All animals including mammals, birds, reptiles and insects are considered
vehicles for contamination with pathogenic organisms. A large number of
microorganisms can be found on the surface of animals (hair, feathers, hide, etc.)
and in their respiratory and gastrointestinal systems.
Visual II.3-1
Feces are usually considered the major source of pathogenic organisms from
animals. However:
Some pathogenic bacteria commonly associated with animal skin include

Salmonella, Staphylococcus, and Streptococcus.
The feathers and other parts of domestic birds also can be contaminated with
these organisms.
Wild birds, reptiles and amphibians are a potential sources of Salmonella.
Feces are usually considered the major source of pathogenic organisms from
animals (Murray et al., 1995). However, since animals are in contact with the soil,
manure and water, they can easily pick up contaminants from these sources on
their hide, paws, hair, etc.
In addition to foodborne pathogens, animals can carry many spoilage
microorganisms, which can greatly reduce the quality and shelf life of fresh
produce. Quality deterioration also can be accelerated by physical damage to the
surface of the fruit or vegetable caused by animals, birds and insects. In addition
to lowering quality, the wounded surfaces become an open door to pathogenic
II-27
and spoilage organisms, greatly increasing the risk of contamination of the

internal portions of the produce.
Visual II.3-2
All animals should be kept away from production and handling areas (agricultural
fields, storage facilities, packaging areas, machinery, etc.) to prevent the
contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables with biological hazards that can harm
the consumer.
Domestic animals, such as pets and livestock, and wild animals are all potential
sources of contamination of produce and should be kept out of production areas.
The risk of contamination is greatly increased when there are large numbers of
wild animals near the production field. This includes animals such as crows,
migratory birds, bats, etc. The presence of these animals is common when there
are large forests, rivers and/or prairies around the field. In such cases, there are
a number of different measures that can be implemented to exclude animals from
the fields.
Visual II.3-3
Keeping Animals Out of Production Areas
To reduce the presence of animals in the production areas it is important to follow
common sense practices such as:
Maintaining domestic and farm animals away from the fruit and vegetable
production fields (vineyards, orchards, etc.) and establishing physical barriers
or vegetation to prevent entry of wild animals. These precautions are especially
important near harvest time.
Field workers should not be allowed to bring dogs, cats or other domestic
animals into the field, packaging areas or storage facilities.
Dead or trapped animals such as birds, insects, rats, etc., should be disposed
of promptly to avoid attracting other animals. Proper disposal procedures are to
bury or incinerate the animal.
Domestic and farm animals offer as much risk of produce contamination as wild
animals. All animals, including pets, should be kept away from produce
production and handling areas. Dead or trapped animals should be disposed of
promptly to avoid attracting other animals. Proper disposal procedures are to
bury or incinerate the animal.
The maintenance of animal-free areas, such as cleared land, around the
production site is also an important control. Farmers often use homemade
devices to repel animals. In many cases, these are very effective. These devices
II-28
range from scarecrows, to water guns, traps, and physical barriers. When
selecting an animal exclusion method it is important to consider the countrys
environmental and animal protection laws.
Visual II.3-4
Cleaning Considerations for Surrounding Areas
Keep the grass short to avoid the presence of rats, reptiles and other pests.
Keep all areas free of garbage.
Remove all unnecessary equipment - old and broken equipment can provide
protection for rats and insects.
Remove nests from fields and buildings
The topic of sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) will be discussed

in detail in Section III. However there are a few considerations regarding animal
exclusion that are also related to good cleaning practices. All areas where
produce is grown and handled should be kept clean and free of garbage, unused
equipment or situations that might encourage animals to inhabit the area.
Visual II.3-5
Animals and Water
Since animals are attracted by water, the presence of water in the field and
packing building should be limited to that needed for specific uses
In the packinghouse, surfaces and floors should be kept clean and as dry as
possible to avoid the availability of water for bacterial and pest growth.
Water tanks and storage containers should be capped to prevent animal
access to water sources.
Since animals are attracted by water and water is needed for bacterial growth,
the presence of water in the field and packing building should be limited to that
needed for specific uses. In the packinghouse, surfaces and floors should be
kept clean and as dry as possible to avoid the availability of water for bacterial
and pest growth. Water tanks and storage containers should be capped to
prevent animal access to water sources.
Pest Control
Visual II.3-6
Insects and rodents are the pests most commonly found in food handling facilities
II-29
Insects (cockroaches, flies, etc.) and rodents are the pests most commonly found
in food handling facilities. Rats and mice not only cause significant losses of
fresh produce but also damage buildings. In addition, they can contaminate fresh
produce with parasites and other diseases. Rodent feces and urine can
contaminate produce since they can contain microbial pathogens.
Pest Control Programs
Visual II.3-7
Pest Control in Fresh Produce Operations
In fresh produce operations the term pest applies to all organisms that can
contaminate fruit and vegetables during field production, packaging, storage
and distribution.
Insects, microorganisms, wild animals and weeds (which can also harbor
insects, vermin, etc.) should all be considered in a pest control program.
This program should also extend to the packinghouse, storage facilities and
transportation vehicles.
In fresh produce operations the term pest applies to all organisms that can
contaminate fruit and vegetables during field production, packaging, storage and
distribution. This includes insects, microorganisms, wild animals and weeds
(which can also harbor insects, vermin, etc.). All of these should be considered
when implementing a pest control program.
Although cleaning is an important step for controlling pests, it is also important to
implement a pest control program. Many produce packaging operations prefer to
use professional pest control services. However, packinghouse personnel play
an important role in detecting when a pest problem exists. Therefore it is
recommended that an in-house pest control program be implemented to prevent
fresh produce contamination.
Pest control programs should include a series of scheduled inspections to
identify situations that can encourage the introduction of pests, identify the
presence of pests and quantify their number.
II-30
Visual II.3-8
Important Components of a Pest Control Program
Periodic inspection of facilities to identify pest outbreaks and/or contamination

with animals and to identify pests, including insects, rodents, and wild and
domestic animals.
Scheduled inspection activities that include all areas of the operation/facility.
Identification of the type(s) of pests and quantification of their numbers.
Record keeping of all the inspections performed, indicating dates and problems
that were observed with specific information on the identification of the pest
detected and corrective actions taken.
Verification of the effectiveness of corrective and preventive actions included in
the companys pest control plan.
Establishment of facility maintenance program to repair cracks and holes and
to remove places where a pest can get established.
A sound pest control program will help assure pests are not a problem in the
produce production and handling areas. Records should be kept of all
inspections, pests identified and pest control treatments used. These records will
aid in determining that pest control methods were appropriate for produce
protection. It is also important to verify the effectiveness of corrective and
preventive actions. This documentation can save time, money and help prevent
small problems from becoming large ones.
Facility maintenance is important in controlling pests. Repairing cracks and holes
will help keep pests from entering while eliminating places where pests can get
established discourage them from becoming permanent residents.
Common Pest Control Procedures
Pest control can be accomplished by either non-chemical or chemical methods,
or through a combination of both (Table II.3-1). When selecting a pest control
method, choose one that is approved for local, regional and/or national level use
and then apply it appropriately.
II-31
Table II.3-1. Summary of control measures used to prevent or lessen the crop
damage caused by pests (U.S. EPA, 2001c).
METHOD
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
PLANT RESISTANCE
CULTURAL METHODS
MECHANICAL AND
PHYSICAL METHODS
CHEMICAL METHODS
INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT (IPM)
DESCRIPTION
Uses living organisms for pest control. Biopesticides fall
into 3 major classes:
(1) Microbial pesticides contain a microorganism (e.g.,
bacterium, fungus, or virus) that generally attacks a
specific pest.
(2) Plant pesticides are substances that plants produce
from genetic material that has been added to the plant.
(3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally-occurring
substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms
(e.g., pheromones).
Some plant growth regulators are naturally-occurring
biopesticides. Biological control also includes the release
of parasitic and predaceous insects to control insect
pests or weed species.
Crop plants are bred to produce varieties that resist
insects and other pests. Crop plants are also genetically
altered to allow them to withstand herbicides so that only
weed species are killed when treated with chemical
pesticides.
Methods include crop rotation, soil tillage, use of trap
crops, change in planting or harvesting time,
intercropping with other crops or with varieties which
repel pests.
Techniques such as collecting pests with traps, suction
devices or by hand, using fire, heat, cold, sound, barriers
or screens.
EPA defines conventional pesticides as synthetic
chemicals which are intended to prevent, destroy, repel
or mitigate any pest, or intended for use as a plant
regulator, defoliant or desiccant.
IPM is a pest management approach that uses all
available pest control methods, including but not limited
to the judicious use of pesticides, to optimize a crop's
ability to resist the pest with the least hazard to man and
the environment.
II-32
Pesticide Use and Misuse

Visual II.3-9
Pesticides
Pesticides are used to protect crops and stored grains, control household pests
and nuisance insects, and eliminate vectors (organisms that carry pathogens from
one host to another) of human and animal diseases.
Pesticides are used to protect crops and stored grains, control household pests
and nuisance insects, and eliminate vectors (organisms that carry pathogens
from one host to another) of human and animal diseases (U.S. EPA, 2001c).
They are toxic (poisonous) chemicals used to control pests. Classes of pesticides
are commonly named after the pests that they help to control (insecticides control
insects; herbicides control weeds; fungicides control fungi; and rodenticides
control rodents).
Since pesticides can be extremely harmful, they should be applied, handled and
stored in accordance with the instructions given on the label or on the
manufacturer's safety data sheet for the product. Because of the potential health
hazards associated with pesticides, application rates should be controlled to limit
the amount of residues on produce and only pesticides approved for use on a
specific product or in food processing facilities should be used.
Visual II.3-10
Registration of a pesticide is a scientific, legal and administrative process to
enable authorities to control quality, use levels, labeling, packaging and
advertising. Data required for registration include:
chemical and physical properties
effectiveness
toxicity for assessment of human health hazards
prediction of environmental effects
Pesticides used on products for import into the U.S. must be registered with the
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA, 2001c). Registration of a pesticide
is a scientific, legal and administrative process through which EPA examines the
chemical and physical properties of the pesticide, its effectiveness, its potential
for causing toxic human health effects, and environmental effects resulting from
its use. The producer of the pesticide must provide data from tests done
according to EPA guidelines when seeking registration. Registration enables
authorities to control quality, use levels, efficacy claims, labeling, packaging and
II-33
advertising. Registration also helps to ensure that the interests of end-users are
well protected.
Pesticides should be used only on crops for which they are registered. The use
of pesticides on other crops or at inappropriate levels can result in produce being
refused for importation thus leading to significant loss of income for growers,
packers and shippers.
Selection of Pesticides
Visual II.3-11
A particular pesticide should be used only for the purposes or crops that it was
approved for, and only under authorized conditions, doses and intervals.
The use of unauthorized pesticides is a common barrier to international trade.
Pesticides should be used only when needed and only in the amounts that will
adequately control pests. Minimizing the amount of pesticide used reduces costs
and helps to protect the environment (Nesheim, 1993). The pesticide label is the
ultimate source of information for determining the proper application rates for a
specific pesticide. It is recommended that growers document and verify that the
pesticides used come from certified distributors, and that competent authorities
approved their usage.
Pesticide Handling
Pesticide handling should be controlled through every phase of use from
acquisition through storage to use in the fields. It is very important that the
persons in charge of handling these products carefully follow the instructions
printed on the label or on the information page that usually accompanies the
product (Material Safety Data Sheet- MSDS).
Pesticide Application in the Field
The instructions for application of a particular pesticide should be read carefully
before using the product. Information such as restrictions for its use, application
rates, approved doses, number of applications and minimal intervals between
applications should be carefully considered.
Pesticides can be applied in liquid, solid, or gaseous forms. It is important to
follow label instructions for the mixing, loading and handling of the specific
pesticide being used and the actual conditions of use. The amount of pesticide
concentrate needed to treat a specific site should be carefully calculated. The
water used to prepare pesticides should be free of pathogenic organisms.
II-34
Special attention should be paid to spray equipment, pumps and nozzles used to
apply pesticides. To minimize the potential for over or under treatment, accidents
and spills, they should be calibrated for accuracy and checked frequently for
malfunctions. Spray equipment should be regularly washed to prevent possible
contamination of fruits or vegetables with compounds not authorized for that
commodity and to avoid accidentally overdosing.
Warning signs should be posted on fields that have recently been treated with
pesticides to prevent workers or visitors from inadvertently coming in contact with
treatment chemicals. Such signs should only be removed after the established
re-entry period into the field has passed so that residual levels are at an
acceptable level.
Pesticide Storage
The amount of pesticide on hand should be kept to a minimum by buying only
what is needed for the season or for the specific application.
Visual II.3-12
The pesticide storage facility should:
Be properly identified
Be away from children, animals, and all water sources
Be away from all water sources
Have a concrete floor to facilitate clean up in the event of a spill or leak.
All pesticides should be stored safely away from children, animals, and anyone
who might misuse them (U.S. EPA, 2001c). Pesticides should be stored in clearly
labeled containers; storage in the original containers is preferable. Containers
should be kept in a safe storehouse that is well ventilated and can be closed off
to prevent unauthorized entry. The storehouse should be located away from
populated areas, on well-drained land, and away from domestic water supplies. It
should be constructed with non-combustible material, and have a leak-proof floor
and emergency exits. Any pesticide spillage should be cleaned thoroughly with
large amounts of water. Pesticides and food should never be transported in the
same vehicle.
Pesticide Residues
Visual II.3-13
Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) - the maximum level of residue that is legally
permitted to remain in or on a crop in commerce.
II-35
High levels of pesticide residues on crops may be a hazard to humans who eat
the produce. To regulate pesticide residues, a legal limit known as the maximum
residue limit (MRL) is developed for each pesticide (U.S. EPA, 2001c). The MRL
is the maximum level of residue that is legally permitted to remain in or on a crop
in commerce. This limit is used to provide reasonable assurance that no adverse
effects to the consumer will result over a lifetime of dietary exposure. Although
strict adherence to MRLs might not be feasible for some countries because of
economic constraints, those countries relying on food export profits should
monitor for and comply with these MRL levels in order to maintain credibility as
responsible exporters.
Pesticide Disposal
Instructions and restrictions on pesticide disposal are available from the products
manufacturer and may also be established by local environmental regulators.
These should be followed. Empty pesticide containers should be washed multiple
times, then returned to the supplier or taken to an appropriate place for disposal
(Nesheim, 1993). Excess spray and rinse water from equipment cleaning can be
sprayed on sites or crops listed on the label. Never dispose of pesticides or
pesticide containers in unused wells or near water sources. Empty, properly
rinsed pesticide containers can be disposed of at most sanitary landfills. In view
of the persistent, volatile nature of many pesticides, disposal by burning or
burying on the farm is discouraged.
Training and Documentation
Visual II.3-14
Records of pesticide handling training activities should include:
Employees name
Experience or hire date
Position or job performed by the employee
Date of training
Training topics
The institution responsible for training and instruction records or certificates
Signature of trainer
Thorough training of personnel responsible for using and applying pesticides is

critical. They should be aware of the dangers that can result from improper use of
the product. They also should be trained in the use of safety equipment and
application devices. Field workers should be reminded that adverse health
effects caused by pesticides are often not noticeable in the short term, but can
develop over time if exposure is not reduced.
The producer or person responsible for the pesticide application should have the
following information:
II-36
Technical data sheets on the pesticides to be used

Pesticide permits issued by authorized regulatory organization. If the product
is not listed as authorized for the crop being treated, it should not be used.
Visual II.3-15
A pesticide record sheet should contain information on:
Crop data (variety, planting date, product code, etc.)
Name of pesticides used
Place of application
Dosage
Application dates
Period of time before harvest
Name of the person responsible for the application
Date of last equipment calibration
A producer should critically evaluate the need for a pesticide and, when possible,
use alternate methods of pest control. Careful records should be kept on
pesticide usage and should include the information listed on the visual above
(Buttler et al, 1993).
For a more information on considerations when selecting and using pesticides,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Technical Information Package (TIP)
Pesticide Use and Disposal (available via the Internet at
www.epa.gov/oia/tips/pestint.htm) is recommended. This document was
prepared to provide on-line information for international audiences on key
environmental and public health issues related to pesticide use and to provide a
summary of pertinent technical publications, databases, models, websites, and
software programs related to this issue.
Summary
1. All animals including mammals, birds, reptiles and insects are considered
vehicles for contamination with pathogenic organisms that can cause illness
and death. In addition to foodborne pathogens, animals can carry many
spoilage microorganisms, which can greatly reduce the quality and shelf life
of fresh produce.
2. Animals, both domestic and wild, should be kept away from production and
handling areas (agricultural fields, storage facilities, packaging areas,
machinery, etc.) to prevent the contamination of fresh fruit and vegetables
with pathogens that can cause illness and death. The maintenance of animalfree areas, such as cleared land, around the production site is an important
control.
II-37
3. Good sanitation is key to controlling animals and pests in produce production

and handling areas. All areas where produce is grown and handled should be
kept clean and free of garbage, unused equipment or situations that might
encourage animals to inhabit the area.
4. In addition to cleaning procedures it is important to implement a pest control
program. Pest control programs should include a series of scheduled
inspections to identify situations that can encourage the introduction of pests.
5. Pest control can be accomplished by either non-chemical or chemical
methods, or through a combination of both. When selecting a pest control
method, choose one that is approved for local, regional and/or national level
use and then apply it appropriately.
6. Pesticides are used to protect crops and stored grains, control household
pests and nuisance insects, and eliminate vectors (organisms that carry
pathogens from one host to another) of human and animal diseases. Because
of the potential health hazards associated with pesticides, application rates
should be controlled to limit the amount of residues on produce and only
pesticides approved for use on the produce or in food processing facilities
should be used.
7. Good quality water should be used for mixing and applying pesticides to
minimize the risk of microbial contamination of produce.
8. Pesticides used on produce for import into the U.S. must be registered with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
9. High levels of pesticide residues on crops may be a hazard to humans who
eat the produce. To regulate pesticide residues, a legal limit known as the
maximum residue limit (MRL) is developed for each pesticide. Countries
relying on food export profits should monitor for and comply with these MRL
levels in order to maintain credibility as responsible exporters.
II-38
Module 4
Worker Health and Safety
Learning Outcomes
Participants should recognize the relationship between worker health and
hygiene and food safety.
Participants should recognize the key components of a worker hygiene
training program.
Practical
Laboratory Exercise: Handwashing Demonstration
GloGerm Handwashing
Visual II.4-1
Relationship between Worker Health and Hygiene
Assuring worker health both increases worker productivity and aids in

preventing potential microbial contamination of crops
An infected employee (showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh
produce if they dont practice good hygiene such as washing their hands after
sneezing, touching hair or other body parts, or using the restroom.
Assuring worker health increases worker productivity and aids in preventing

potential microbial contamination of fruits and vegetables. An infected employee
(showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh produce with microbial
pathogens if they dont practice good hygiene such as washing their hands after
sneezing, touching hair or other body parts, or using the restroom. These
pathogens can then be transmitted to consumers who handle or eat the
contaminated produce.
Visual II.4-2
General symptoms that flag an employee with the potential for causing microbial
contamination of produce include:
Diarrhea
Vomiting
Dizziness
Abdominal cramps
Exposed or open wounds
Hepatitis or jaundice (yellow color of the skin)
II-39
Employees with gastrointestinal distress or open wounds can contaminate fresh

fruits and vegetables through handling. General symptoms that flag an employee
with the potential for causing biological contamination of produce include
diarrhea, vomiting, dizziness, abdominal cramps, exposed or open wounds,
hepatitis or jaundice (yellow color of the skin).
Persons that do not show any symptoms of disease can transmit microbial
pathogens. Many microorganisms can be guests in the human body without
evidence of disease and can be spread to others by the human hosts.
Visual II.4-3
Workers should be trained to report any disease symptoms to supervisors.

Sick employees should not participate in activities that involve direct contact
with the fresh produce or with packaging material until they have clearance
from a licensed healthcare provider.
Supervisors should train workers to recognize disease symptoms and to report

any appearance of symptoms. Workers with symptoms of disease should be
assigned to activities that do not involve contact with the produce. Supervisors
should be provided with training on pathogens and disease symptoms so that
they are able to make judgements regarding the best actions for dealing with ill
employees. Workers removed from produce handling tasks because of illness
should not be returned to these jobs until they provide written medical
documentation from a licensed healthcare provider stating that they are free of
the infectious agent that is suspected of causing their symptoms or causing
foodborne illness, or stating that the symptoms experienced result from a chronic
noninfectious condition.
Visual II.4-4
Health Programs
Ideally, agricultural workers should have access to a health care system.

Employers should provide fruit and vegetable handlers with a training program
on good food handling and hygiene practices
Ideally agricultural workers should have access to a health care system. It is also
important for employers to provide fruit and vegetable handlers with a training
program on good food handling and hygiene practices. The possibility of produce
contamination is directly related to the quality of the worker training program.
This training should be reinforced constantly. Demonstrations of procedures are
usually more effective than simple verbal instructions. Feedback to the trainer is
II-40
important to assess the effectiveness of the training. Like with any food safety
assurance program, commitment of administration to the program is essential.
Visual II.4-5
Worker Hygiene Training Program
Proper hygiene procedures should be established and included in hygiene and

health training programs. All employees including supervisors, temporary
personnel, part-time and full time workers should participate in these activities.
The level of knowledge required should be set according to the type of
operation, responsibilities and type of activities in which the employee
participates.
Training should be in the language/dialect of the employees to ensure
comprehension and trainers should consider cultural aversions and ingrained
practices when planning training.
Proper hygiene procedures should be established and included in hygiene and

health training programs. All employees including supervisors, temporary
personnel, part-time and full time workers should participate in this training.
The level of knowledge an employee should achieve will vary according to the
type of operation and the responsibilities and type of activities in which the
employee participates. In order to ensure employees comprehend and implement
the training, it should be in the language/dialect of the employees and trainers
should consider cultural aversions and ingrained practices of the trainees when
planning training.
Visual II.4-6
First-Aid Kit
A first aid kit should be kept near the production site. It should contain:
adhesive bandages
hydrogen peroxide
bandages
gloves
other wound protecting material.
Any worker with exposed wounds that can directly contaminate fresh produce
should have these wounds properly disinfected and covered before participating
in production and handling activities. A first aid kit with supplies for treating
worker injuries should be readily available at the work site. The simple
procedures for disinfecting and covering a wound should be included in
II-41
employee training. Disposable gloves should be used to cover bandages,

adhesive bandages and other objects that could easily fall into the product.
Procedures used to treat injuries of workers should be documented.
When properly used, gloves are an effective way of preventing contamination
and protecting the employee. However, gloves can become a means of
spreading pathogens when they are not appropriately disinfected or changed
after a potential contamination (e.g. using the bathroom or answering a phone). It
should be clearly understood by workers and supervisors that the use of gloves
is not a substitute for handwashing or other good hygiene practices.
If gloves are used, the disposable kinds (latex, plastic, etc) are better than
multiple use ones since frequent replacement of gloves can help assure
cleanliness and reduce the potential for growth of microorganisms in wet/dirty
rubber gloves. Gloves should be changed anytime bare hands would be washed.
This includes after using the restroom, smoking or eating, taking a break,
covering coughs or sneezes, touching skin or wounds, touching floors or other
dirty surfaces or equipment, or handling or mixing agricultural chemicals or
cleaning materials.
Proper records should be kept on training activities, medical reports, and
gastrointestinal disease reports. In this way the health of personnel can be
assessed and corrective actions can be implemented to minimize the risk of
produce contamination. Such records will also be useful to facilitate a traceback
of a disease outbreak (See Section IV, Module 2).
Drinking Water
Water for human consumption should be potable - that is, free of microorganisms
and/or chemical substances that can jeopardize the health of the person
consuming it. Ensuring the availability of potable drinking water for field workers
can minimize the risk of them developing disease and consequently
contaminating the fresh produce.
Visual II.4-7
Pathogenic microorganisms that can be present in contaminated water
include:
Escherichia coli O157:H7; Salmonella; Shigella spp.

Hepatitis A and Norwalk viruses
Parasites such as Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora
cayetanesis
II-42
Contaminated drinking water may contain pathogenic organisms such as

hemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Shigella. Other microbiological
contaminants include viruses such as Hepatitis A and Norwalk virus and harmful
protozoa such as Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium and Cyclospora cayetanesis.
The presence of these organisms in water is generally associated with fecal
contamination.
Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are not normally harmful.
However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water indicates that the
water may be contaminated with harmful organisms. If the total coliform test on a
sample of drinking water is positive (1 or more coliforms per 100 mL of water),
either a fecal coliform test or an Escherichia coli test should be performed to
determine if the coliform bacteria found are of fecal origin. Positive results on
either of these two tests is a strong indication that the water may be
contaminated with fecal material. Since potable water should be free of total and
fecal coliform bacteria and E. coli, an investigation of the water treatment and
distribution system is advised following a positive test which indicates their
presence. In addition, water should be boiled as a precaution. Most countries
have regulations about the microbiological characteristics of drinking water, and
they also include maximum permissible levels of chemical substances and heavy
metals.
To prevent contamination, it is important that water used for hand washing
should be drinking water quality.
Visual II.4-8
Common Sources of Drinking Water
Treated surface water that comes from rivers, creeks, canals, lakes and
reservoirs (i.e. lakes, ponds, etc).
Ground water, which comes from underneath the surface and generally is
pumped up and out for use (i.e. well water) or flows naturally to the surface (i.e.
spring water).
Municipal system which comes from a city water treatment plant
Untreated surface water is more likely than ground water to contain pathogenic
microorganisms because of the possibility of direct contamination with animal
feces or sewage run-off from adjacent land or higher locations.
Drinking water should be of higher quality than that used for agricultural
processes. It is recommended that water used for human consumption be from
municipal sources only. When this is not an option, water treatment systems are
needed.
II-43
Major water treatment processes include filtration, disinfection, and treatment to

remove organic and inorganic contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2001a). Often before
filtration, processes are used to clean up the water by removing solids and
turbidity. These processes may include chemical addition, rapid mixing,
coagulation and flocculation, and sedimentation. Filtration to remove the
remaining solids as well as microorganisms like Giardia and Cryptosporidium can
be accomplished using conventional filtration systems (e.g., rapid sand, slow
sand, diatomaceous earth, or membrane) or through cartridge filtration systems.
The three most commonly used disinfection technologies are chlorine, ozone,
and chloramines (U.S. EPA, 2001a). Other disinfectants that may be used
include chlorine dioxide and ozone. Unfortunately chlorine-based formulations
are not effective against Cryptosporidium which has been implicated in some
foodborne outbreaks from fresh produce. Additional research is needed to
determine the efficacy of ozone and other alternative treatments being developed
(WGWC, 1997). Regardless of the water treatment system used, it is necessary
to verify the quality of the water to determine if it is adequate for human
consumption.
Visual II.4-9
Precautions for handling drinking water in the fields and packing areas
Water supply systems should be in good condition and operating properly

(requires constant monitoring)
Water should be stored in clean, previously sanitized containers and tanks
Water containers should be washed and sanitized on a daily basis
Water storage containers should be closed at all times
Container should be kept away from the sun and excessive heat
Disposable cups should be provided and each person should use a different
cup
If drinking water is stored in tanks or other devices before consumption it is

important to clean the storage containers frequently. It also is recommended that
drinking water be treated before consumption. There are different systems on the
market to treat drinking water just before use. Some examples are chlorine
injection units, microbiological filters and ultra-violet light treating units.
Constant monitoring is needed to assure supply systems for drinking water in the
fields and packing areas are in good condition and operating properly. This water
should be stored in clean, previously sanitized containers and tanks that are
washed and sanitized on a daily basis and closed at all times. Water storage
containers should be kept away from the sun and excessive heat. Disposable
cups should be provided and each person should use a different cup.
II-44
Visual II.4-10
Frequent microbiological and physical evaluation should be performed on

drinking water when the water is being stored or treated on site.
Simple organoleptic evaluations (color, odor and taste) of water should be
performed as part of the daily monitoring procedures.
If any of the water quality tests indicate the quality is not adequate, the water
should be replaced to reduce the chances of infection and the proper
authorities should be notified of the problem.
Frequent microbiological and physical evaluation should be performed on

drinking water when the water is being stored or treated on site. Records of these
evaluations should be part of the sanitation program and kept as evidence of the
effectiveness of the water treatment and distribution systems. If municipal water
is used, records from the municipal water system should be obtained and kept as
record of the quality of the water being supplied.
Simple organoleptic evaluations (color, odor and taste) of water should be
performed as part of the daily monitoring procedures. If any of the water quality
tests indicate the quality is not adequate, the water should be replaced to reduce
the chances of infection and the proper authorities should be notified of the
problem.
Worker Hygiene Practices and Sanitation Facilities
The responsibility for reducing or avoiding contamination during primary
production falls heavily on agricultural workers. Employers can provide training
and other resources to educate workers, but, in the end, the effectiveness of the
program relies on the workers understanding and implementation of personal
hygiene and safety practices. Therefore, management should provide workers
with information about acceptable hygiene practices, ensure it is understood and
send a clear signal to workers about the importance of these practices.
Visual II.4-11
Personal hygiene of agricultural workers is important to minimize
contamination. Some of these basic practices include:
Regular bathing
Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in locations
without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in a condition
to encourage their use.)
Washing hands in the correct manner and after any possible contamination
Wearing clean clothes
Using hairnets
Keeping nails clean and short
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Some of basic hygiene practices that should be used by agricultural workers to

minimize produce contamination include:
Regular bathing
Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in locations
without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in a condition
to encourage their use.)
Using hairnets
Keeping nails clean and short
Visual II.4-12
Correct hand washing procedure
1. Wet hands with warm water then vigorously apply soap, rubbing hands
together for 20 seconds
2. Scrub the whole hand surface, including the back, wrists, between fingers and
under nails
3. Rinse thoroughly with warm running water
4. Dry hands with paper towels
5. Turn off water faucet using a paper towel
6. Open the exit door with a paper towel then dispose of the towel in the provided
container
Note: When nails contain accumulated dirt, scrub them with a nail brush (the nail
brush is usually used at home since it is a personal item)
Handwashing is considered a basic procedure that children learn at an early age.

However, each person has a different background and a different concept of
proper handwashing. Therefore, personnel should be well trained in these
practices no matter how basic they sound.
The proper technique for washing hands involves wetting hands with water
(warm water is more effective), soaping and vigorously scrubbing the whole
surface of the hand, under the nails and between the fingers for at least 20
seconds (Martnez-Tllez et al., 2000). After these steps, the hands are
thoroughly rinsed and dried with disposable paper towels. To avoid
recontaminating clean hands, a paper towel is used to turn off water faucets and
to open exit doors.
II-46
Visual II.4-13
Hand washing is required:
At the beginning of the work day

After going to the restroom
After smoking or eating
After breaks
After sneezing, coughing or touching the nose
After touching or scratching the skin or wounds
After touching dirty equipment and utensils
After touching trash on the floor or after handling waste material
After touching or handling fertilizers, pesticides, chemicals or cleaning
materials
Hands should be washed after using the restroom, smoking or eating, taking a
break, covering coughs or sneezes, touching skin or wounds, touching floors or
other dirty surfaces or equipment, or handling or mixing agricultural chemicals or
cleaning materials. Paper towels and toilet paper should be disposed of properly.
Toilets and hand washing stations should be inspected frequently to ensure their
cleanliness and the availability of soap and paper products. Neatness of the
installations should be part of the sanitation program and should be accurately
documented. Trashcans should be provided, and workers need to be instructed
to deposit trash and food items in the appropriate containers.
It also is important that produce inspectors, buyers and other visitors follow the
established hygiene and safety practices. Signs indicating proper hand washing
and trash disposal procedures are recommended to prevent contamination of
doorknobs and other surfaces by visitors. Supervisors and the workers
themselves should be asked to report dirty sanitary facilities or other situations
that may be a source of contamination.
II-47
Visual II.4-14
Basic requirements for sanitary field stations:
Toilets should be connected to an evacuation or sewage system adequately

constructed to avoid contamination of fields, water sources or product.
Sanitary stations should be in good, clean and sanitary. They should have
clean water, soap and paper towels.
There should be an adequate number of toilets for the number of employees
working. It is recommended that there be at least one toilet for every 20
persons of the same sex.
Toilets should be accessible for the personnel. This means close to their
working area - at a maximum distance of 400 meters (1,300 feet) or a 5 minute
walk.
Toilet facilities should be separated from the water sources (at least 400
meters (1,300 feet) away).
Water stations with potable water for drinking should be in place during the
harvest season.
Toilets located in the fields should not be close to water sources or in places
where rain can wash out contaminants or cause spills. Any inadequate sanitary
facility increases the risk of contamination of the water, soil, produce and the
working personnel. Maintenance and servicing of toilets should be performed
away from the field to protect soil, water, and workers in case leaks or spills
occur.
The more accessible the sanitary stations are, the greater the probability that
they will get used. Use of these facilities by workers should be permitted
whenever it is necessary, not just during break periods. This practice reduces the
possibility of urination or defecation in the woods near the fields.
Providing sufficient toilet paper also is very important. Toilets and hand washing
stations should be cleaned and inspected regularly and periodically checked for
adequate supplies. Provisions should be made to dispose of handwashing rinse
water away from the field to avoid produce contamination. Containers used for
water transport and storage should be periodically emptied (preferable daily),
cleaned and disinfected. Potable water bottles should be replaced regularly.
Summary
1. Assuring worker health both increases productivity and aids in preventing
potential biological contamination of crops since an infected worker can
transmit many biological pathogens to fruits and vegetables. An infected
employee (showing symptoms or not) can easily contaminate fresh produce if
II-48
they dont practice good hygiene. Workers with symptoms of disease should
be assigned to activities that do not involve contact with the produce.
2. Water for human consumption should be potable - that is, free of
microorganisms and/or chemical substances that can jeopardize the health of
the person consuming it. Ensuring the availability of potable drinking water for
field workers can minimize the risk of them developing disease and
consequently contaminating the fresh produce.
3. The three most commonly used disinfection technologies for water are
chlorine, ozone, and chloramines.
4. Personal hygiene of agricultural workers is important to minimize
contamination. Management should provide workers with information about
acceptable hygiene practices, ensure it is understood and send a clear signal
to workers about the importance of these practices. Some of these basic
practices include:
Regular bathing
Using toilets even in the fields (Portable units should be provided in
locations without a municipal sewage system. Units should be maintained in
a condition to encourage their use.)
5. Toilets located in the fields should be properly maintained and supplied. They
should not be close to water sources or in places where rain can wash out
contaminants or cause spills. Maintenance and servicing of toilets and
disposal of hand washing rinse water should be performed away from the
field in case leaks or spills occur. Any inadequate sanitary facility increases
the risk of contamination of the water, soil, produce and the working
personnel.
II-49
Module 5
Harvesting and Cooling
Learning Outcomes
Participants should be aware of food safety considerations related to produce
harvesting and to cooling practices.
Practical
Experiment: Product Integrity and Produce Contamination
Fruit Spoilage Demonstration
Part V - Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables
Safety Hazards Associated with Harvesting

Most fresh fruits and vegetables are extremely perishable. The safety and quality
of the produce when it reaches the retail market is strongly influenced by the
safety and quality of the produce at harvest. Additional factors that affect safety
and quality of fresh produce at market include handling, storage temperature,
transportation conditions and the time period between harvest and retail
marketing.
Maintaining safe, high quality produce with an adequate shelf life depends on
both the pre-harvest factors discussed in earlier modules and the control
measures taken throughout the distribution chain. This chain begins with
harvesting the produce.
Visual II.5-1
Harvesting Procedures
Mechanical
Manual
The selection of a harvesting procedure will depend on the produce

characteristics. Mechanical harvesting is recommended for produce that can
withstand physical handling (i.e., carrots, potatoes and radishes). It is generally
used to harvest produce destined for the processing industry.
For commodities destined for the fresh market, integrity and appearance are
important. Therefore, manual harvesting is widely used for these products. This
II-50
is especially true for commodities such as lettuce, berries, grapes, peppers,

apples etc. that can be damaged easily. With manual harvest, worker hygiene is
especially important since there is a great deal of hand contact with the product
that could lead to produce contamination. Proper sanitation of harvest tools is
also critical to produce safety.
Visual II.5-2
Physical damage caused by mechanical harvesting methods may lead to:
Water loss
Increased respiration rate
Initiation of ethylene synthesis
Production of undesirable colors (browning)
Penetration of microorganisms (both foodborne and plant pathogens)
Damage during mechanical harvest can lead to a number of undesirable

changes in produce. Most fresh fruits and vegetables are harvested manually,
since this can minimize damage and also allows for sorting by size and other
desirable produce characteristics during harvest. Training and supervision of field
workers is important to maximize yields and minimize damage to the produce.
Microbial contamination of fresh produce can occur easily during harvest. This
contamination may result from contact with field workers and from the physical
environment of the produce. Environmental contaminants include the soil, water,
air, hands, containers, etc. Preventing contamination of produce with pathogens
is critical, since their presence increases the risk of illness in those consuming
the produce.
In-field Packaging Operations
Visual II.5-3
Recommendations for products packed in the production field:
All workers involved in field packing operations should be encouraged to follow

good hygiene and sanitation practices
Avoid the direct contact of packages, containers or products with the soil.
All containers, baskets or empty boxes should be clean and free from visible
signs of dirt, oil/grease and chemical contaminants
Packing containers should be stored in a clean dry place away from the field
and should be transported and handled with the same sanitary considerations
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Some products like grapes and strawberries are not cooled or washed. They are
packed in the field immediately after harvest. Packing in the field generates a
situation where contamination can occur easily. All workers involved in field
packing operations should be encouraged to follow good hygiene and sanitation
practices. Containers and packing materials should be handled with care and
kept clean and free from dirt and contaminants. (Procedures described in Section
III for maintenance, cleaning and sanitation of containers and packaging
materials should also be followed by in-field packaging operations).
Post-Harvest Water Quality
Water is key to a number of postharvest operations. It is used in dump tanks to
reduce physical injury to produce as field containers are emptied onto a packing
line. It may be used for rinsing at any point on a packing line. In hydrocoolers,
cold water is used as a drench or in tanks to remove field heat from fruits and
vegetables. It is needed for mixing of solutions of waxes and/or fungicides.
Finally, hot water treatment is a quarantine measure used for insect pest control
in some commodities.
Water quality is important in reducing contamination during post-harvest cooling,
washing and sanitizing operations. The water used for post-harvest operations
should be potable and free of disease-causing organisms. Water taken and used
directly from rivers or holding ponds should not be used for postharvest washing
or cooling.
Visual II.5-4
Some U.S. EPA specifications for drinking water include:
Property
Total Coliforms
Fecal Coliforms
Cryptosporidium
Giardia lamblia
Turbidity
pH
Specification
0 CFU1/100 ml
0 CFU/100 ml
0 mg/ml
0 mg/ml
5 NTU2
6.5 to 8.5
CFU = Colony forming units

NTU = Nephelometric turbitiy unit
As indicated by the FDA (1998), processing water should be of such a quality

that it does not contaminate produce. Water quality consistent with U.S. EPA
requirements for drinking water, or similar standards is recommended since
water that meets the microbial standards for drinking water is considered safe
and sanitary. In addition to confirming pathogens are not present in the water, it
II-52
is also useful to look at levels of turbidity and pH since these are indicators of
conditions that might effect the presence of pathogens in the water. Turbidity is a
measure of water cloudiness and indicates water quality and filtration
effectiveness. Higher turbidity levels are often associated with higher levels of
pathogenic organisms (U.S. EPA, 2002). A pH less than 8 is preferable for
effective disinfection with chlorine (WHO, 1996).
Visual II.5-5
Examples of practices to reduce the risk of contamination of produce by postharvest processing water:
Perform periodic water sampling and microbial testing.

Follow appropriate guidelines for packinghouse water sanitation.
Change water as necessary to maintain sanitary conditions (this requirement needs to
be determined for each operation).
Clean and sanitize water contact surfaces, such as dump tanks, flumes, wash tanks
and hydrocoolers as often as necessary to ensure the safety of produce.
Install backflow devices and legal air gaps to prevent contamination of clean water with
potentially contaminated water.
Routinely inspect and maintain equipment designed to assist in maintaining water
quality, such as chlorine injectors, filtration systems, and backflow devices.
Pathogens present on freshly harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in

water handling systems such as dump tanks, flumes and hydrocoolers in which
the water is recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). Even healthy looking produce
coming in from the field can harbor large populations of pathogens, particularly
during warm, rainy weather. When fruits and vegetables are immersed in water
containing pathogens, they can become infected.
Many postharvest contamination problems result from the incorrect use of
sanitizers in packinghouse dump tanks and hydrocoolers (Sargent et al., 2000).
Whenever produce is dumped into water or washed with recirculated water that
is not maintained properly there is a good probability that produce contamination
will occur.
Maintaining water sanitation usually involves the addition of an approved
sanitizer to the water. Sanitizers such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium
hypochlorite or liquid chlorine are frequently used to prevent the accumulation of
pathogens. Many packers routinely add chlorine to their water handling systems.
A 50-200 ppm chlorine concentration can destroy most viable microorganisms.
However higher concentrations are needed to kill spores. The effectiveness of
this treatment in reducing produce contamination can be decreased or even
nonexistent due to failure to follow appropriate guidelines for packinghouse water
II-53
sanitation. Considerations in the use of sanitizers are discussed in Section III of

this manual.
If chlorine is used to sanitize processing water, it is important to monitor the free
(unreacted) chlorine concentration at all times during use. Chlorine product must
be added to the water to replace the chlorine lost to reactions with organic
matter, chemicals, microorganisms (known as the chlorine demand). Samples
should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine concentration. All
recirculated water should be changed on a daily basis, or more frequently if the
water becomes extremely dirty due to build up of organic matter that reduces the
effectiveness of the chlorine treatment. Local environmental codes must be
consulted for proper disposal of chlorinated water.
Other factors which affect chlorine efficacy include the initial level of inoculum
present on the fruit surface and the exposure time of the crop to the water. In the
case of tomato dump tanks, the water should be heated 10F (about 5C) above
the pulp temperature to reduce infiltration of the water (and pathogens) into the
fruit. The tomatoes should not be in the tank for more than three minutes.
Cooling Considerations
Visual II.5-6
Eliminating Field Heat:
Immediately after harvest fresh produce temperature is high. To extend the

shelf life and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, products are generally
cooled within 24 hrs after harvesting.
Heat elimination is commonly applied to highly perishable commodities such as
fruits.
There are many different types of cooling systems available.
Highly perishable commodities are cooled to extend their shelf life. The cooling
operation is generally for quality, however temperature control also can be used
to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the fresh produce. Products are
generally cooled within 24 hrs after harvesting. Recommendations for cooling
methods and optimum storage conditions for a variety of fruits and vegetables
are presented in Part V in the Additional Resources section.
When possible, harvesting at night or in the early morning can minimize
exposure to high daytime temperatures. The harvested crop should be collected
and held in the shade with adequate ventilation. If shading is achieved by placing
produce under a tree, care must be taken to prevent produce contamination by
bird droppings. Under no circumstances should freshly harvested produce be left
in direct sunlight or stored in containers where solar heat buildup is likely.
II-54
Visual II.5-7
Benefits of a Produce Cooling Operation:
Reduction of field heat

Reduction of respiration and ethylene production rates
Minimization of spoilage
Reduction of water losses
Limitation of the growth of microorganisms
When produce are cooled promptly after harvest, the shelf-life is extended,
appearance is more attractive and products are of higher quality. The amount of
heat that needs to be eliminated during the cooling step depends on the weight,
specific heat, and initial and final temperature of the produce.
Commercial Cooling Methods
There are two main heat transfer mechanisms for produce cooling - conduction
and convection. These are the mechanisms used to remove excessive heat from
produce at the field. With conduction, the heat is transferred within a product to
its coldest surface. With convection, the heat is transferred away from the
surface of the product via a cooling medium such as moving water or air.
Visual II.5-8
Common Cooling Media for Fresh Produce
Media for reducing heat from produce include:
Air (Room cooling and Forced air cooling)
Water (Hydro-cooling and Package icing)
Regardless of the cooling method used, care must be taken to assure the cooling
medium does not contaminate the produce.
II-55
Visual II.5-9
Hazards Associated with Air Cooling Methods
Of the common commercial produce cooling methods, the ones using air and
vacuum present the lowest risk for contamination. However, the air introduced
in the cooling systems can represent a potential microbial hazard.
Microorganisms found in dust and tiny water droplets can be introduced onto
product using these cooling systems. Such microorganisms can come from
outside dust, soil, equipment, and waste products.
These microorganisms cannot develop in the air, but air can serve as the
vehicle through which they can reach the product.
When using an air-based cooling system, it is important to maintain sanitary

conditions in the facility. Special attention should be given to the air source area.
The air system should be properly maintained and the filters changed regularly.
Animals should be excluded from the surrounding areas, compost storage
deposits should be located far from air sources, and any other pathogen sources
that could potentially contaminate the air used in cooling systems should be
eliminated.
Visual II.5-10
Hazards Associated with Water and Ice Cooling Methods
Cooling methods using water and ice as the cooling mediums have the
greatest potential for contamination of fruits and vegetables.
Water and ice used for cooling operations are potential contamination sources.
Water used in hydro-cooling systems and for ice making should be potable
i.e. free of pathogenic bacteria, protozoa and viruses.
Ice should be made and held under sanitary conditions.
Cooling methods using water and ice as the cooling mediums have the greatest
potential for contamination of fruits and vegetables. Cooling water can become a
contamination problem, therefore the water should be replaced regularly (at least
once a day, depending on the amount used and produce conditions). It is
essential that ice used in cooling be produced from chlorinated, potable water and
stored in a sanitary manner, so that it doesnt contaminate the produce during the
cooling process.
II-56
Visual II.5-11
To reduce the possibility that water-based cooling systems will become a
contamination source, it is important to:
Use good quality water
Provide adequate equipment maintenance
Consider using disinfectants in the cooling water
Regularly monitor the concentration of disinfectants
Maintain the sanitary condition of cooling water and ice
Water and ice used for cooling systems should be free of bacterial
contamination. It is important to perform microbiological tests on water used in
cooling and ice cooling systems. The most commonly used tests are for total
coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli since these tests are good indicators of
water contamination.
The addition of chlorine derivatives to cooling water is a common practice and
the use of chlorinated water to make the ice is recommended. Because chlorine
loses effectiveness when it reacts with organic compounds, its concentration
should be monitored frequently. A 50-200 ppm chlorine concentration can
destroy most viable microorganisms. However higher concentrations are needed
to kill spores. It is important to place a water settling and filtration device in the
cooling water treatment system to remove organic material.
Cooling equipment should be cleaned and inspected frequently. Maintenance of
equipment and use of appropriate sanitary procedures is critical to assuring the
safety of the produce.
Visual II.5-12
Important Considerations Regarding Water Temperature
and Microbial Infiltration

water handling systems such as dump tanks and flumes in which the water is
recirculated.
For some commodities (e.g. apples, celery, mangoes and tomatoes), it has been
observed that when the warm fruit or vegetable is placed in cold water a pressure
differential is generated that results in infiltration of the water into the product.
This is an important issue because contaminants in the water can get drawn into
the interior of the commodity where they are protected from further disinfecting
treatments.

water handling systems such as dump tanks and flumes in which the water is
II-57
recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). For some commodities (e.g. apples, celery,
mangoes and tomatoes), it has been observed that when the warm fruit or
vegetable is placed in cold water a pressure differential is generated. This creates a
suction effect that results in infiltration of the water into the fruit.
More research is needed to identify the commodities that can experience cooling
water infiltration and to document the practical importance of this issue. Although
definitive solutions to this problem have not been established, the use of good
quality water for cooling is critical to assuring produce safety. Procedures should be
in place to monitor and maintain water quality whenever water is used in produce
production.
One recommendation to reduce potential produce contamination associated with
water infiltration has been to adjust cooling/wash water temperature to 5C (9 oF)
above the temperature of the flesh of the fruit (Showalter, 1993). This could be an
important precaution for washing systems, however, for cooling systems it
interferes with the removal of field heat. Therefore, for commodities that can have
this problem, the recommendation is to cool with air or other cooling methods or to
combine hydro-cooling with an initial air cooling step to minimize the temperature
differential between produce flesh and water temperature. The use of disinfectants,
such as chlorine, in the cooling water also could help to reduce the risks associated
with pathogen internalization.
A variety of methods are used commercially to cool produce. It is important to
know the principle of each cooling method so potential hazards associated with
them can be identified.
Visual II.5-13
Common Cooling Methods for Fresh Produce
Methods for reducing heat from produce include:
Room cooling
Forced air cooling
Hydro-cooling
Package icing
Vacuum cooling
Room Cooling
In room cooling heat is transferred slowly from the mass of a product (by
convection) to the cold air being circulated around stacked containers of the
produce. Room cooling is used for a wide range of commodities, but is a slow
method of cooling. The slow cooling rate is a major drawback to room cooling since
products are often loaded for shipment before they are adequately cooled.
II-58
The cooling rate may be speeded up slightly by increasing air circulation with larger
or additional fans. However, this will add more heat (energy) to the room.
Ceiling jet cooling is a slightly faster modification of room cooling. The ceiling jets
direct cold air down over the stacked produce.
Forced Air Cooling
In this method, the cooling air is pulled or pushed through produce containers,
providing greater air circulation around the produce and resulting in faster cooling.
This method is commonly used on such crops such as grapes, berries, and other
fruits.
A faster rate of forced air cooling can be obtained by increasing the circulation rate
of the cold air per unit weight of produce. This may be accomplished by a larger fan
capacity or by increasing the amount of container venting through which the cooling
air passes.
Vents should be designed and constructed so that the stacking strength of the
containers is maintained. Reducing the number of stacks of containers through
which the cooling air passes reduces the cooling time. However, this requires more
space and may reduce the amount of produce cooled per unit of time (Holdsworth,
1985).
Hydro-Cooling
Hydro-cooling is a rapid cooling method that uses water showering down over the
produce as the cooling medium. The method is based on the principle that a pound
of water can absorb more heat than a pound of air. Hydro-cooling can only be used
for commodities and shipping containers that tolerate wetting.
Hydro-coolers generally use mechanical refrigeration, high water circulation rates
and a minimal water reservoir to provide fast, uniform cooling. Systems should be
designed to allow daily cleaning and sanitation. Sanitation of the hydro-cooling
water is critical, since it is recirculated (Sargent et al., 2000). Organisms present
on the produce can accumulate in the water, inoculating subsequent produce
being hydro-cooled. Chlorine concentrations of 200 ppm (free chlorine) are
generally used in hydro-coolers, however chlorine has a tendency to break down so
concentration should be monitored frequently. Cooling water should be changed
frequently.
Hydro-cooling is used for commodities that may be cooled in bulk or in packed
containers. There are two basic types of hydro-coolers:
1. Flow through - the produce moves on a conveyor belt through the shower.
2. Batch type - stationary, stacked containers of produce are showered with ice
water.
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With a hydro-cooler, the cooling rate can be increased by

Reducing the water temperature (addition of crushed or flaked ice to the water
reservoir)
Increasing the water circulation rate
Increasing the exposure of the produce to the water.
Package Icing
This is one of the oldest methods of produce cooling and is used on commodities
that can tolerate contact with ice, e.g. root and stem vegetables, broccoli, and
brussels sprouts. The direct contact of the produce with the ice provides fast, initial
conduction cooling. However, as the ice melts, an air space is created between the
ice and the produce, and conduction cooling stops. Subsequent cooling is by
radiation and convection, both slower processes than conduction.
Conventional icing involves packing finely crushed or flaked ice over the packaged
produce. An alternative process uses liquid ice as the cooling medium. This is
composed of 60% ice and 40% water. Liquid ice gives a much greater initial contact
between the produce and the ice and it can be applied after the boxes have been
palletized. It may be used to distribute ice around the produce in the shipping
containers. The amount of ice added should be adjusted to initial produce
temperature, produce weight, and the expected ambient temperatures during
transit.
Vacuum Cooling
In this method the produce is placed in a strong, airtight steel chamber. Air is
pumped out of the chamber to reduce the atmospheric pressure, causing the water
in the produce to vaporize. Cooling occurs because the heat energy for
vaporization comes from the produce. The cooling rate is related to the surface
area to volume ratio of the produce. Thus, loose leafy vegetables cool faster than
tight-headed cauliflower or celery. This method is used primarily for cooling leafy
vegetables, celery, cauliflower, and to a limited extent, sweet corn, carrots, and
sweet peppers.
A disadvantage of vacuum cooling is that during cooling 1% of the produce weight
(primarily water) is lost for each 5-6oC drop in produce temperature (Holdsworth,
1985). Hydro-vacuum cooling, a patented modification of vacuum cooling, prevents
this weight loss by providing a water shower at specific times during the cooling
cycle. As with hydro-cooling, monitoring and maintaining water quality is important
when using this process.
Although vacuum chambers may be large enough to hold entire boxcar loads of
produce, most vacuum coolers are portable. They can be moved to different
shipping points as the growing season progresses.
II-60
Summary
1. Most fresh fruits and vegetables are harvested manually, since this minimizes
damage and allows for sorting by size and other desirable produce
characteristics during harvest. Damage during mechanical harvest can lead to
undesirable changes in produce including:
Water loss
Increased respiration rate
Initiation of ethylene synthesis
Production of undesirable colors (browning)
Penetration of microorganisms (both foodborne and plant pathogens)
2. Microbial contamination of fresh produce can occur easily during harvest.
This contamination may result from contact with field workers and from the
physical environment of the produce. Environmental contaminants include the
soil, water, air, hands, containers, etc. Preventing contamination is critical,
since their presence increases the risk of illness in those consuming the
produce.
3. Packing in the field generates a situation where contamination can occur
easily if containers and materials are not handled with care. Good sanitation
procedures should be followed in handling containers and packing materials
to prevent produce contamination.
4. Water quality is important in reducing contamination during post-harvest
cooling, washing and sanitizing operations. Pathogens present on freshly
harvested fruits and vegetables accumulate in water handling systems such
as dump tanks, flumes and hydrocoolers in which the water is recirculated.
Water used for post-harvest operations should be potable and free of
disease-causing organisms. Post-harvest water can become contaminated
easily and it quickly becomes saturated with organic matter (e.g. soil, solids
leaching from the fruit, etc), therefore, procedures to assure good wash water
quality are critical. These include frequent filtering, changing wash water often
and the use of disinfectants.
5. If chlorine is used as to sanitize processing water, it is important to maintain
the free (unreacted) chlorine concentration at all times during use. Samples
should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine concentration.
All recirculated water should be changed on a daily basis, or more frequently
if the water becomes extremely dirty due to build up of organic matter which
can reduce the effectiveness of the chlorine treatment.
6. Highly perishable commodities are cooled to extend their shelf life. The
cooling operation is generally for quality, however temperature control also
can be used to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the fresh produce.
II-61
7. When using an air-based cooling system, the air system should be properly
maintained so that the air is clean and free of pathogens. Animals should be
excluded from the surrounding areas, compost storage deposits should be
located far from air sources, and any other pathogen sources that could
potentially contaminate the air used in cooling systems should be eliminated.
8. Water used for cooling systems and to make cooling ice should be free of
pathogenic contamination. Use of chlorinated water is recommended and
samples should be taken at least on an hourly basis to monitor chlorine
concentration.
9. Cooling equipment should be cleaned and inspected frequently. Maintenance
of equipment and use of appropriate sanitary procedures is critical to assuring
the safety of the produce.
II-62
References
Ballesteros-Sandoval, V. 1999. Technical guide for the manufacture of compost.
Comite Estatal de Sanidad Vegetal de Guanajuato (CESAVEG), Irapuato,
Gto. Mexico.
Bern, C., Hernndez, B., Lopez, M.B., Arrowood, M.J., Alvarez, M., De Merida,
A.M., Hightower, A.W., Venczel, L., Herwaldt, B.L. and Klein, R.E. 1999.
Epidemiologic Studies of Cyclospora cayetanensis in Guatemala.
Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol 5. No 6.
Buttler, T., Martinkovic, W. and Nesheim, O.N. 1993. Factors influencing
pesticide movement to ground water. University of Florida. Florida
Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet PI-2. June 1993.
CSC. 1998. Quality Assurance Program. California Strawberry Commission.
Engel, N, Embleton, K.M. and Engel, B.A. 1997. Well water location and
condition on the farm. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Purdue
University. Available via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/seahome/
well/src/title.htm
ERS. 2001. Irrigation systems and land treatment practices. Economic Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Use Briefing
Room. Available via the Internet at http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing
/wateruse/Questions/glossary.htm
Holdsworth, S.D. 1985. The preservation of fruit and vegetable food products. 1st.
Ed. The Macmillian Press Ltd., London.
Martnez-Tllez, M.A., Vargas-Arispuro, I., Acedo-Flix, A. 2000. Centro de
Investigacin en Alimentacin y Desarrollo, A.C. (CIAD), Manual para el
manejo de alimentos frescos no procesados.
Merka, B, Lacy, M., Savage, S. Vest, L. and Hammond, C. 1994. Composting
poultry mortalities. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia.
Circular 819-15. Available via the Internet at
http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/c819-15w.html
Murray, P., Drew, W., Kobayashi, G. and Thompson, J. 1995. Medical
Microbiology. Mosby-Doyma Libros, S.A. Madrid, Spain. pp. 423.
II-63
Nesheim, O.N. 1993. Best management pesticides to protect ground water from
agricultural pesticides. University of Florida, Florida Cooperative Extension
Service. Fact Sheet PI-1, June, 1991.
Olexa, M.T. 1991. Agricultural chemicals and water pollution. University of
Florida, Cooperative Extension Service. Fact Sheet FRE-77.
Sargent, S.A., Ritenour, M.A. and Brecht, J.K. 2000. Handling, cooling, and
sanitation techniques for maintaining postharvest quality. University of
Florida, Cooperative Extension Service, HS719. Available via the Internet
at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CV115.
Showalter, R.K. 1993. Postharvest water intake and decay of tomatoes. Hort.
Technol. 3:97-98.
Solomon, K.H. 1988. Irrigation system selection. In Irrigation Notes, California
State University, Fresno. January. Available via the Internet at
http://cati.csufresno.edu/cit/rese/88/880105/index.html
U.S. EPA. 2000. Total Coliform Rule Approved Methods for Coliform Assay.
Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the
Internet at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/methods/tcr_tbl.html
U.S. EPA. 2001a. Ensuring Safe Drinking Water. Technical Information Packet.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the Internet at
http://www.epa.gov/oia/tips/drinkwat.htm
U.S. EPA. 2001b. National Primary Drinking Water Standards. Office of Water,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Pub. EPA 816-F-01-007. Available
via the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html
U.S. EPA. 2001c. Pesticide Use and Disposal. Technical Information Packet.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available via the Internet at
http://www.epa.gov/oia/tips/pestint.htm
WGWC. 1997. Cryptosporidium and Water: A Public Health Handbook. Atlanta,
GA. p4-1. Working Group on Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis.
II-64
SECTION III
GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR

HANDLING, PACKING, STORAGE AND
TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH PRODUCE *
Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and redistributed, in whole
or in part, without alteration and without prior written permission, for nonprofit administrative or
educational purposes provided all copies contain the following statement: 2002 University of
Maryland. This work is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the University of
Maryland. No other use is permitted without the express prior written permission of the University
of Maryland. For permission, contact JIFSAN, University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park,
MD 20742

III-1
SECTION III
GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR HANDLING,
PACKING, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF FRESH
PRODUCE
Introduction*
The aim of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) is to reduce the risk of
contamination of fresh produce during handling, packing, storage and
transportation. In this Section, Modules 1 and 2 provide information on measures
to prevent and reduce contamination on produce surfaces by proper cleaning
and use of sanitizers and by implementing other GMPs during packing, storage
and transportation of the produce. Module 3 discusses measures to clean and
sanitize equipment that comes in contact with fresh produce.
Module 1
Produce Cleaning and Treatment
Learning Outcomes
Participants should be aware of recommended cleaning procedures for fresh
produce.
Participants should understand safety considerations for water used in
produce cleaning operations.
Participants should be familiar with the use of sanitizing agents and new
technologies for reducing levels of microbial contamination on fresh produce.
Practical
Experiment/Demonstration: Water as a Contamination Agent
Experiment/Demonstration: Chlorine and Water Quality Management
This Module addresses cleaning and treating produce with sanitizing agents to
reduce contamination. It is important to note, however, that once produce is
contaminated with human pathogens there are currently no available agents or

III-2
processes, other than thorough cooking, that can ensure complete elimination of
pathogens. This is why preventing contamination in the first place is so important.
Microbes are everywhere in the growth environment of produce. Even though
produce operations may have in place and conscientiously employ good
agricultural practices, it is inevitable that fresh fruits and vegetables will have
microorganisms on their surface.
As discussed previously, surface microorganisms of fresh produce vary widely
and are highly dependent on the type of commodity and the agricultural practices
used. Natural microflora on fresh produce include species of Pseudomonas,
Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, and lactic acid bacteria. These
natural microflora are mostly harmless. However, soil, water, sewage, air and
animals in the field can contaminate the external surfaces of produce with
pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms from these sources compete with the
natural flora.
In many instances the outgrowth of microbiological contaminants does not take
place until conditions are appropriate. During and after harvesting many
conditions come together that can favor the growth of microorganisms. Some of
these include handling, cross contamination, temperature abuse, and increases
in product respiration rates leading to heat production.
The reduction of pathogens on produce is important to reduce foodborne illness,
to decrease spoilage, and to improve appearance and nutritive value. Washing
and sanitizing fruits and vegetables is a common practice to reduce surface
contamination. However, the application of such treatments is dependent on the
ability of the commodity to tolerate water. The shelf life of some delicate produce
is reduced after they get wet. This is especially true for commodities with large
water-adhering surface areas, like strawberries, other berries and grapes.
Another cleaning media, air, may be preferred for removal of dust and other
debris from these delicate products.
Visual III.1-1
A four-step procedure is recommended for cleaning fruits and vegetables
1.
2.
3.
4.
Remove surface soil by dry cleaning (brushing or vacuuming).

Initial water wash to remove surface dirt
Washing with a sanitizing agent (chemical agent generally)
Final rinsing
Before the washing step, and with commodities that cannot tolerate wetting, it is
essential to remove surface soil by dry cleaning, brushing air blowers or vacuum
(if the item will physically tolerate it). Subsequent washing steps then reduce
III-3
remaining surface dirt. A thorough spray wash with chlorinated water or multiple
washes are generally more effective than one soaking wash.
Water used for produce washing must be potable and free of pathogenic
organisms. Clean wash water is critical since organic matter in the water can
react with many sanitizing agents and decrease their decontamination efficiency.
The initial wash to remove surface dirt can be with hot water alone or with water
containing food grade detergents or permanganate salts (Beuchat, 1998).
The characteristics of the commodity will determine the selection of wash
equipment. Soft fruits are generally washed on conveyor belts using water
sprayers. More solid fruits like citrus, apples, and pears may be washed in
rotating devices or by fluming. Root crops are typically cleaned with brush
washers which contain cylindrical rotating brushes. Brushes must be cleaned and
disinfected often because they can become a vehicle for spreading
contaminants. Air cleaning may be effective for removing debris, loose soil or
other foreign material from very delicate commodities.
Visual III.1-2
Sanitize means to treat clean produce by a process that is effective in destroying
or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health concern,
as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the
quality of the product or its safety for the consumer.
A sanitizing step, generally with the application of chemical agents, follows

washing. To sanitize, means to treat clean produce by a process that is effective
in destroying or substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public
health concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely
affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer (FDA, 1998). It is
important to remove dirt prior to sanitation, since dirt can hinder contact between
the sanitizing agent and the microorganisms. A chlorine solution is the most
common sanitizer, but there are many new sanitizing agents on the market.
These will be discussed in more detail later in this Section.
Visual III.1-3
Sanitizing agents currently available can reduce microbial contaminants but

cannot eliminate them completely.
New technologies that can further reduce and eliminate foodborne pathogens
on fresh fruits and vegetables are under active investigation.
III-4
It is important to note that sanitizing agents currently available can only reduce
microbial contaminants and cannot ensure they are completely eliminated.
New technologies are currently being researched to further reduce and eliminate
pathogens from fresh produce but these are not yet available.
For QUALITY purposes a common industry practice is to wash and sanitize
produce in cold water. Low temperatures slow the respiration rate of fresh
commodities and retard the changes in texture and other quality factors.
From a SAFETY point of view, the use of cold water can be an important issue.
As was discussed in the cooling module (Section II, Module 5), placing some
warm produce in cool water results in a pressure differential. This creates a
suction effect that can cause surface contaminants or contaminants in the water to
be drawn into the flesh of the commodity where they are protected from
subsequent disinfecting treatments (Bartz and Showalter, 1981).
Maintaining the water temperature 5C above the internal temperature of the
produce will help prevent this suction effect (Zhuang et al., 1995). A further
precaution would be to use an initial air-cooling step prior to washing or sanitizing
to minimize the temperature differential between the fruit flesh and the water
temperature. Produce that is more dense (i.e. carrots) is less likely to have this
problem.
For those commodities that cannot be exposed to water, prevention of
contamination is critical and GAPs and GMPs become the only way of controlling
microorganisms on the surface of the fresh produce. This is the case for some
berries and other commodities that cannot get wet.
Sanitizing Agents
Sanitizing agents should be used on clean produce. Soil must be removed from
the produce prior to the application of a sanitizing agent. Dirt and debris can
protect the microorganisms from contact with the sanitizer, or react with chlorine
and other sanitizers reducing their antimicrobial activity. Water is the cleaning
medium most frequently used for soil removal. This water must be clean since
impurities in water can drastically alter the effectiveness of a detergent or a
santizer. Water used for sanitizing should be potable and pathogen-free.
Sanitizers are chemical substances that can destroy or substantially reduce the
numbers of microorganisms in wash and cooling water thereby reducing cross
contamination. They may also reduce but not eliminate pathogens on the surface
of produce. Sanitizers and chemical substances are not effective if the pathogens
have become internalized.
III-5
The scope of action depends on the sanitizing compound. Their effectiveness

varies with concentration since lower concentrations are needed for destroying
vegetative cells than are required for spores. The effectiveness of each individual
sanitizer is influenced by many factors including water temperature, pH, contact
time, organic matter content and the surface morphology of the fruit or vegetable.
Produce sanitizers can reduce the number of surface organisms but do not
achieve commercial sterility. Manufacturers instructions should always be strictly
followed when using sanitizers. When in doubt about proper sanitizer use or for
new applications of a product, contact the manufacturer.
Visual III.1-4
Sanitation vs. Sterilization
The application of chemical sanitizers can reduce the number of vegetative

cells of bacterial pathogens but may not be effective for the destruction of the
more resistant spores.
Commercial sterility refers to the complete elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms, including the spores of foodborne pathogens (i.e. Clostridium
botulinum). This can be achieved through heat treatments such as canning but
not through the application of common disinfectants.
The use of sanitizing agents should not be a substitute for the Good Agricultural
Practices discussed Section II. Sanitizers should be used as an additional
measure to minimize the risk of microbial hazards on fresh produce.
Visual III.1-5
Sanitizing agents used to treat fruits and vegetables include:
Halogens
Ionic compounds
Active oxygen
New Technologies
Hurdle Technology
A number of different agents/treatments have been used to sanitize fresh fruits
and vegetables. These include halogens and halogen compounds, ionic
compounds, active oxygen, new technologies and hurdle technology.
III-6
Halogens and Halogen Compounds

Visual III.1-6
Examples of halogens and halogen compounds:
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Bromine
Iodine
Chlorine
Chlorine is the most widely used sanitizer in the food industry. It is used for the
treatment of drinking, processing and wash water, equipment and other surfaces.
Recently, concerns have been raised about its use due to the formation of
chlorinated by-products (Richardson et al., 1998).
The ability of chlorine to destroy microorganisms depends on the amount of free
residual chlorine, i.e. the chlorine remaining after it reacts with organic matter, in
the water (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).
Visual III.1-7
Total chlorine = Chlorine demand + Free residual chlorine
Chlorine reacts with impurities in the water, such as minerals and organic solids
from the commodities being washed. The amount of chlorine that reacts is
generally called the chlorine demand of the water. Once the chlorine demand
has been satisfied there is a break point where further additions of chlorine will
exist as free residual chlorine. A commonly used analogy to explain this reaction
is to suppose the chlorine solution is added to a sponge. The maximum holding
capacity of the sponge would be equivalent to the chlorine demand of the wash
water. After this point, further addition of chlorine would run through the sponge.
This would be equivalent to the free residual chlorine. The sum of the two would
be the total chlorine added. Disinfectant properties are provided by free chlorine
only (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).
Visual III.1-8
Using chlorine to treat fresh fruits and vegetables:
Chlorine is commonly used at concentrations of 50-200 ppm with a contact time of
1-2 minutes to sanitize produce surfaces.
III-7
To treat produce surfaces, chlorine is commonly used at concentrations of 50200 ppm with a contact time of 1-2 minutes (CFSAN/FDA, 2001).
Visual III.1-9
Considerations for the use of chlorine solutions as sanitizing agents for fresh
produce:
Metal containers and processing equipment can suffer corrosion if the pH of
the chlorine solution is too low.
A pH of 6.0 -7.5 at 20C (68F) is a good compromise since there is enough
HOCl available to sanitize the product but equipment corrosion can be
minimized.
Chlorine evaporates when the wash temperature is raised
Chlorine loses its effectiveness when the wash water contains large amounts
of organic matter or when the solution is exposed to air, light or metals. The
amount of free chlorine can be monitored with automated units or with
commercial kits that can be purchased at any swimming pool supply store.
Because chlorine can cause skin irritation after extended exposure, the use of
protective equipment is recommended.
Chlorine solutions contain molecules of HOCl (hypochlorous acid) and its ions H+
and OCl in equilibrium. Of these, the non-dissociated form of the acid HOCl is
the form that exerts the lethal effect upon microorganisms. The equilibrium
among these chemical forms is affected by pH. Chlorine sanitizers themselves
change the pH. As the pH of the solution is lowered, equilibrium favors the lethal
form of the acid (HOCl). Therefore, pH is an important factor in the sanitizing
effect of chlorine solutions. However, low pH favors metal-corroding reactions,
therefore, using these pH levels is harder on equipment.
Temperature control should be part of the Sanitation Standard Operating
Procedures for the proper preparation and use of this sanitizer. Water pH should
also be monitored - the optimum range is 6.0 to 7.5. When pH values are outside
this optimum range they can be adjusted by the addition of organic or inorganic
acids to lower pH. Typically chlorine gas is injected into a stream of water that
passes through a bed of crushed oyster shells or other alkaline material which
brings the pH up to near neutral. The water then passes into the mail reservoir
after this pH adjustment has occurred. Other alkaline materials such as sodium
bicarbonate or diluted lye (hydroxide) may also be used to raise pH.
III-8
Table III-1 Chlorine as a Sanitizing Agent

Advantages
Relatively inexpensive
Rapid action
Wide action against many
microorganisms
Colorless
Easy preparation and use
Easy to determine concentration
Disadvantages
Unstable during storage
Affected by organic matter content
(loss of germicidal effect)
Viruses tend to be resistant
Corrosive
Efficacy is lowered when the pH of
the solution increases
Toxic at high levels
Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)

Chlorine dioxide has received a lot of attention in the last few years because its
effectiveness is less affected by pH and organic matter content than that of
chlorine. Another advantage is its high oxidative action, which has been
observed to be 2.5 times greater than chlorine (Benarde et al., 1967). However
there are some disadvantages also. These include its poor stability, virus
resistance, and its tendency to explode at high concentrations. Chlorine dioxide
decomposes at temperatures above 30C (86F) and when it is exposed to light
(Beuchat, 1998).
Despite these disadvantages, use of chlorine dioxide has been increasing
because of new technologies that permit shipment to areas of use instead of onsite generation. Concentrations should not exceed 5 ppm for treating unpeeled
fruits and vegetables. Chlorine dioxide is approved as a wash treatment for uncut
produce, and is being reviewed for approval as a wash treatment for pre-cut
produce.
Bromide
Bromide has had limited use in treating wash water. It may be used alone or in
combination with chlorine, where a synergistic effect has been observed. Little
information is available regarding the effectiveness of bromine alone or combined
with chlorine as a fruit and vegetable sanitizing agent.
Iodine
Iodine solutions are less affected by the organic matter content of wash water
than chlorine, however they may stain equipment used to handle fruits and
vegetables and react with starch to form a blue-purple color. For this reason their
application in fruits and vegetables is limited to non-starchy commodities.
III-9
Ionic Compounds
Visual III.1-10
Examples of ionic compounds:
Trisodium phosphate (TSP)
Quaternary ammonium compounds (Quats)
Organic acids
Trisodium Phosphate (TSP)
A wash solution of 15% TSP for a contact time of 15 seconds as been shown to
be effective for the elimination of Salmonella in tomatoes (Zhuang and Beuchat,
1996) However, there is little information in the literature documenting TSPs
effectiveness as a sanitizing agent under commercial conditions. Pathogens
appear to vary in their resistance to TSP, with Listeria monocytogenes being
resistant and E.coli O157:H7 being sensitive. More research is needed to learn
about TSPs spectrum of action and effect on the quality characteristics of the
produce being treated.
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (Quats)
These compounds are generally used for the sanitation of walls, floors, drainage,
equipment and other food-contact surfaces in fruit and vegetable processing
plants. Although they are not approved for direct food contact, quats may have
some limited usefulness in treating fresh fruits and vegetables that must be
peeled before consumption (CFSAN/FDA, 2001). These compounds have
several advantages, which make them interesting as sanitizing agents. They are
not corrosive to metals and are stable at high temperatures. They are effective
against yeast and molds and against L. monocytogenes but are less effective
against coliforms, Salmonella, E.coli, Pseudomonas, and viruses.
Quats are relatively stable in the presence of organic matter. Since their
effectiveness is greatest in a pH range of 6-10, their application is limited in
highly acidic environments (Beuchat, 1998). A rinsing step is recommended after
their application.
Organic Acids
Organic acids are produced from the natural metabolism of fruits and vegetables.
Acetic, citric, succinic, malic, tartaric, benzoic and sorbic acids are the major
organic acids that occur naturally in fresh produce. Their decontamination activity
has been attributed to a reduction in bacterial cell membrane permeability.
III-10
Fruit and vegetable organic acids provide some natural protection against the
growth of bacterial pathogens, since these organisms cannot grow at a pH below
4. However several pathogens can adapt to survive at lower pH and cause
illness. Pathogens are able to grow in many vegetables and in fruits like melons,
papaya, and mango that are not very acidic. The effectiveness of organic acids
as sanitizing agents varies widely with the type of acid and the microorganism
being inhibited. Their application may have negative effects on sensory
properties such as flavor and aroma of the commodities being treated.
Although organic acids have had limited use with produce, washes and sprays
containing organic acids have been used successfully to disinfect meat. Because
the addition of organic acids directly or in washes can lead to reductions in
pathogenic microorganisms, applying vinegar or lemon juice holds promise as an
inexpensive treatment for decontamination of fresh fruits and vegetables (Castillo
and Escartin, 1994; Zhang and Faber, 1996).
Active Oxygen Compounds
Visual III.1-11
Examples of active oxygen compounds:
Hydrogen peroxide
Peracetic acid
Ozone
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Hydrogen peroxide has shown promise as a sanitizer for fresh and cut produce
(Sapers and Simmons, 1998). It has also shown positive results for the sanitation
of cantaloupes, grapes, and some nuts. pH, temperature, and other
environmental factors influence the sanitizing effects of hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxides application as a sanitizing agent is limited for some fruits
and vegetables due to the bleaching of anthocyanin pigments in commodities
such as strawberries and raspberries and to the oxidation of mushroom phenolic
compounds causing a loss of color.
Peracetic Acid
This acid is formed by the reaction of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide with
catalysts. It has been reported to be effective in reducing microbial counts in
produce wash water and on fruit surfaces (Hei, 1998). Sanitizers using peracetic
acid at 40-80 ppm significantly reduced Salmonella and E. coli 0157:H7
populations on cantaloupe and honey dew melon (Park and Beuchat, 1999),
III-11
Peracetic acid is approved in the U.S. for use either in wash water or for direct
application to whole or cut fruits and vegetables.
Ozone
Ozone destroys microorganisms much faster than chlorine due to its high
oxidation potential. This allows it to be used at much lower concentrations (less
than 1 ppm). It is highly effective for treating processing water, but has variable
results when used as a sanitizing wash for fresh produce. The lethal effect of
ozone on microorganisms is through its oxidative action. Salmonella
typhimurium, Y. enterocolitica, S. aureus, and L. monocytogenes are sensitive to
treatment in ozonated water at a concentration of 20 ppm (Restaino, et al.,
1995). Many viruses and the cysts of protozoa such as Cryptosporidium parvum
are also sensitive to ozone (Korich, et al., 1990). In addition, ozone has been
shown to be effective for the prevention of decay in broccoli, carrots and pears.
It may be necessary to adjust the ozone dosage to prevent damage to the
treated commodity. For example, maintaining a concentration of 25-30 ppm
gaseous ozone has resulted in some undesirable physiological effects such as
the appearance of black spots on bananas.
From a safety perspective there are many advantages to the use of ozonated
water. There are some quality benefits as well, including prolonging the shelf life
of oranges, strawberries, raspberries, grapes, apples and pears (Beuchat, 1998).
The high oxidizing power of ozone, which makes it very effective against
microorganisms, can also cause some problems with its use. These include the
corrosion of metal processing surfaces and ozones reactivity with organic
matter. Handling is also a major concern because of potential toxic effects.
New Technologies
Visual III.1-12
New technologies to treat fresh fruits and vegetables include:
Irradiation
Pulsed light
Edible coatings
Many new technologies for treating fresh fruits and vegetables are currently
under investigation and some are already available but are not yet used
commercially.
III-12
Irradiation
A treatment with ionizing radiation at doses up to I kGy can be applied to fresh
fruits and vegetables. Irradiation is generally applied to inhibit post-harvest
pathogens and to protect produce quality. Irradiation may be effective for
eliminating pathogenic microorganisms from the surfaces of produce. An
irradiation dose of 1 kGy has been reported to be effective for the destruction of
Listeria monocytogenes on cut bell peppers. Unfortunately doses much greater
than 1 kGy are necessary for destroying spores, viruses, yeasts and molds
(Farkas et al., 1997) and these higher doses can cause softening and off-flavor
development in fresh produce.
Additional factors to consider when using irradiation sanitation are the resistance
of specific microorganisms to the treatment, other post harvest treatments,
humidity, and produce temperature. A concern when irradiating produce in
closed packages is that irradiation may lead to the elimination of competing
microflora allowing germination of pathogenic bacterial spores.
Pulsed Light
Pulsed light treatments (i.e. a combination of 25% ultra-violet, 45% visible and
30% infrared light) are effective when the light can penetrate food surfaces or
transparent media such as clear juices. Shelf life extension of some fresh fruits
and vegetables has been reported after treatment with pulsed light, however the
effectiveness of the treatment is limited on produce with opaque and/or irregular
surfaces (Dunn, 1996).
Edible Coatings
Edible films can be made of many different polymers (pectin, proteins, oils, etc.)
and there are many commercial brands of these films on the market. They are
generally applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to improve appearance and to
prevent moisture losses. They also can serve as a carrier for antimicrobial
compounds such as organic acids (Beuchat and Golden, 1989), methyl
jasmonate (Buta and Moline, 1998) and bacteriocins onto the produce surface.
More research is needed to determine the effectiveness of films in controlling
microbial growth. It also remains to be determined how microorganisms can
mutate and adapt to the new environment created by the application of the film to
the surface of the produce.
Hurdle Technology
Visual III-1.13
Hurdle technology uses a combination of treatments such as controlling pH,
humidity, and temperature with preservatives to create multiple obstacles to
microbial growth.
III-13
Hurdle technology uses a combination of treatments such as controlling pH,

humidity, and temperature with preservatives to create multiple obstacles to
microbial growth. In many cases, the multiple treatments have a synergistic effect
enhancing the actions of each. Many of the treatments previously discussed can
be applied in combination to fresh fruits and vegetable to maximize the treatment
effects or to offer additional protection.
Summary
1. Surface microorganisms of fresh produce vary widely and are highly
dependent on the type of commodity and the agricultural practices used.
Organisms present include both natural microflora and contaminants from
soil, water, air, sewage and animals. During and after harvesting many
conditions come together that can favor the growth of microorganisms. Some
of these include handling, cross contamination, temperature abuse, and
increases in product respiration rates leading to heat production.
2. The reduction of pathogens on produce is important to reduce foodborne
illness and decrease spoilage and to improve appearance and nutritive value.
Washing and sanitizing fruits and vegetables is a common practice to reduce
surface contamination.
3. Before the washing step, and with commodities that cannot tolerate wetting, it
is essential to remove surface soil by dry cleaning, brushing air blowers or
vacuum (if the item will physically tolerate it).
4. A washing step reduces surface dirt. Water used for produce washing must
be potable and free of pathogenic organisms. Impurities in water can
drastically alter the effectiveness of a detergent or a sanitizer.
5. A sanitation step, generally with the application of chemical agents, follows
washing. Sanitation involves the reduction of microorganisms of public health
concern, as well as other undesirable microorganisms, without adversely
affecting the quality of the product or its safety to the consumer.
6. The effectiveness of each individual sanitizer is influenced by many factors
including water temperature, pH, contact time, organic matter content and the
surface morphology of the fruit or vegetable. Chlorine is the most common
sanitizer, but there are many other sanitizers on the market including chlorine
dioxide, bromide, iodine, trisodium phosphate, quaternary ammonium
compounds, organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, and ozone.
New technologies such as pulsed light, irradiation, and edible coatings are
also proving useful in sanitizing produce. For many types of produce, the use
of hurdle technology, multiple procedures that supplement and enhance each
other, has been most effective in reducing microbial contamination.
III-14
Module 2
Packing, Storage and Transportation
Learning Outcomes
Participants should understand recommended practices for maintenance of
packing and storage facilities and equipment and for proper trash and waste
handling
Participants should be aware of considerations for safety during produce
transportation
Practical
Laboratory Exercise: Experiments with Artificial Germs Germs and Produce
Part V Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables
Many of the sanitation considerations discussed for the production field can be
extended to the packing facility. While a discussion of these may seem repetitive,
this discussion is included to point out that there are steps in the packinghouse
process that require implementation of monitoring procedures. During packing it
is important to consider Good Manufacturing Practices for packing and storage
facilities, equipment, containers, trash handling, worker health and hygiene, and
storage of produce and packing material.
Packing Facilities
Visual III.2-1
Sanitary Construction Considerations for Packing and Storage Facilities
Facilities should be designed and constructed for easy cleaning and sanitation.
Buildings should be well screened with barriers designed to exclude vermin,
domestic and wild animals, birds, and insects.
Windows should be closed or covered with mesh.
Walls, floors and ceilings should be in good condition, and easy to clean and
sanitize.
Lamps and bulb lights should be covered so that, if they should break, the
product and the work area will not be contaminated with broken glass.
The floor should be constructed with a slight slope to avoid water accumulation
in production areas.
The sewage system should be constructed to prevent water accumulation in
packing and storage rooms.
III-15
Packing and storage facilities will vary depending on the produce being
processed and the size of the operation. The packinghouse can be a small shed
near the field or a large-scale building with many different processing and
storage areas. Regardless of the size of the operation, good manufacturing
practices are essential to prevent the physical facility from becoming a source of
microbial, physical or chemical contamination and to ensure consistent fresh
produce quality.
Visual III.2-2
Additional recommendations for the proper maintenance of packing and
storing facilities include:
All chemical agents, such as fuels, additives, fertilizers, pesticides, sanitizers,

etc. must be packed in durable containers, properly labeled, and stored in dry,
clean, closed places, separated from food products and packing material.
These supplies must be handled only by authorized personnel and should
never come in direct contact with the fruits or vegetables.
Packing and storage areas should be separated and, ideally, different
personnel should handle separate tasks to avoid cross-contamination.
Comprehensive Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs) and
maintenance programs should be implemented.
Pest control and monitoring should be in place.
Packing and storage areas should be separated. Ideally, different personnel

should handle tasks in each of the areas to avoid cross-contamination. It is
important to keep all packing and storage areas free from chemicals, trash,
machinery, harvest residues and waste materials to discourage pests and
prevent produce contamination. Comprehensive Sanitation Standard Operating
Procedures (SSOPs) and maintenance programs should be implemented and
pest control and monitoring should be in place.
III-16
Equipment
Visual III.2-3
Sanitary Considerations for Equipment
All equipment and containers that come in direct contact with produce or
ingredients should be stainless steel or plastic, if possible, since these
materials can easily be cleaned, disinfected and hygienically maintained.
Equipment must have smooth surfaces and be placed in locations that can
facilitate adequate cleaning.
Equipment should not have loose bolts, knobs, or movable parts that could
accidentally fall off.
If equipment has any paint on it, the paint should be approved for food
processing equipment and it should not chip easily. Rust should be removed
so it will not flake off onto the product.
Oil leaks and over-lubrication must be avoided. Only food grade oil and
lubricants should be used.
All equipment used for washing and sorting of fresh produce should be designed
for easy cleaning and maintained properly to prevent contamination. If possible,
all equipment and containers that come in direct contact with produce or
ingredients should be stainless steel or plastic since these materials can easily
be cleaned, disinfected and hygienically maintained. Equipment should have
smooth surfaces and be placed in locations that can facilitate adequate cleaning.
There should be no loose bolts, knobs, or movable parts that could accidentally
fall off and, if the equipment has any paint on it, the paint should be approved for
food processing equipment and it should not chip easily. Rust should be removed
so it will not flake off onto the product. Oil leaks and over-lubrication must be
avoided. Only food grade oil and lubricants should be used.
Visual III.2-4
Additional considerations for packing equipment:
A complete equipment cleaning and maintenance program should be

implemented to prevent hazards to the operator and the consumer.
Equipment malfunctions should be reported as soon as they start to develop,
so that the necessary precautions can be taken before a small problem can
become something more serious.
It is a good practice to assign a responsible individual to each piece of
equipment so that person can become familiar with the equipment and its
proper operation.
III-17
A complete equipment cleaning and maintenance program should be designed

and implemented. Such a program prevents hazards to the operator and the
consumer. Equipment malfunctions should be reported as soon as they start to
develop, so that the necessary precautions can be taken before a small problem
can become something more serious. It is a good practice to assign a
responsible individual to each piece of equipment so that person can become
familiar with the equipment and its proper operation.
Containers
Visual III.2-5
Good Manufacturing Practices for containers:
Containers should be made of non-toxic materials and constructed so they can

be cleaned and sanitized easily.
Damaged containers should be discarded when cleaning becomes difficult or
when the damage is such that they might break and pieces fall into the
produce.
Containers used for transporting produce should be cleaned and disinfected
after each use.
Containers that have been in direct contact with soil, mud, compost or fecal
material should be properly marked and should not enter the receiving or
packing facility at any time. A second set of crates can be used for produce
entering the packing facility.
Containers used for fresh produce should not be used to transport any other
items including lunches, tools, combustibles, pesticides or any other materials.
These practices can result in chemical or microbial hazards to the consumer.
Within the packing facility, it is a good practice to color code or label containers
that are used for transporting the product before and after washing and keep
them well separated to avoid cross contamination.
Pest control and monitoring of infestation should be considered during
container inspections.
To prevent contamination of produce, containers used for fruit and vegetable

harvesting, transportation from the fields and during packing or storage should be
clean and sanitized. The integrity of the container is important since many of the
physical contaminants in fresh produce are introduced from the containers being
used (i.e. fibers, wood or plastic chips/pieces, etc.). Containers used for fresh
produce should not be used to transport any other items including lunches, tools,
combustibles, pesticides or any other materials. Within the packing facility, it is a
good practice to color code or label containers that are used for transporting the
III-18
product before and after washing and keep them well separated to avoid cross
contamination.
Trash and Waste Handling
Visual III.2-6
Good Manufacturing Practices related to trash and waste handling:
It is important to designate a specific secure, confined area outside the

processing facility for the temporary holding of trash and produce waste.
The trash and waste collection center should be constructed to facilitate
cleaning and to avoid accumulation of residue and bad odors. This area must
be well outside the production perimeter. It is important to use closed
containers and to consider dominant winds to avoid bad odors in the
production and packing facilities and the surrounding neighborhood.
Trash containers and wastebaskets used inside the production and packing
areas must be conveniently located, properly identified, should be able to be
tightly closed, and not easily overturned.
Trash and waste material should be removed often. It is important to include a
trash collection schedule in the daily cleaning activities.
Separation of organic and inorganic waste material with appropriate recycling
is recommended.
Trash and fruit or vegetable waste can be a source of microbiological

contaminants. Decomposing organic matter can serve to spread microorganisms
around the facility, produce offensive odors, and attract insects and other pests
bearing pathogenic organisms. Trash and waste materials should be stored in
designated sites and should be removed daily. The collection site should be
constructed for easy cleaning, should use closed containers, and should be
located so that winds do not blow odors into the production and packing facilities
or the surrounding neighborhood. Separation of organic and inorganic wastes
with appropriate recycling is recommended.
III-19
Storage of Packing Material

Visual III.2-7
Selection of a packing material storage location:
The storage area must be clean, dry, and free from trash, insects, and animals.
The ceiling should be checked for leaks before placing the material in the
storage location.
The storage location should be well separated from all chemical agents and
from storage areas used for chemicals or other hazardous materials.
Storing packing materials on pallets is a good practice to avoid direct contact of
the packing materials with floors.
Select a storage location away from restrooms and wet production areas.
Packing material such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags, etc. must be stored in a
place designated for this purpose. This area should be clean, dry, and free of
trash, insects, and animals. The packing materials should be kept away from any
contamination sources.
During packing operations it is important to avoid damage to containers. Boxes
should not be stapled since staples can damage packages and may contaminate
the produce. New boxes and bags should be used at all times. Plastic bags and
food contact surfaces should be made of food grade plastics to prevent the
migration of chemical contaminants to the fresh produce.
Produce Storage
Visual III.2-8
Good Manufacturing Practices related to fresh fruit and vegetable storage:
All products should be stored in a clean location using an organized system.
Codes and inventory rotation are important to minimize the time that the
commodity is stored and to facilitate recall, in case of problems later in the food
chain.
Boxes of product should be placed on pallets to avoid direct contact with floors.
There must be a minimum separation between pallets and walls of 45 cm (17.5
inches). Allow 10 cm (4 inches) between pallets and floors. Such separation
allows adequate ventilation and facilitates cleaning and inspection for rodents
and insects.
Chemicals, trash, waste or odorous material must not be stored near products.
Fruit and vegetable storage areas or chambers should have accurate,
recorded temperature and humidity control to prevent or delay microbial
growth. The proper storage temperature and relative humidity will vary
considerably depending on the commodity and its specific requirements.
Walls, floors and ceilings must be systematically and periodically cleaned to
avoid filth accumulation.
III-20
As with all produce-handling areas, hygiene and temperature control in storage

rooms are critical factors in minimizing contamination and maintaining produce
safety and quality. There should be an established cleaning and sanitation
schedule for all produce storage areas.
Transportation
Proper handling of fruits and vegetables during transportation is critical to the
safety of the produce. All of the time and effort taken to minimize microbial
contamination and to monitor quality during field production, harvest, washing
and packing will be wasted if the conditions for transportation are not appropriate.
Visual III.2-9
Shipping Container Sanitation is Critical
It is important to ask the freight company to keep a detailed log of previous
loads and to clean and sanitize containers between loads. This needs to be
checked before fresh fruits or vegetables are placed in the unit.
A complete inspection of the trailer or container should be performed before
the product is loaded. Be aware of bad smells, visible dirt or traces of organic
matter.
Fresh produce is generally transported in trailers or in overseas containers. It is
important to remember that freight companies also transport other materials. In
the best case scenario, shipping containers would be food grade, only used to
transport the same food, and thoroughly cleaned and sanitized between loads.
However, every producer should ask what type of food was previously
transported in containers offered for their produce. Produce should not be
transported in containers that have been used to transport fish, raw meat, eggs
and other commodities that are significant sources of foodborne pathogens
unless these containers have been adequately cleaned and sanitized.
In an ideal situation the transportation unit would be sanitized after each load.
However, since transport companies have other priorities, they may be unaware
of sanitation requirements for fresh produce. Sanitation frequency will often be
dictated by previous load history, type of produce and type of package, among
other aspects.
III-21
Visual III.2-10
Important considerations for fruit and vegetable transportation units
Trailers and containers must be free of visible filth, odors and food particles.
Transportation units should not have any water condensation and should not
be wet.
Hermetic seals are highly recommended to avoid pest access and
environmental contamination during transportation.
If the fresh commodity requires refrigeration during transportation, refrigeration
equipment should be functioning appropriately. Temperature monitoring
devices should be used to monitor the performance of the refrigeration system.
If the previous load history indicates that the transportation unit has been used
recently for transporting animals, raw foods, or chemical substances the produce
should not be placed in the unit until appropriate cleaning and sanitizing
measures have been taken. The trailer or container should be washed and
decontaminated using procedures similar to those described for food processing
equipment. Trailers and containers must be free of visible filth and food particles.
Odors are a sign trucks additional cleaning is needed since bad smells can be an
indication of microbiological contamination and poor cleaning practices. Many of
the cleaning and sanitizing chemicals described for use in disinfecting produce
can be used as long as they dont cause corrosion of the unit.
Refrigerated Transportation
Visual III.2-11
When products are stored at their optimum temperature, the shelf life is
extended, appearance is more attractive and higher quality is maintained.
In addition to these quality benefits, keeping a low temperature during

transportation also can inhibit or greatly retard the growth of pathogens. The
optimum storage and transportation temperature will depend on the sensitivity
of the commodity to chill injury and on the reduced growth of pathogens at
lower temperatures.
Storage and transportation temperatures that are too low can damage some
tropical fruits and other highly perishable commodities (i.e. bananas and
tomatoes). For these products, the industry uses storage and transportation
temperatures between 10 to15C (50 to 59 F). For non-chill sensitive
commodities, the optimum temperature range is as low as possible, without
causing freezing, usually from 0 to 5C (32 to 41 F). In addition to temperature,
the relative humidity of the transportation unit should be considered to prevent
either dehydration or condensate build-up. Recommended temperature and
III-22
humidity for storage of many produce products are provided in Part V of the
Additional Resources. These recommendations also would apply to
transportation conditions.
Visual III.2-12
Additional GMPs for refrigerated transportation units:
Refrigeration and cooling systems should be inspected before each trip to
ensure they are working properly. They should also be under a scheduled
maintenance plan.
Minimize staging time (time between removal from cold storage and loading
into refrigerated containers). Consider turning on refrigeration units and cooling
transportation container before loading.
Allow for proper air circulation in the trailer or container by properly stacking,
and not overloading the product.
Temperature records should be maintained during transportation.
Temperature recorders must be calibrated and tamper-proof to ensure that the
proper storage temperature is being maintained.
Refrigeration coils should be clean and should not drip condensate on the load.
Training of drivers and other transportation and handling personnel is important.
They should be sensitized to the importance of temperature control and transit
time on maintaining the safety and quality of the fresh commodity. Maintenance
of trucks to ensure that they reach their destination without delay is also
important. Temperature records during transportation help ensure the produce is
maintained at the proper temperatures.
Summary
1. Regardless of the size of the production operation, good manufacturing
practices are essential to ensure consistent fresh produce quality and to
prevent the handling environment from becoming a source of microbial,
physical or chemical contamination.
2. It is important to keep all packing and storage areas free from chemicals,
trash, machinery, harvest residues and waste materials to discourage pests
and prevent produce contamination in these facilities.
3. All equipment used for washing and sorting fresh produce should be designed
for easy cleaning and maintained properly to prevent contamination.
4. To prevent produce contamination, any containers used for fruit and
vegetable harvesting, transportation from the fields and during packing or
storage should be clean and sanitized and maintained intact. Plastic
containers should be of food grade plastic.
III-23
5. Trash and fruit or vegetable waste can be a source of biological

contaminants. Trash and waste materials should be stored in designated sites
and should be removed daily. The collection site should be constructed for
easy cleaning, should use closed containers, and should be located so that
winds do not blow odors into the production and packing facilities or the
surrounding neighborhood.
6. Hygiene and temperature control in storage rooms is critical factors in
minimizing contamination, reducing pests, and maintaining produce safety
and quality. There should be an established cleaning and sanitation schedule
for all produce storage areas.
7. Produce should not be transported in containers that have been used to
transport fish, raw meat, eggs and other commodities that are significant
sources of foodborne pathogens unless these containers have been
adequately cleaned and sanitized. Refrigerated units should maintain proper
temperatures for produce safety and quality.
III-24
Module 3
Equipment Cleaning and Sanitation
Learning Outcomes
Participants should be aware of proper cleaning and sanitizing practices for
equipment, containers, utensils and facilities in produce handling operations.
Practical
Laboratory Exercise: Experiments with Artificial Germs:
How Germs are Spread II
Germs and Produce
To reduce the risk of contaminating fruits and vegetables, strict cleaning and
sanitizing procedures must be followed on all equipment, utensils, containers and
in handling facilities.
Visual III.3-1
What should be cleaned and sanitized?
All facility equipment, containers, utensils and facilities.

The same procedures should be applied for the sanitation of tools, containers
and all surfaces that come in contact with the fruit or vegetable during
production in the field, harvesting, field packaging or transportation.
Cleaning Procedures
Cleaning includes the use of both physical methods, such as scrubbing, and
chemical methods like detergents, acids or alkalis to remove dirt, dust, food
residues and other debris from surfaces. These methods may be used separately
or in combination.
Visual III.3-2
Detergent
Material that reduces surface tension of water increasing its ability to interact
with organic and aqueous media.
This property gives detergents the ability to remove and/or eliminate
undesirable contaminating substances present on surfaces.
III-25
A detergent is a material that reduces surface tension of water. The reduction of

water surface tension allows detergent penetration. This helps the detergent
displace and suspend particles from processing surfaces and equipment. Water
rinsing then moves particles away.
Visual III.3-3
Characteristics of a Good Cleaning Agent (Detergent):
Complete and rapid solubility

Non-corrosive to metallic surfaces
Good moistening action
Good dispersion or suspension properties
Good rinsing properties
Germicide action
Low cost
Non toxic
A good detergent should have complete and rapid solubility, be non-corrosive to

metallic surfaces, have good moistening action and offer good dispersion or
suspension, and rinsing properties, germicidal action and low cost. When
selecting the proper cleaning product, it is important to know what surface
material it will act on and which material(s) it will remove. The following visual
offers recommendations for selecting of cleaning compounds based on the
surface being cleaned.
Visual III.3-4
TYPE OF SURFACE
Stainless steel
RECOMMENDED
CLEANING SUBSTANCE
Alkaline, not abrasive
Acid, not abrasive
FREQUENCY OF USE
Daily
Weekly
Metals (copper,
aluminum, galvanized
surfaces)
Moderately alkaline
substances with corrosion
inhibitors
Daily
Wood
Detergents with
surfactants
Daily
Rubber
Alkaline Substances
Daily
Glass
Moderately alkaline
substances
Daily
Concrete Floors
Alkaline
Daily
III-26
To prevent produce contamination, all equipment and utensils must be cleaned

and sanitized following the guidelines and frequency established in the Sanitation
Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs), or when the circumstances require it.
Visual III.3-5
To clean effectively, it is necessary to use appropriate tools. Examples of common
tools used to clean processing and packaging equipment and food processing
facilities include:
Sponges
Brooms
Scrapers
Scrubs
Pressure water guns
Cleaning tools can be a major source of biological hazards when not handled
properly. Cleaning tools should be rinsed and sanitized after use, and replaced
regularly to avoid the development of microorganisms on their surfaces.
Cleaning tools are necessary to clean effectively. However, cleaning tools can be
a major source of biological hazards when not handled properly. Cleaning tools
should be rinsed and sanitized after use, and replaced regularly to avoid the
development of microorganisms on their surfaces.
Cleaning procedures cannot guarantee the reduction of microorganisms,
however, they can minimize the formation of bio-films. To eliminate
microorganisms, it is necessary to treat surfaces with chemical agents generally
called equipment sanitizers or disinfectants.
Sanitizing Procedures
Visual III.3-6
Sanitize food contact surfaces means to adequately treat clean food-contact
surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the
numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other undesirable
microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its safety
to the consumer. It means the application of cumulative heat or chemicals on
cleaned food-contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to
reduce populations of representative microorganisms by 99.999%.
To sanitize food contact surfaces means to adequately treat clean food-contact

surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the
numbers of microorganisms of public health concern as well as other undesirable
III-27
microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the product or its

safety to the consumer. It means the application of cumulative heat or chemicals
on cleaned food-contact surfaces that, when evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to
reduce populations of representative microorganisms by 99.999% (U.S. Public
Health Service, FDA,1997).
Sanitizing is not a substitute cleaning procedure. Organic and inorganic matter
affects the germicidal action of many sanitizers therefore cleaning to remove
dust, dirt and food residues should always be done before the application of a
sanitizing agent. Good manufacturing practices also can prevent the formation of
bio-films which bacteria may develop to protect themselves from the action of
sanitizers.
Visual III.3-7
Factors to consider when selecting a sanitizing agent
Type of equipment and kind of surface being sanitized
Water hardness
Sanitizing equipment available
Effectiveness against important pathogens associated with the types of
products being processed or to the processing environment
Effectiveness under practical conditions
The selection of a sanitizer for produce handling equipment will depend largely
on the target microorganism, the type of produce being processed and the
material of the surfaces that come in direct contact with the produce. Other
important considerations are the type of water and the cleaning procedure being
used.
A sanitizing agent with a broad action spectrum is recommended for the
destruction of pathogenic microorganisms on different equipment surfaces. For
some sanitizing activities it is necessary to use alternate agents. Developing a
rotation schedule for cleaning and sanitizing agents should lessen the likelihood
of pathogens developing resistance to a specific sanitizing agent.
Visual III.3-8
Common Agents Used for Equipment Sanitation Include:
Chlorine and chlorinating agents, including hypochlorite compounds
Strong acids and alkali
III-28
Sanitizers and their use on produce were discussed in Module 1. The following
discussion identifies some special considerations when using sanitizers on
processing equipment.
Chlorine and Chlorine Compounds
When properly used, these substances can be considered among the most
useful equipment sanitizing agents. However, pH, temperature and organic load
dramatically affect the activity of chlorine. Chlorinating agents have a rapid effect
over a large variety of microorganisms and are relatively inexpensive. This group
of disinfectants is highly corrosive to metals and can also bleach equipment
therefore, rinsing equipment surfaces immediately after the proper contact time is
strongly recommended.
Visual III.3-9
Free Residual Chlorine
The amount of free residual chlorine is very important for plant sanitation since the
rate at which bacteria are killed is proportional to the residual chlorine
concentration.
The amount of free residual chlorine is very important for plant sanitation since
the rate at which bacteria are killed is proportional to its concentration (Gavin and
Weddig, 1995). As discussed in Module 1, sanitation waters must be chlorinated
to a point where free residual chlorine concentrations of significant germicidal
power exist. Sanitizers containing a concentration of 2-7 ppm free residual
chlorine are considered to have significant bactericidal power. These can be
applied to conveyor belts and equipment using continuous/intermittent sprayers
or by flooding. Solutions of higher concentration (20-50 ppm) can be used for
equipment and cleanup.
The length of contact time, pH and temperature of the sanitizer are also
important considerations in achieving effective sanitizing. Increasing the
temperature of the chlorinated water can cause considerable depletion of
chlorine unless the solution contains organic nitrogen to interact with the chlorine
to form chloramines, which have germicidal power.
Many operations inject chlorine gas into the water to prepare sanitizing solutions.
When this is done, it is important to consider the water temperature as this
affects the solubility of the chlorine gas (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).
Iodine Compounds (Iodophores)
Iodine compounds are widely used to sanitize food processing equipment and
surfaces. The most commonly used are ethanol-iodine solutions, aqueous iodine
III-29
solutions and iodophors, which are combinations of elemental iodine with anionic
surfactants of nonyl-phenol ethoxylates or carriers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone.
At concentrations of 6-13 ppm of free iodine (pH 6.6- 7.0) for a contact time of 315 seconds the population of vegetative bacterial cells can be reduced 90%.
Bacterial spores are more resistant to iodine than vegetative cells (Beuchat,
1998). For cleaning equipment surfaces, a solution with 25-50 milligrams of
iodine per liter (ppm) at a pH 3-4 is normally recommended.
Iodophors are the iodine compounds most frequently used in the food industry
(Gorny, 2001). They have a wide spectrum of action, are effective against yeasts
and molds and are very convenient if an acid cleaner is needed. Their effect is
fast and they have wide antimicrobial activity. Iodophors have the advantage of
being less corrosive than chlorine at low temperatures. However, they vaporize
at temperatures above 50C (122F) where they can be highly corrosive and their
effectiveness is reduced at low temperatures (Beuchat, 1998). Iodophors are
most effective in a pH range of 2-5 but they can remain active under mildly
alkaline conditions depending on other conditions.
Iodophores lose their effectiveness in the presence of organic material and at pH
7 or greater. It is possible to visually observe the efficacy of iodophores, since
they lose their color when residual iodine reaches ineffective levels.
Depending on solution composition and the nature of the surface to which it is
applied, iodophores at high concentrations may have a corrosive action on
metals. For this reason, it is important to thoroughly rinse treated surfaces with
water after iodophore application. For surfaces that dont damage easily,
iodophores can be applied without a final rinse.
Quats have good detergent characteristics. They are colorless, have relatively
low corrosiveness with metals, and are non-toxic. Quats are good sanitizers
although they are selective for some types of bacteria (i.e. not effective against
E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Because of this selectiveness, an
occasional chlorine treatment is useful to maintain adequate plant sanitation.
Quaternary ammonium solutions should be used at levels between 200-1200
milligrams per liter. When hard water is used, higher concentrations are needed.
Quats are not affected by organic matter but also are not compatible with soaps
or anionic detergents. Quats tend to adhere to equipment surfaces, thus it is
necessary to rinse thoroughly with potable water after their application.
Because of their low corrosive nature, quats are generally used to sanitize floors,
walls, ceilings and other parts of refrigerated compartments. However, they have
III-30
the unfortunate limitation of inactivation by wood, cotton, nylon, cellulose

sponges and some plastics (Gavin and Weddig, 1995).
Other Sanitizing Agents
In addition to having detergent properties, strong acids and bases possess
considerable antimicrobial activity. When these materials are applied to
processing equipment it is important to avoid contamination of foods since the
acid or base can harm the consumer. All treated surfaces must be rinsed with
abundant amounts of water after treatment.
Ultraviolet light (UV) has some applications as a surface sanitizer. However,
because of its low penetration power, it is mainly used to kill airborne
microorganisms especially mold spores in air circulation systems, above
packaging areas, in cool rooms, etc.
Ozone has some use as a plant sanitizer. It is used to treat water and storage
rooms. Ozone is effective against microorganisms in cold water and in
recirculated water systems.
Water Quality and Sanitizers
Water is the main component of sanitizing solutions and it can be a factor in the
effectiveness of the sanitation procedures. Water used to mix sanitation
solutions, must be of good quality. Organic load, turbidity, and presence of
pathogens in the water used in sanitizing solutions can alter the effectiveness of
sanitation procedures.
Handling of Sanitizing Substances
Visual III.3-10
Recommendations for the safe handling of sanitizing agents:
When using alkaline or acid substances employees must wear goggles and
protective clothing.
Sanitizers must be stored in a separate facility, away from fresh produce and
packaging material.
The specific handling and usage instructions for each product must be carefully
followed.
Sanitizing agents are classified as pesticide chemicals therefore they are
subject to usage and disposal regulations, specific for each country.
Legally in the U.S. sanitizers intended for use on semi-permanent or permanent

food contact surfaces (other than food packaging) are pesticides and must be
registered with the Environmental Protection Agency (Gorny, 2001). Residues
III-31
that remain on the food contact surfaces are pesticide chemical residues that are
subject to EPA tolerance regulations.
The recommendations for handling chemical pesticides discussed in Section II,
Module 3 apply to the use of sanitizing agents. Protective equipment such as
gloves, boots, goggles and, in some cases, masks, should be used. Operators
must be trained on the proper handling and preparation of sanitizing solutions.
Visual III.3-11
Dangerous mixtures of sanitizing agents
To avoid abrupt neutralization reactions, alkaline and acid sanitizing products

should not be mixed (e.g. chlorine mixed with ammonia is extremely
dangerous).
Acid products should not be mixed with hypochloric solutions since they can
produce chlorine gas, which can be toxic
Different sanitizing substances should not be mixed because dangerous

reactions may occur. To avoid abrupt neutralization reactions that can result in
splattering and/or noxious fumes, alkaline and acid sanitizing products should not
be mixed (e.g. chlorine mixed with ammonia is extremely dangerous). Acid
products should not be mixed with hypochloric solutions since they can produce
chlorine gas, which can be toxic.
Summary
1. To reduce the risk of contaminating fruits and vegetables, strict cleaning and
sanitizing procedures must be followed on all equipment, utensils, containers
and in handling facilities.
2. Cleaning includes the use of both physical methods, such as scrubbing, and
chemical methods like detergents, acids or alkalis to remove soil and many
surface contaminants. These methods may be used separately or in
combination. When selecting the proper cleaning product, it is important to
know what surface material it will act on and which material(s) it will remove.
3. The selection of a sanitizer will depend largely on the target
microorganism(s), the type of produce being processed and the material of
the surfaces that come in direct contact with the sanitizer. Common agents
used for equipment sanitation include chlorine and chlorinating agents,
including hypochlorite compounds, iodine, quaternary ammonium compounds
(Quats), and strong acids and alkali.
III-32
References
Bartz. J.A. and Showalter. R.K. 1981. Infiltration of tomatoes by bacteria in
aqueous suspension. Phytopathology, 71:515.
Benarde, M.A., Snow, W.B., Olivieri, P. and Davidson, B. 1967. Kinetics and
mechanism of bacterial disinfection by chlorine dioxide. Appl. Microbiol.
15:2167.
Beuchat, L.R. 1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw:
A review. World Health Organization. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2 Available via
the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf
Beuchat, L.R. and Golden, D.A. 1989. Antimicrobials occurring naturally in foods.
Food Technol. 43:135.
Buta, J.G. and Moline, H.E. 1998. Methyl jasmonate extends shelf life and
reduces microbial contamination of fresh-cut celery and peppers. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 46:1253.
Castillo, A. and Escartin, E.F. 1994. Survival of Campylobacter jejuni on sliced
watermelon and papaya. J. Food Prot. 57:166.
CFSAN/FDA. 2001. Analysis and evaluation of preventive control measures for
the control and reduction/elimination of microbial hazards on fresh and
fresh-cut produce. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition. September 30, 2001. Available via the
Internet at http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ ~comm/ift3exec.html
Dunn, J. 1996. Pulsed light and pulsed electric field for foods and eggs. Poultry
Sci. 75:1133.
Farkas, J., Saray, T., Mohacsi-Farkas, C., Horti, K. and Andrassy, E. 1997.
Effects of low-dose gamma radiation on shelf-life and microbiological
safety of pre-cut/prepared vegetables. Adv. Food Sci. 19:111.
Gavin, A. and Weddig, L.M. 1995. Canned Foods: Principles of Thermal Process
Control, Acidification and Container Closure Evaluation. The Food
Processors Institute, Washington, D.C., p. 35.
III-33
Gorny, J.R. 2001. Chapter 6 Plant cleaning and sanitation: Materials and
systems. In Food Safety Guidelines for the Fresh-Cut Produce Industry,
Fourth Edition. International Fresh-cut Produce Association.
Hei, R.D. 1998. Peracetic acid applications to vegetable and fruit flume transport
waters improved storage stability, and yielded superior reduction of
microbial contaminants during processing. Abstract 65-3, Annual Meeting
of the Institute of Food Technologists, Atlanta, GA.
Korich, D.G., Mead J.R., Madore M.S., Sinclaire N.A., Sterling C.R. 1990. Effects
of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and monochloramine on
Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,
56:1423-1428.
Park, C.M. and Beuchat, L.R. 1999. Evaluation of sanitizers for killing Escherchia
coli 0157:H7, Salmonella and naturally occuring microorganisms on
cantaloupes, honeydew melons, and aspararagus. Dairy Food Environ
sanit 19:842.
Restaino L., Frampton E.W., Hemphill J.B., and Palnikar P. 1995. Efficacy of
ozonated water against various food-related microorganisms. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 61:3471.
Richardson, S.D., Thruston, A.D., Caughran, T.V., Collete, T.W., Patterson, K.S.
and Lykins, B.W. 1998. Chemical by-products of chlorine and alternative
disinfectants. Food Technol. 52:58.
Sapers, G.M. and Simmons, G.F. 1998. Hydrogen peroxide disinfection of
minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Food Technol. 52:48.
U.S. Public Health Service, FDA. 1997 Food Code, U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
Zhang, S. and Faber, J.M. 1996. The effects of various disinfectants against
Listeria monocytogenes on fresh-cut vegetables. Food Microbiol. 13:311.
Zhuang, R.Y. and Beuchat, L.R. 1996. Effectiveness of trisodium phosphate for
killing Salmonella montevideo on tomatoes. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 22:97.
Zhuang, R.Y., Beuchat, L.R. and Angulo, F.J. 1995. Fate of Salmonella
montevideo on and in raw tomatoes as affected by temperature and
treatment with chlorine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2127.
III-34
FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS
COPYRIGHT 2002 UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. THIS WORK MAY BE REPRODUCED AND

REDISTRIBUTED, IN WHOLE OR IN PART, WITHOUT ALTERATION AND WITHOUT PRIOR
WRITTEN PERMISSION, FOR NONPROFIT ADMINISTRATIVE OR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES
PROVIDED ALL COPIES CONTAIN THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT: 2002 UNIVERSITY OF
MARYLAND. THIS WORK IS REPRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. NO OTHER USE IS PERMITTED WITHOUT THE EXPRESS
PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND. FOR PERMISSION,
CONTACT JIFSAN, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, SYMONS HALL, COLLEGE PARK, MD
20742
IV-1
SECTION IV
FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS
Module 1
The U.S. Food Safety System*
Learning Outcome
Participants will be aware of the agencies involved in the U.S. food safety
system and their role in the safety of food imports.
Practical
Food Safety in the U.S. - A Shared Responsibility

Visual IV.1-1
All foods imported into the U.S. are required to meet the same standards as
domestic products. They must be:
Pure
Wholesome
Safe to eat
Produced under sanitary conditions
Properly labeled
In the U.S., food safety is a shared responsibility with several departments of the
United States government sharing jurisdiction over ensuring the safety of the
American food supply (Rawson and Vogt, 1998). These agencies assure that all
foods are pure, wholesome, safe to eat and produced under sanitary conditions.
They also assure that all imported foods meet the same requirements as those
produced domestically.
*
IV-2
Visual IV.1-2
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Regulates both domestic and imported foods, except meat and poultry
Has primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws including food import
and export regulations
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is charged with protecting

consumers against food that is impure, unsafe, produced under unsanitary
conditions, or fraudulently labeled (FDA, 1998a). Through its Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) and the Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA),
the FDA regulates both domestic and imported foods, except meat and poultry
and processed eggs and has primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws
including food import and export regulations.
Some of the activities of the FDA with particular impact on imported produce
include:
Inspecting food production establishments and food warehouses and
collecting and analyzing samples for physical, chemical, and microbial
contamination.
Establishing good agricultural practices and good manufacturing practices
and other production standards, such as plant sanitation, packaging
requirements, and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point programs.
Sampling and inspection of imported foods.
Working with foreign governments (and with FDA counterparts in these
countries, if they exist) to ensure safety of imported foods.
Taking appropriate enforcement actions.
Educating industry and consumers on safe food handling practices.
Visual IV.1-3
Other U.S. Federal Agencies with Roles in Safety of Imported Foods
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)
Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS)
Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS)
Economic Research Service (ERS)
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
U.S. Customs Service
IV-3
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) work closely with
state and local public health epidemiologists and laboratories to identify illnesses
and clusters of illnesses that may be foodborne. CDC surveys and studies
various environmental and chronic health problems and administers national
programs for prevention and control of vector-borne diseases (diseases
transmitted by a host organism) and other preventable conditions.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has several agencies that may
play a role in assuring food safety by establishing the safety of imported fruits
and vegetables.
The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) carries out a wide range of
programs aimed at facilitating the marketing of agricultural products,
assuring consumers a quality food supply, and ensuring fair trading
practices. Certain agricultural commodities (including fresh tomatoes,
avocados, mangoes, limes, oranges, grapefruit, green peppers, Irish
potatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, dry onions, walnuts and filberts,
processed dates, prunes, raisins, and olives in tins) must meet United
States import requirements relating to grade, size, quality, and
maturity. These commodities are inspected and the AMS must issue
an inspection certificate to indicate import compliance.
The Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) has primary responsibility for
the USDA's overseas programs, including market development,
international trade agreements and negotiations, and the collection of
statistics and market information.
The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) regulates meat, poultry
and egg products and maintains a comprehensive system of import
inspection and controls.
The Economic Research Service (ERS) provides estimates of costs of
foodborne disease and conducts benefit/cost analyses of alternative
regulatory options.
USDAs Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) inspects
imported agricultural products for disease and pests which might infect
plants and animals. Through monitoring activities at airport terminals,
seaports, and border stations, it guards U.S. borders against the entry
of foreign agricultural pests and diseases.
The duties of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) include
regulating pesticides and assuring that drinking water meets standards for health.
Through the Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP), EPA determines the safety of
new pesticide products, sets tolerance levels for pesticide residues in foods,
IV-4
which FDA then enforces, and publishes directions for the safe use of pesticides.
As with other requirements, imported produce must meet the same standards for
residues as products produced domestically.
The U.S. Customs Service serves as the point of entry for products imported
into the U.S. Working with the FDA, the Customs Service participates in the effort
to assure produce safety (see section below on Import Regulations and
Restrictions).
U.S. Import Regulations and Restrictions
The following description of the FDAs Import Program is adapted from the
document, U.S. Food and Drug Administration Import Information (FDA, 1999).
Visual IV.1-5
Summary of FDA Import Procedures
1. Importer files entry notice with Customs
2. FDA, notified by Customs of the entry, makes a decision as to admissibility.
a. The product is allowed to proceed into U.S. commerce, after applicable
duties are paid
OR
b. FDA decides to examine an entry
3.
After examination
a. If the product is in compliance, it is released by Customs and allowed into
U.S. commerce.
OR
b. If it appears violative, FDA issues a Notice of Detention and Hearing to the
owner or consignee
4. If the product is refused, the importer is required to either re-export or destroy

the article
To ensure that FDA is notified of all regulated products imported into the
United States, the importer, or his/her representative, must file an entry
notice and an entry bond with the U.S. Customs Service (Customs).
Specific information on U.S. Customs procedures, requirements, forms,
etc., are available from local Customs offices. When FDA is notified by
Customs of the entry, a decision is made as to the article's admissibility. If
FDA does not wish to examine the entry, the product is allowed to proceed
into United States commerce.
IV-5
Generally, if FDA decides to examine an entry, an FDA representative will

collect a sample from the shipment for laboratory evaluation. If the
analysis indicates the product is in compliance with U.S. requirements, the
shipment may be released into United States commerce. If there is a
violation, the product will be refused admission.
When a sample of an article offered for import has been requested by
FDA, the owner or consignee shall hold the shipment and not distribute it
until further notice is received regarding the results of the examination of
the sample. If it appears that the article is violative, FDA issues a Notice of
Detention and Hearing to the owner or consignee of the article specifying
a place and period of time whereby the individual may introduce testimony
either verbally or in writing. The importer is provided an opportunity to
submit a petition to recondition the product to bring it into compliance. The
owner or consignee may submit an application to FDA to relabel or
perform other actions to bring the article into compliance or render the
article other than a food, drug, device, or cosmetic. An application for
authorization to relabel or perform other actions to bring the article into
compliance shall contain a detailed proposal and specify the time and
place where such operations will be carried out and the approximate time
for completion as specified by regulation. All petitions to recondition a
product are subject to FDA review and approval.
If the product is refused, the importer is required to either re-export or
destroy the article under U.S. Customs or other approved supervision. If
the refused product is not destroyed or re-exported, Customs issues a
notice for redelivery to the importer of record. Failure to redeliver the
refused product may result in Customs assessing liquidated damages
against the importer's bond.
Visual IV.1-6
Detention Without Physical Examination (DWPE)
A product may be detained as soon as it is offered for entry into the United States
based on past history and/or other information indicating the product may be
violative
In some instances a product may be detained as soon as it is offered for

entry into the United States. This procedure is the administrative act of
detaining a product without physical examination and is based on past
history and/or other information indicating the product may be violative. A
product may be subject to a detention without physical examination
(DWPE) recommendation until the shipper or importer proves that the
product meets FDA guidelines or standards. Occasionally, FDA identifies
products from an entire country or geographic region for DWPE when the
IV-6
violative conditions appear to be geographically widespread. Detention

recommendations of this breadth are rare and are initiated only after other
avenues for resolving the problem have been exhausted.
It must be emphasized that DWPE matters must be settled well before
shipment of fresh produce. All perishable produce must adhere strictly to
all import requirements. Delays of questionable items easily result in
spoilage, even if the item is subsequently cleared for commerce.
Pesticide Residues on Raw Agricultural Commodities
Tolerances for pesticide residues on many raw agricultural commodities have
been established under Section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act (FDA, 2001). The term "raw agricultural commodity" means any food in its
raw or natural state, including all unprocessed fruits, vegetables, nuts, and
grains. Foods that have been washed, colored, waxed, or otherwise treated in
their unpeeled natural form are considered to be unprocessed. Products of this
kind containing pesticide residues are in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and
Cosmetic Act unless: (1) the pesticide chemical has been exempted from the
requirement of a residue tolerance; or (2) a tolerance has been established for
the particular pesticide on the specific food and the residue does not exceed the
tolerance (Sec. 408).
The Environmental Protection Agency establishes, revokes or changes
tolerances, as the facts warrant such action. Firms considering offering foods for
entry into the United States that may contain pesticide residues should determine
if there are tolerances for the pesticides on the product in question. This
determination can be made by contacting the EPA (see Additional Resources for
contact information).
APHIS Import Authorization System
USDA through the Animal Plant Health and Inspection Service (APHIS) requires
permits for certain fresh fruits and vegetables that are imported from any foreign
country. Only approved plant parts of the fresh fruits and vegetables are allowed
entry. Entry requirements can be obtained from the Import Authorization System
available on USDAs website http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/new/at.html.
Summary
1. All foods imported into the U.S. must meet the same requirements as those
produced domestically.
2. In the U.S., food safety is a shared responsibility with several departments of
the United States government sharing jurisdiction over ensuring the safety of
the American food supply. Agencies involved include:
IV-7
The Food and Drug Administration - regulates both domestic and

imported foods, except meat, poultry and processed eggs, and has
primary responsibility for enforcing food safety laws including food import
and export regulations.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - works closely with state
and local public health epidemiologists and laboratories to identify
Illnesses and clusters of illnesses that may be foodborne.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture -has several agencies that carry out a
wide range of programs that may play a role in assuring food safety by
establishing the safety of imported fruits and vegetables.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - regulates pesticides and
assures drinking water meets standards for health.
The U.S. Customs Service - serves as the point of entry for products
imported into the U.S.
3. Firms considering offering foods for entry into the United States that may
contain pesticide residues should determine if these residues are within the
tolerances for the pesticides on the product in question established by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
IV-8
Module 2
Investigating Foodborne Disease Outbreaks*
Learning Outcome
Participants should be familiar with the procedures used to investigate
foodborne disease outbreaks.
Practical
Problem Solving: Traceback Investigation
FDA Publications: Farm Investigation Questionnaire
When foodborne illness occurs, identification of the organisms involved and the
food that carried these organisms is important both to assure adequate treatment
of infected persons and to protect the public from the risk of continued spread or
reoccurrence of the illness.
Possible outbreaks of disease are identified in a variety of ways (Reingold,
1998). Frequently consumers who suspect that a food they ate was associated
with illness report the illness to local health departments. Sometimes medical
personnel notice unusual numbers of disease cases and report their occurrence
to public health officials.
Officials reviewing reports of surveillance data may also detect outbreaks. In the
U.S., two surveillance networks, FoodNet and PulseNet, monitor foodborne
disease outbreaks on a national level (Guzewich and Salsbury, 2000). The
Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) is a collaborative
project of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nine state
sites, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA). The project involves active surveillance for foodborne
diseases and is designed to help public health officials better understand
foodborne disease in the U.S. PulseNet is a national network of public health
laboratories that perform DNA fingerprinting on bacteria that may be foodborne.
The network permits rapid comparison of these fingerprint patterns through an
electronic database at CDC. The system is used to exchange fingerprints when
outbreaks of foodborne disease occur (CDC, 1999).
*
Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas and Juan Silva, Ph.D.,
Mississippi State University
IV-9
Once a disease outbreak is recognized, investigation is begun to identify the

cause of the outbreak. The main reason to investigate an outbreak is that by
identifying and eliminating the source of infection, it may be possible to prevent
additional cases of the disease (Reingold, 1998). However, even if the outbreak
has reached a point where no further cases are appearing, it may still be
important to investigate the outbreak. Such an investigation may provide
information which will be useful to (1) prevent similar outbreaks in the future, (2)
describe new diseases and learn more about existing ones, (3) evaluate
prevention strategies, and (4) address public concern about the outbreak.
Visual IV.2-1
Foodborne Disease Investigations
Epidemiological investigation
Laboratory investigation
Environmental investigation
Foodborne disease investigations have three components: epidemiological,

laboratory, and environmental.
Epidemiological investigations verify a diagnosis; identify the range of onset of
symptoms; provide case definitions; and determine the association between
exposure to a specific food and the occurrence of illness. Epidemiological
investigations are usually used to link specific foods and illnesses and can
suggest sources of contamination.
The laboratory component of the investigation involves analysis of clinical
samples, food samples (if remaining implicated portions or lots are available) and
environmental samples. The laboratory analysis of clinical specimens is
conducted in order to identify the pathogen causing the disease and may aid in
linking cases. Additionally, clinical results are compared with food and
environmental results and with epidemiological findings to aid in determining the
source of contamination.
Environmental investigations focus on aspects in the environment of the food that
may have led to contamination. Areas investigated include food preparation
methods, the potential for temperature abuse or cross contamination, and the
location of preparation.
Should the epidemiological or environmental investigation determine that the
contamination most likely did not occur at the point of food preparation, then a
traceback investigation may be initiated.
IV-10
Rapid Response Programs for Foodborne Disease Outbreaks

With globalization of the food supply and increased transport and trade between
states, nations, and continents, foodborne disease outbreaks may involve large
populations and spread rapidly. Moreover, many pathogenic organisms have a
low infective dose and are sometimes not isolated from the food product.
Visual IV.2-2
Investigating Foodborne Outbreaks
Early identification of the outbreak

Rapid and coordinated response to the outbreak
Confirmation/identification of source(s)/product(s)
Investigation and confirmation of outbreak
Determine cause to prevent future outbreaks
Rapid response to a foodborne outbreak will rely heavily on epidemiological data,

shared by county, state, national, and international agencies, to insure control
and stop the exposure (Majkowski, 1997). Guidelines for improving the
coordination and communication on multistate foodborne outbreaks have been
developed in the U.S. (FDA, 2001).
International efforts to allow rapid detection of foodborne disease outbreaks
require a constant exchange of information and surveillance data. This involves
coordination and open channels between various agencies within a country
through to the international level, coupled with accurate sampling and rapid
laboratory sub-typing. Moreover, industry and others need to have accurate
information about the source of the product (i.e. a traceback system).
Fruit and Vegetable Outbreak Traceback
Visual IV.2-3
Traceback
A traceback investigation is a method used to:
Determine the source(s) and distribution of food(s) implicated in a foodborne
disease outbreak
Identify potential points where contamination could have occurred
Traceback investigations are conducted to determine the source and distribution

of products that were implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak and to identify
IV-11
potential points where contamination may have occurred (Guzewich and

Salsbury, 2000).
Despite the best efforts by produce operators, products may never be completely
free of microbial hazards. However, an effective traceback system can give
investigators clues that may lead to a specific region, packing facility, even
cultivated field, rather than an entire commodity group. Narrowing the potential
scope of an outbreak could lessen the economic burden on those industry
operators not responsible for the problem. Traceback also can serve as an
important complement to good agricultural and manufacturing practices since
information gained from a traceback investigation may be useful in identifying
and eliminating a hazardous situation.
From a public health perspective, improving the speed and accuracy of tracing
implicated food items back to their source may help limit the extent of an
outbreak. Tracing implicated food items also may help public health officials
determine potential causes of contamination, thereby providing data for growers,
shippers, and others for identifying and minimizing microbial hazards.
Visual IV.2-4
Overview of the Traceback Process
Ill Person(s)
Consumption of
contaminated food
Point of Service
Distributor A
Distributor D
Importer
A
Distributor C
Distributor B
Distributor E
Domestic
Producer A
Importer
B
Importer
C
Domestic
Producer B
The purpose of traceback is to determine and document the distribution and

production chain for a product that has been implicated during an epidemiological
IV-12
investigation of foodborne illness. By tracing the implicated product back to its

source, steps can be taken to halt its further distribution. Currently fresh fruits
and vegetables are extremely difficult to trace back because, in most instances,
lot numbers/grower identifications are not used or recorded on receipt/shipping
records so it is difficult for the distributor to identify specific shipments and their
source. However efforts are being made to encourage better record keeping that
can be used to assist in traceback activities.
Investigators initially visit the Point-of-Service (POS) establishment where the
product was sold or prepared to determine when the product was purchased or
prepared, and determine receiving, stock rotation, inventory, handling, and
shipping procedures (FDA, 1998b). Records are collected covering all suppliers
and shipments of implicated product to the POS over the shelf life of the
implicated product. Data relating to distribution is charted and analyzed.
Following analysis at each distribution level, distributors who supplied suspect
shipments of product are visited and interviewed. Distributor interviews and data
collection and analysis are repeated for each level of distribution until
investigators identify the source of the product.
Produce offers a number of unique challenges to the traceback process. Fresh
produce has a relatively short shelf life so is often gone by the time an outbreak
is reported. This makes it extremely difficult to identify the item causing the
foodborne illness. If fresh produce is linked to an outbreak, current industry
practices in the marketing and distribution systems, such as co-mingling during
distribution or at retail, make a direct identification of the source of a product very
difficult. If an implicated source (for example, a field or packing facility) is
identified, the source of contamination may no longer be present when
investigators arrive at the site. This variability and lack of a direct determination
of cause have resulted in a high degree of uncertainty, and, in some cases, false
associations. The economic burden of a false association is especially
troublesome for those industry segments that may later be proven not to have
been involved in the actual outbreak.
Because of the diversity of handling practices throughout the produce distribution
and marketing chain, a traceback system may be easier to implement for some
market segments than for others. For example, traceback systems may be more
easily implemented by larger operations that have more direct control over a
greater number of steps in the growing/packing/distribution chain. However,
industry associations, growers, and operators are encouraged to consider ways
to provide this capability, where feasible.
IV-13
Visual IV.2-5
Documentation for effective traceback:
Date of harvest
Farm identification
Who handled the product from grower to consumer
Identifying codes/lots at each distribution level for retail.
It is important for a company to examine current procedures and, if necessary, to

develop new ones to track individual containers from the farm, to the packer,
distributor, and retailer. At a minimum, an effective traceback system should
have documentation to indicate the source of a product and a mechanism for
marking or identifying the product so that it is possible to follow the product from
the farm to the consumer. Documentation should include:
a. Date of harvest,
b. Farm identification
c. Who handled the produce from grower to consumer
d. Identifying codes/lots at each distribution level for retail.
Many growers, especially smaller operations, have little control over what
happens to produce after it enters the distribution and marketing chain.
Therefore, it is critical that growers, packers, and shippers work with their
partners in transportation, distribution, and retail to develop technologies that will
allow tracking of fresh produce from the grower to the retailer and consumer.
Some industry trade groups are developing technologies (such as bar codes,
stamps, stickers, tags, etc.) to aid in identifying the source of produce and
software to assist retailers in providing more accurate traceback to the
grower/packer level.
Farm or Source Investigations
If a traceback identifies the farm(s) as the source(s) of an outbreak, a farm or
source investigation may be conducted. Efforts in this investigation are focused
on locating possible sources of contamination. Investigators may look at factors
such as water management and drainage, flooding or other weather-related
contamination, waste management and manure usage, sanitation and handling
of tools and equipment, worker health and hygiene, and management of both
domestic and wild animals.
The FDA has developed a Farm Investigation Questionnaire that provides an
outline of the factors that are studied to determine where product contamination
may have occurred on the farm. An abbreviated version of this Questionnaire can
be found in the FDA Publications portion of the Resources Section at the end of
IV-14
this manual. Controls for on the farm factors affecting product contamination are
discussed in Sections II and III of this manual.
Regional and Local Considerations
To assist participants in relating to the importance of training to improve the
safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, trainers may want to include a
discussion of issues related to specific regional and/or local products.
Summary
1.
When foodborne illness occurs, identification of the organisms involved and

the food that carried these organisms is important both to assure adequate
treatment of infected persons and to protect the public from the risk of
continued spread or reoccurrence of the illness.
2. In the U.S., two surveillance networks monitor foodborne disease outbreaks:
The Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet) involves

active surveillance for foodborne diseases and is designed to help public
health officials better understand foodborne disease in the U.S.
PulseNet uses a national computer network to alert public health officers

to possible outbreaks of foodborne disease using bacteria fingerprinting
that can link cases/clusters occurring in multiple sites.
3. Foodborne disease investigations have three components: epidemiological,
laboratory, and environmental.
Epidemiological investigations verify a diagnosis; identify the range of

onset of symptoms; provide case definitions; and determine the
association between exposure to a specific food and the occurrence of
illness.
Laboratory investigation involves analysis of clinical samples, food

samples (if leftovers are available) and environmental samples.
Environmental investigations focus on aspects in the environment of the

food that may have led to contamination.
4. Should the environmental investigation determine that the contamination most
likely did not occur at the point of food preparation, then a traceback
investigation may be initiated. Traceback investigations are conducted to
determine the source and distribution of products that were implicated in a
foodborne disease outbreak and to identify potential points where
contamination may have occurred. Produce offers a number of unique
challenges to the traceback process.
5. If a traceback identifies the farm(s) as the source(s) of an outbreak, a farm or
source investigation may be conducted to locate possible sources of
contamination.
IV-15
Module 3
International Food Laws and Regulations*
Learning Outcomes
Participants will gain insight about the international agreements and
regulations affecting trade in food.
Practical
Sanitary (human and animal health) and phytosanitary (plant health) standards
are necessary to ensure that food is safe for consumers, to prevent the spread of
pests and diseases among animals and plants and to ensure fair practices in
trade. In recent years, world food trade has been profoundly altered by the
adoption of agreements that provide a more precise framework for trade, and
define the rights and the obligations of all partners. These agreements served to
strengthen the status of institutions like the Codex Alimentarius Commission and
the International Plant Protection Convention since these were used as a basis
for harmonization.
The Uruguay Round Agreements
The Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, which concluded in 1994,
established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to replace the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Uruguay Round negotiations were
the first to deal with the liberalization of trade in agricultural products, an area
excluded from previous rounds of negotiations. They also included negotiations
on reducing non-tariff barriers to international trade in agricultural products and
concluded with two binding agreements: the Agreement on the Application of
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and the Agreement on
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement). Members of WTO will apply these
agreements and the general terms are also applicable to countries that are not
WTO members.
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
confirms the right of WTO member countries to apply measures necessary to
protect the life and health of humans, animals and plants (FAO, 2000).
Prepared by: Catherine Bessy, Consultant, Food Quality and Standards Service, FAO, Rome
IV-16
Visual IV.3-1
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
(SPS)
States that measures (laws, regulations, and procedures) adopted by

governments to protect animal, plant, or human health should not be
maintained without sufficient scientific evidence.
Requires that WTO members base their national requirements on international
standards, guidelines and other recommendations adopted by the FAO/WHO
Codex Alimentarius Commission, the IPPC (International Plant Protection
Convention (IPPC) and International Office of Epizootics where they exist.
This agreement sets rules in an area previously excluded from GATT disciplines.
The purpose of the SPS Agreement is to ensure that measures established by
governments to protect human, animal and plant life and health (in the
agricultural sector only) are consistent with requirements prohibiting arbitrary or
unjustifiable discrimination in trade between countries where the same conditions
prevail. It also attempts to establish that these measures are not disguised
restrictions on international trade.
The SPS requires that, with regard to food safety measures, WTO members
base their national requirements on international standards, guidelines and other
recommendations adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission
(CAC), where they exist. This does not prevent a member country from adopting
stricter measures, if there is scientific justification for doing so or if the level of
protection afforded by the Codex standard is inconsistent with the level of
protection generally applied and deemed appropriate by the country concerned.
The SPS Agreement covers all food hygiene and food safety measures including
control of pesticides and other chemicals. In addition, it covers plant quarantine
measures. The SPS Agreement recognizes the IPPC (International Plant
Protection Convention) as the relevant international organization responsible for
the establishment of international standards for phytosanitary measures and
encourages countries to base their phytosanitary measures on IPPC standards,
guidelines or recommendations to promote global harmonization of phytosanitary
measures in trade. The SPS Agreement recognizes the International Office of
Epizootics as the organization to set benchmarks for meeting SPS requirements
related to animal health. The WTO Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures guides this work.
The SPS Agreement states that any measures taken that conform to
international Codex standards, guidelines or other recommendations are deemed
to be appropriate, necessary and non-discriminatory. Furthermore, the SPS
IV-17
Agreement calls for a program of harmonization of national requirements based

on international standards.
Visual IV.3-2
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)
Seeks to ensure that technical regulations and analytical procedures for
assessing conformity with technical regulations and standards do not create
unnecessary obstacles to trade.
The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade was established with the

objective of preventing the use of national or regional technical requirements, or
standards in general, as unjustified barriers to trade (FAO, 2000). The agreement
covers standards relating to all types of products including industrial and
agricultural products. Not covered are food standards related to sanitary and
phytosanitary measures. It includes numerous measures designed to protect
consumers against deception and economic fraud. Examples of food standards
covered by the TBT Agreement are those related to quality and labeling.
The TBT Agreement basically provides that all technical standards and
regulations must have a legitimate purpose and that the impact or cost of
implementing a standard must be proportional to the purpose of the standard. It
also says that if there are two or more ways of achieving the same objective, the
least trade-restrictive alternative should be followed. The agreement also places
emphasis on international standards and WTO members are obliged to use
international standards or parts of them except where the international standard
would be ineffective or inappropriate in the national situation. The TBT
Agreement does not include a program for harmonizing national standards.
Codex Alimentarius
The adoption of the SPS and TBT Agreements resulted in new emphasis and
importance being placed on the work of Codex in establishing international food
quality and safety standards.
Visual I.3-3
Codex Alimentarius
A code of international food standards. The purpose of Codex is
To guide and promote the elaboration of definitions and requirements for foods
and assist in their harmonization
To facilitate world trade
To promote consumer protection
IV-18
The name Codex Alimentarius is taken from Latin and translates literally as food
code or food law. The Codex Alimentarius is a series of food standards, codes
and other regulations adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
that countries can use as models in their domestic food legislation and
regulations, and which can be applied to international trade. Codex provides the
assurance that any foods produced according to its codes of hygienic practices
and complying with its standards are safe and nutritious and offer adequate
health protection.
The CAC was created in 1962 by two United Nations organizations, the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
Its main purpose is to promote consumer protection and to facilitate world trade
in foods through the development of food standards, codes of practice and other
guidelines (FAO/WHO, 1999). Since its inception, the CAC has been responsible
for implementing the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program (FAO, 2000).
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The CAC is an intergovernmental body with a current membership of 165

Member governments. Membership is open to all Member Nations and Associate
Members of FAO and WHO. In addition, observers from international scientific,
food industry, food trade and consumer associations may attend sessions of the
Commission and of its subsidiary bodies. While observer organizations can fully
participate in the proceedings of the meeting, by statute, only Member
governments can participate in any decision process.
An Executive Committee, six Regional Coordinating Committees and a

Secretariat assist the Commission in administering its work and other activities.
The work of the CAC is divided between two basic types of committees. The first
IV-19
type deals with general subject matter(s) that cuts across all food classes or
groups. The work of the second type of committee, the Codex Commodity
Committees, is specific for foods within a class or group. In addition, three ad hoc
Intergovernmental Codex Task Forces were established by the 23rd Session of
the CAC to develop standards, guidelines and recommendations for foods
derived from biotechnology, for animal feeding and for fruit juices.
There are nine general subject matter committees, each with different
responsibilities. These Committees deal with matters such as hygiene, veterinary
drugs, pesticides, food additives, labeling, methods of analysis, nutrition, and
import/export inspection and certification systems. For example, one Committee
is responsible for developing standards, recommendations and guidelines related
to microbiological contamination (Codex Committee on Food Hygiene). This
Committee also develops general hygienic (sanitation) practices and conditions
for food manufacturing, processing, production, handling, storing and
transporting. The subject matter committees interact with the Commodity
Committees. For example, the Committee on Food Labeling proposes standards
for labeling and for specific labeling requirements of commodities in co-operation
with the specific commodity committees.
The second type of Committee is one that deals with a specific type of food class
or group, such as dairy and dairy products, fats and oils, or fishes and fish
products. There are 12 Commodity Committees. Each works on a specific food
or class of food. Since its beginning, the CAC has adopted 204 different
standards for food in all of the main groups of food traded at the international
level. The Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables has elaborated a
number of standards for fresh fruits and vegetables that primarily address quality
issues. These are discussed further in Section V.
Codes of Practice provide guidance on acceptable manufacturing, food
processing and handling practices during production, transport and storage. The
CAC has elaborated 43 Codes. Some of these have a general application across
food product classes or groups, while others are specific for certain commodities
or foods. These Codes serve as a means of providing recommendations to
producers and to government regulatory organizations on specific Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) for the commodities they address. These
Codes, when used appropriately, can serve to enhance compliance with Codex
standards and international trading requirements.
The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene is currently developing a code of
hygienic practice for fresh fruits and vegetables entitled Draft Code of Hygienic
Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (ALINORM 03/13, Appendix II). This is
available via the Internet at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/Reports.htm. The
draft code is due for adoption as final text by the 25th Session of the CAC to be
held in 2003. The draft code addresses GAPs and GMPs that will help control
microbial, chemical, and physical hazards associated with all stages of the
IV-20
production of fresh fruits and vegetables from primary production to packaging.

Particular attention is given to minimizing microbial hazards.
Related to contaminants, CAC has established guidelines for the maximum
tolerable levels for 25 common industrial and environmental contaminants of
foods. Food additive evaluations have resulted in establishing acceptable use
levels (with no appreciable health risk over a lifetime) for 1300 additives used in
food. The review of pesticides for approved use in agricultural pest control
resulted in the evaluation of 197 pesticide chemicals, and establishing 2516
maximum residue levels for these pesticides in various foods.
All Codex standards are developed according to the same procedure. The CAC
decides that a standard should be developed and determines which subsidiary
body should undertake the work. Subsidiary bodies of the Commission also may
make the decision to elaborate standards, subject to the approval of the
Commission or the Executive Committee. The Secretariat of the Commission
then arranges for the preparation of a proposed draft standard which is
circulated to the Member countries for comments. The subsidiary body reviews
and revises the proposed draft standard in light of the comments received, then
may present the text to the Commission as a draft standard. If the Commission
adopts the draft standard, it is again sent to Member governments for further
comments. In the light of the comments received and after further consideration
by the subsidiary body concerned, the Commission reconsiders the draft and
may adopt it as a Codex standard.
Call for Harmonization
Visual IV.3-5
Harmonization
Establishing national measures consistent with international standards, guidelines
and recommendations.
To facilitate international trade, it has been necessary for efforts to be made to

harmonize food standards. Those involved in harmonization efforts recognized
that countries have the right to adopt standards they feel are appropriate to
protect human, animal and plant health and the environment. They also have the
right to take the steps necessary to assure these standards are met. However,
preventing these standards from becoming barriers to trade is important to
promote trade between countries (FAO, 1998).
The TBT Agreement does not specifically name the international standard setting
bodies whose standards are to be used as benchmarks for judging compliance
IV-21
with the provisions of the Agreement. However, the SPS Agreement specifically
names the CAC as the only recognized international food standard setting body.
The fact that the Codex Alimentarius is designated in the SPS Agreement
indicates the value given to the Codex Standards in the negotiations of the
Agreements and this spills over into the areas covered by the TBT Agreement.
National regulations that are consistent with Codex meet the requirements of
SPS and TBT Agreements. When joining the WTO, countries agree to adhere to
a number of agreements including the SPS and TBT Agreements. These two
agreements set the standards necessary to assure the regulation of food quality
and safety in international food trade. WTO Member governments agree to use
Codex standards as their reference. As Codex standards have the full support of
the SPS Agreement which advocates them as the basis for all national
standards, they play a significant role in the harmonization of national food safety
standards and may be used as a reference point for resolving trade disputes
between WTO Members.
Summary
1. The Uruguay Round negotiations dealt with the liberalization of trade in
agricultural products. They also included negotiations on reducing non-tariff
barriers to international trade in agricultural products and concluded with two
binding agreements: the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) and the Agreement on Technical
Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement).
2. The Codex Alimentarius is a series of food standards, codes and other
regulations adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) that
countries can use as models in their domestic food legislation and
regulations, and which can be applied to international trade. Codex provides
the assurance that any foods produced according to its codes of hygienic
practices and complying with its standards are safe and nutritious and offer
adequate health protection.
3. The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene is currently developing a code of
hygienic practice for fresh fruits and vegetables entitled Draft Code of
Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (ALINORM 03/13,
Appendix II). This draft code addresses GAPs and GMPs that will help
control microbial, chemical, and physical hazards associated with all stages of
the production of fresh fruits and vegetables from primary production to
packaging.
4. To facilitate international trade, harmonization of food standards is necessary
to prevent these standards from becoming barriers to trade between
countries.
IV-22
References
CDC. 1999. PulseNet. The National Molecular Subtyping Network in Place to
Combat Foodborne Illness. Press Release. Updated 2/18/99. Available via
the Internet at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/pulsenet/pulsenet.htm
FAO. 1998. Food Quality and Safety Systems. A Training Manual on Food
Hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)
System. Food Quality and Standards Service, Food and Nutrition Division,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO. 2000. Manual on Multilateral Trade Negotiations on Agriculture: A
Resource Manual. SPS and TBT Agreements. FAO, Rome. 2000.
FAO/WHO. 1999. Understanding the Codex Alimentarius. Available via the
Internet at http://www.fao.org/docrep/w9114e/w9114e00.htm
FDA. 1998a. Food Safety: A Team Approach. U.S. Food and Drug Administration
FDA Backgrounder BG-98-7.
FDA. 1998b. Guide to traceback of fresh fruits and vegetables implicated in
epidemiological investigations. Food and Drug Administration, Office of
Regulatory Affairs. Available via the Internet at http://www.fda.gov
/ora/inspect_ref/igs/epigde/epigde.html
FDA. 1999. Import Program System Information. Food and Drug Administration,
Office of Regulatory Affairs. Available via the Internet at
http://www.fda.gov/ora/import/ora_import_system.htm
FDA. 2001. National Food Safety System Project. Outbreak Coordination and
Investigation Workgroup. Multistate Foodborne Outbreak Investigations.
Guidelines for Improving Coordination and Communication. February,
2001. Available via the Internet at
http://www.fda.gov/ora/fed_state/NFSS/Outbreak_coordination.pdf
FDA. 2001. Requirements of Laws and Regulations Enforced by the U.S. Food
and Drug Administration. Available via the Internet at
http://www.fda.gov/opacom/ morechoices/smallbusiness/
blubook.htm#baseinfo
Guzewich, J.J. and Salsbury, P.A. 2000. FDAs role in traceback investigations
for produce. Food Safety Magazine. December, 2000/January, 2001.
Majkowski, J. 1997. Strategies for rapid response to emerging foodborne
microbial hazards. Emerg Infect Dis. 3(4): 551.
IV-23
Rawson, J.M. and Vogt, D.U. 1998. Food Safety Agencies and Authorities: A
Primer. Congressional Research Service Report 98-91 ENR. Available via
the Internet at http://www.cnie.org/nle/ag-40.html
Reingold, A. L. 1998. Outbreak investigations A perspective. Emerg Infect Dis.
4(1): 21.
IV-24
FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY

ASSURANCE ISSUES
Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be

reproduced and redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration
and without prior written permission, for nonprofit administrative or
educational purposes provided all copies contain the following
statement: 2002 University of Maryland. This work is reproduced
and distributed with the permission of the University of Maryland. No
other use is permitted without the express prior written permission of
the University of Maryland. For permission, contact JIFSAN,
University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742
V-1
SECTION V
FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES
MODULE 1
SAFETY AND QUALITY ASSURANCE*
Learning Outcomes
Participants will be able to describe the difference between quality and safety.
Participants should be aware of programs used for food safety and quality
assurance and the uses and limitations of such programs for the fresh
produce industry.
Practical
Experiment/Demonstration Product Integrity and Produce Contamination
Part II. FDA Publications FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of
Fruit and Vegetable Juices
Part V. Fundamentals of HACCP
Safety vs. Quality
Visual V.1-1
FOOD SAFETY
Assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and/or eaten according to its intended use.
Food safety is defined as the assurance that the food will not cause harm to the
consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use
(FAO/WHO, 1997). Thus food safety assurance involves the reduction of risks
*
Section prepared by Juan Silva, Ph.D. Mississippi State University, Carmen Hernandez-Brenes,
Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico and Pamela Brady, Ph.D., Institute of Food Science
and Engineering, University of Arkansas.
V-2
which may occur in the food. Implementation of Good Agricultural Practices and
Good Manufacturing Practices, as discussed in Sections II and III, are primary
steps in reducing the risks associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.
Visual V-1.2
FOOD QUALITY
The totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs.
Quality is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as
the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs. In other words, good quality exists when the
product complies with the requirements specified by the client (van Reeuwijk,
1998). This means quality is a term defined by the consumer, buyer, grader, or
any other client based on a number of subjective and objective measurements of
the food product. These may include measures of purity, flavor, color, maturity,
safety, wholesomeness, nutrition, or any other attribute or characteristic of the
product.
Using these definitions, safety is a component of quality. In fact, many experts
have argued that safety is the most important component of quality since a lack
of safety can result in serious injury and even death for the consumer of the
product.
Safety differs from many other quality attributes since it is a quality attribute that
is difficult to observe. A product can appear to be of high quality, i.e. well colored,
appetizing, flavorful, etc. and yet be unsafe because it is contaminated with
undetected pathogenic organisms, toxic chemicals, or physical hazards. On the
other hand, a product that seems to lack many of the visible quality attributes can
be safe.
Obvious quality defects can result in consumer rejection and lower sales, while
safety hazards may be hidden and go undetected until the product is consumed.
Since assuring safety is vital to public health, achieving safety must always take
precedence over achieving high levels of other quality attributes.
Safety and Quality Assurance Programs
Visual V.I-3
V-3
A safety or quality assurance program should focus on the prevention of problems,

not simply curing them.
Safety and quality assurance should be ongoing processes incorporating

activities beginning with selecting and preparing the soil and proceeding through
to consumption of the product. Both safety and quality assurance should focus
on the prevention of problems, not simply curing them since, once safety or
quality is reduced, it is virtually impossible to go back and improve it for that item.
It is possible however, to assure that the same problem does not affect future
products.
In order to assure adequate quality control of the product from seed to harvest to
the consumer, a strong, semi-independent quality assurance (QA) program or
department is needed. This program needs to be independent of production
management. For companies large enough to have a separate QA department, it
should report directly to the corporate president (Gould and Gould, 1993).
QA requires many diverse technical and analytical skills (IFT, 2001). QA
personnel continually monitor inputs into production as well as the products to
insure compliance with compositional standards, microbiological standards, and
various government regulations. A QA manager can halt production, refuse
acceptance of raw material, or stop the shipment of product if specifications for a
product or process are not met.
Although safety is a component of quality, safety assurance frequently is not
included in quality assurance programs. Sometimes safety and quality assurance
may be separate but complementary programs to ensure safety issues receive
appropriate emphasis. Although it is impossible with current technologies to
eliminate all potential food safety hazards associated with fresh produce to be
eaten raw, the importance of safety to consumer health makes it imperative that
safety programs be a primary component of all produce production and handling
operations.
Development of produce safety programs involves looking at each unit operation
individually from cultivation and harvest through the retail market. There will be
some steps at which contamination may occur and can be controlled. In many
cases the controls will be simple, common sense practices that the industry has
followed for years. In others, the existing infrastructure and common practices
will need modification in order to reduce or prevent contamination.
Good Agricultural Practices, Good Manufacturing Practices, Sanitation Standard
Operating Procedures, and HACCP-like activities are programs which may be
used at various stages in the farm to table chain to improve the safety of fresh
V-4
Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices

The production of safe food products requires that the safety assurance system
be built upon a solid foundation. Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) are key to providing a sound safety assurance
program (FDA, 1998).
GAPs and GMPs are guidelines established to ensure a clean and safe working
environment for all employees while eliminating the potential for contamination of
the food products. When applied to fresh produce production, GAPs and GMPs
address the issues of production site selection, adjacent land use, fertilizer
usage, water quality and usage, pest control and pesticide monitoring, harvesting
practices (including worker hygiene), packaging, storage, field sanitation and
product transportation. The International Commission on Microbiological
Specifications for Foods stated in 1986 that Good agricultural practices in
growing crops, combined with acceptable hygienic methods during harvesting,
packing, and transporting of vegetables are more important than microbiological
testing in minimizing risks for microbial contamination of fresh produce (Food
Science Australia, 2000). GAP and GMP programs were discussed in detail in
Sections II and III of this manual.
Standard Operating Procedures and Sanitation Standard Operating
Procedures
Visual V.1-4
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
Detailed descriptions of each step in the flow of the product and the way that these
steps are performed.
A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is a set of written instructions that
document a routine or repetitive activity used by an organization (U.S. EPA,
2001). SOPs detail the work processes that are to be conducted or followed.
They document the way activities are to be performed to facilitate consistent
conformance to safety and quality system requirements. SOPs are intended to
be specific to the organization or facility whose activities are described. They
assist that organization in maintaining their safety and quality control and in
ensuring compliance with regulations.
Visual V.1-5
Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs)
The procedures that must be followed in order to make sure that cleaning and
sanitation activities are performed correctly.
V-5
A key component of a safety plan is to establish Sanitation Standard Operating

Procedures (SSOPs). This involves the development of detailed descriptions of
the cleaning procedures and sanitation operations that must be performed to
prevent contamination or adulteration of the product (FSIS, 1996). SSOPs also
describe the frequency with which each procedure is to be conducted and
identify the employee(s) responsible for the implementation and maintenance of
each procedure.
Visual V.1-6
An SSOP usually includes:
Activity name
Place where it is performed
List of the equipment and material necessary to perform it
Frequency of performance
Approximate time to perform it
Responsible Individual
Description of every step necessary to perform the procedure

The establishment of standardized procedures for each sanitation activity helps
assure that the activities are being performed properly. In addition, order and
discipline are imposed, training is facilitated and dependence on an individuals
criteria of proper sanitation is reduced.
The SSOPs for an operation should detail the sanitation procedures to be used
before (pre-operational sanitation) and during (operational sanitation) operation
(FSIS, 1996). Pre-operational sanitation will result in clean facilities, equipment,
and utensils prior to starting the operation. Information which might be included in
pre-operational SSOPs:
Descriptions of equipment disassembly, reassembly after cleaning, use of
acceptable chemicals, and cleaning techniques
The application of sanitizers to product contact surfaces after cleaning
Routine sanitation operations that must be performed during the product handling
operations make up the operational SSOPs. Established procedures for
operational SSOPs will vary with the operations but might include:
Equipment and utensil cleaning, sanitizing and disinfecting during production,
and as appropriate, at breaks, between shifts, and at mid-shift.
Employee hygiene
Product handling
V-6
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

Visual V.1-7
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
HACCP is a systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and control of
food safety hazards. Preventing problems from occurring is the paramount goal
underlying any HACCP system.
A food safety assurance program often used by the food processing industry is
the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. HACCP is a
systematic approach to the identification, evaluation, and control of food safety
hazards. Preventing problems from occurring is the paramount goal underlying
any HACCP-like system. These systems focus attention on the parts of the
process that are most likely to affect the safety of the product.
Visual V.1-8
Use Of The HACCP System In Production Agriculture Is Limited
When fruits and vegetables are to be consumed fresh, there are no steps that can
eliminate or reduce biological hazards to acceptable levels after contamination.
Basically, controlling contamination through the application of Good Agricultural
Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices are the only ways to reduce hazards.
HACCP has limited usefulness in fruit and vegetable production since, with
present technologies, verifiable control of hazards may not be feasible. In
addition, when fruits and vegetables are to be consumed fresh, there are no
steps that can eliminate or reduce biological hazards to acceptable levels after
contamination. For this reason, HACCP is not mandated for fresh produce
production and handling activities.
Although HACCP has limited usefulness in the production of fresh fruits and
vegetables, it is a useful process for reducing hazards when produce is
processed. For this reason, HACCP has been mandated in the U.S. for fruit and
vegetable juice processors (FDA, 2001). Under the regulation, juice processors
must incorporate HACCP principles into their safety assurance program when
processing juice. (Further information about this requirement is included in the
FDA Publications listed in the Additional Resources section.)
V-7
Visual V.1-9
Hazard Analysis
The process of collecting and evaluating information on hazards associated with
the food under consideration to decide which are significant and must be
addressed in the safety assurance program.
Although a formal HACCP program is not appropriate for fresh fruit and
vegetable production and handling operations, there are steps in the production
chain where hazards can be minimized. So, the use of hazard analysis as a
series of logic steps to identify and solve potential problems is one approach to
fruit and vegetable safety programs. The identification of hazards in a process is
a valuable tool to recognize any control measures that can be implemented. In
many instances, these measures are already in place or are common sense
practices. However making a conscious effort to strengthen preventative actions
can minimize or prevent the hazards occurrence. HACCP and its applicability to
the produce industry are discussed in detail in Part V of the Additional Resources
section of this manual.
Programs such as GAPs, GMPs, SSOPs and HACCP-like approaches provide
the basic environmental and operating conditions that are necessary for the
production of safe, wholesome fruits and vegetables. Many of the conditions and
practices are specified in federal, state and local regulations and guidelines. The
Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene Basic Texts (FAO/WHO, 1997) describe the
basic conditions and practices expected for foods intended for international trade.
Summary
1. Food safety is defined as the assurance that the food will not cause harm to
the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use.
Implementation of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing
Practices are primary steps in reducing the risks associated with fresh fruits
and vegetables.
2. Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on
its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. It is a term defined by the
consumer, buyer, grader, or any other client based on subjective and
objective measurements of the food product.
3. Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that safety is the most
important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury
and even death for the consumer of the product.
V-8
4. Safety and quality assurance should be on-going processes incorporating

activities beginning with selecting and preparing the soil and proceeding
through to consumption of the product. Both safety and quality assurance
should focus on the prevention of problems, not simply curing them.
5. Although safety is a component of quality, safety assurance frequently is not
included in quality assurance programs. Sometimes safety and quality
assurance may be separate but complementary programs to ensure safety
issues receive appropriate emphasis. The importance of safety to consumer
health makes it imperative that safety programs be a primary component of
all produce production and handling operations.
6. Programs such as GAPs, GMPs, SSOPs and HACCP-like approaches
provide the basic environmental and operating conditions that are necessary
for the production of safe, wholesome fruits and vegetables.
V-9
Module 2
Quality Attributes, Grades and Standards
Learning Outcomes
Participants should understand the types of quality attributes associated with
fresh produce and measurement methods for these.
Participants should understand the purpose of food standards, grading and
inspection.
Practical
Experiment/Demonstration Fresh Produce Quality
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES
There are a number of ways of studying the quality attributes of food products.
One way is to look at the occurrence of the characteristics as the product is
encountered and consumed. Using this system, quality attributes are often
classified as external, internal, or hidden.
Visual V.2-1
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES
External
Internal
Hidden
Appearance (sight)
Feel (touch)
Defects
Odor
Taste
Texture
Wholesomeness
Nutritive Value
Safety
External quality attributes are those that are observed when the product is first
encountered. These attributes are generally related to appearance and feel. They
are perceived by the senses of sight and touch. The smell of a product,
particularly for very aromatic fruits and vegetables, may be an external attribute
but usually is more closely related to internal attributes. External attributes are
often play an important role in a consumers decision to purchase produce.
Internal quality characteristics are generally not perceived until the product is cut
or bitten. Acceptable levels of these attributes often affect the consumers
decision to repurchase a product. These internal attributes are related to aroma,
taste, and feel (for example, mouthfeel and toughness), and they are perceived
V-10
by the senses of smell, taste, and touch. The combination of external and internal
attributes determine the acceptability of a product (Pattee, 1985).
The third set of quality attributes, hidden attributes, are more difficult for most
consumers to measure or differentiate but the perception of these contribute to
the consumers decision to accept and to differentiate food products (Kramer and
Twigg, 1970; Pattee, 1985; Shewfelt, 1987). Hidden quality attributes include
wholesomeness, nutritional value, and safety of a product (Shewfelt, 1990).
Measurement of Quality Attributes
The list below provides a brief discussion of the predominant quality attributes
and how they are measured. Understanding this can provide growers, shippers,
and other produce industry personnel with a means of determining how well a
product meets consumer expectations of quality. It should be remembered that
consumers will evaluate quality mainly with their senses so objective methods
used for quality evaluations must relate to these sensory assessments.
External Attributes
Appearance includes factors such as size, shape, gloss, color, and absence
of defects.
Size and shape are measurements often used as grade standards or to
differentiate between items. The assessment of size and shape is often a
subjective process although, for many products, visual guides have been
developed.
Color is a primary indicator of maturity and is the result of the type and
quantity of pigments in the product. Changes in color are often related to
freshness or deterioration of the product. Color can be measured by
many visual or mechanical methods (i.e. colorimeters and
spectrophotometers).
Firmness, or how the product feels when touched, is related to softening of
the product. Firmness results from the cell wall structure and internal pressure
(turgor) within the cells. Loss of firmness may result from bruising, ripening, or
other breakdown mechanisms.
Firmness is usually measured by mechanical means (i.e. texture
analyses).
Defects may be due to production, handling, environment, diseases, and
other factors.
Defects are usually measured visually, though some mechanical methods
are being developed (i.e. ultrasound and machine vision).
Internal Attributes
Odor or aroma is the sum of the compounds perceived by the nose. It is very
difficult to determine objectively since it is a combination of qualitative
(predominant) and quantitative traits in a food product. Fruits and vegetables
are rich in aromatic compounds, many of which are yet to be identified.
V-11
Limited measurements of odor can be done with gas

chromatographs/mass spectrometers or similar mechanisms.
Taste is the perception of chemical compounds on the tongue and other
nerve endings of the mouth. The basic tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and
astringent.
Sweetness is directly related to sugars in the food and to the sugar to acid
ratio. Sourness is the result of the organic acids present. Compounds
such as those in citrus fruits or coffee usually impart bitterness, whereas
astringency is often the result of tannins such as the phenolic compounds
found in grapes. There are numerous methods of quantifying taste
compounds including spectrophotometric and gravimetric methods, liquid
and gas chromatography.
Texture is the composite of those properties which arise from the structural
elements of a product, and the manner in which this composite registers with
the physiological senses (Szczesniak, 1977). Most textural characteristics,
except firmness, are evaluated as mouthfeel, i.e. the impression on the
tongue, palate and teeth.
In produce, common textural characteristics include tenderness,
crispness, crunchiness, chewiness, and fibrousness. Texture is generally
determined by measuring force applied to the food.
Hidden Attributes
Wholesomeness is usually thought to be related to freshness. Defects in
wholesomeness may be brought about by the food itself or external factors
such as environment (temperature, humidity, etc.) or handling (bruising,
cutting).
Wholesomeness is a relatively difficult attribute to measure objectively, but
it is often taken into account in the grading and pricing of the product. This
attribute also involves a sanitary component (how clean/hygienic is the
product) and the presence of foreign materials. Microscopic,
microbiological, and x-ray technologies are among the many techniques
used to measure these attributes.
Nutritive value is related to the presence and levels of components that
support life.
Fruits and vegetables are valued as sources of essential vitamins and
minerals, as well as fiber. In recent years, they have also been recognized
as sources of antioxidants and other phytochemicals that are being
studied for their role in preventing or controlling certain human diseases.
The quality and quantity of these nutritional components is very important,
and is essential to consumer well-being. Wet chemistry, various
chromatographic methods, and other chemical and physical tests measure
nutritional value.
Safety is defined as the assurance that a food will not cause harm to the
consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use
(FAO/WHO, 1997).
V-12
Microbiological examination is the main method used to identify and

quantify the type and numbers of pathogenic microorganisms.
Production and handling practices may be evaluated to assure steps were
taken to minimize the risk of microbial contamination.
Food Standards
Food standards give precise criteria to ensure that products are fit for their stated
purposes. They provide common frames of reference for defining the product.
This makes standards useful to consumers, the industry and regulatory
authorities (Boutrif and Bessy, 1999). Included in standards may be
specifications for labeling, packaging, methods of analysis and sampling.
Visual V.2-2
Food standards are used to:
Provide consumers with information about the product
Maintain product quality uniformity
Establish market value
Prevent economic fraud

Standards are used to provide consumers with information about the product, to
maintain product quality uniformity, to establish market value, and to prevent
economic fraud. Without standards, different foods could have the same names
or the same foods could have different names (FDA, 2000).
In order to be successful, a produce company must sell their product. Continued
sales result from satisfaction during initial experiences with the product. It is
therefore in the best interest of a company to establish internal standards and/or
respond to client standards for products to assure client satisfaction.
Visual V.2-3
Areas in which produce industry standards may be established include:
Safety
Nutrition
Quality
Value
Areas in which produce industry standards may be established include (Gardner,
1993):
Safety standards for toxicological and microbiological hazards, and

procedures and practices to ensure that these standards are achieved
V-13
Nutrition maintaining nutrient levels through practices that promote high

quality product
Quality providing product with desirable levels of flavor, aroma, palatability,
and appearance
Value - attributes such as convenience, packaging, and shelf-life.
There are various bodies that set food standards. For products sold
internationally, these include the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the
International Standards Organization, ISO (ASQ, 2000), and various markets,
such as the European Union. Many individual countries like Australia and the
U.S. have been leaders in setting product standards. For Latin American and
Caribbean markets, standards have been established by organizations such as
Mercosur, Caricom, and the Andean Pact (Silva, 2000). Many of these standards
can be accessed via the Internet (IAFIS, 1999).
INTERNATIONAL (CODEX) STANDARDS
The Codex Committee on Fresh Fruits and Vegetables is responsible for
elaborating worldwide standards and codes of practice for fresh produce. A code
of practice for the Quality Inspection and Certification of Fresh Fruits and
Vegetables has been adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Rees
and Watson, 2000). This code of practice contains provisions for packing,
shipment, control, and inspection of fresh fruits and vegetables (CX/FFV 00/12,
Codex, 2000). Inspection and certification are conducted at the point of origin or
the point of destination by a national official or an officially recognized service
person. Codex standards are a combination of grading for quality and inspection
for wholesomeness, safety and freedom from economic fraud.
The objective of the Codex standards is to protect consumers' health and ensure
fair practices in the trade of food (Lindenmayer, 1999). The Codex Committee on
Food Import and Export Inspection recommends that, in consideration of
standards, public health protection issues be given the highest priority.
Systems for creating standards for imported foods are established by individual
countries. The imported food control system should ensure that imported
products are treated neither in a more nor less favorable manner than domestic
products. International norms for food import controls have been put forward by
FAO in Principles for Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification.
CAC/GL-20, 1995. These principles are designed to assist in assuring safety,
wholesomeness and quality of product in international trade without resulting in
unnecessary barriers to trade.
The Codex standards, guidelines and recommendations are recognized in the
World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements, however, there is no legal
obligation on WTO Members to adopt them into domestic law (Lindenmayer,
1999). The Agreements do, however, impose a legal obligation on WTO
V-14
members to explain and justify a domestic measure that is more trade restrictive
than the relevant Codex standard, guideline or recommendation. Consequently,
members must take these international norms into account when developing
domestic food law.
Fruit and Vegetable Grading and Inspection
Visual V.2-4
Grading Vs. Inspection

Grading refers to a voluntary program of classification of a product based on
certain characteristics, usually related to aesthetics. Grades usually do not
pertain to safety.
Inspection is usually a mandatory process done by government or other
agencies to insure a products wholesomeness, safety, and adherence to
regulations.
Grading is usually a voluntary program used by industry. Grade standards

describe the quality requirements for each grade of product, giving industry a
common language for buying and selling (USDA, 2000). This assures consistent
quality for consumers. Although not limited to the following, the U.S. grade
standards provide:
a voluntary means for determining levels of quality and value as a basis for:
sales quotations, buyers offers, damage claims, loan values, futures trading,
military and other government purchases, and market news reporting.
a common language for trading where the commodity cannot be readily
displayed or examined by the prospective buyers.
a guide for packing which enables packers and processors to: purchase
suitable quality, use raw materials effectively, and pack products for diverse
domestic and international markets.
a means of marking official USDA quality levels on product labels.
In the U.S., the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA-AMS) provides
grading services for fresh fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Users pay a fee to cover
the cost of the service. Grading is voluntary except for commodities that are
regulated for quality by a marketing order or marketing agreement, or that are
subject to import or export requirements. Grading may be conducted at the
shipping point as produce is being packed for shipment to market, or at the
destination, for the receiver's use in handling the lot or to settle questions that
may arise between the shipper and the receiver.
As the basis for its fresh product grading services, USDA has developed over
150 official grade standards for fresh fruits, vegetables, tree nuts, peanuts, and
related commodities (Copies of the U.S. grade standards can be viewed or
printed from the Internet at http://www.ams.usda.gov/standards). USDA also has
V-15
developed a number of specific guidelines to ensure that the grades are applied
uniformly. If a request for official grading is based on U.S. grade standards, the
official certificate covering the shipment will show which USDA grade the product
met.
This service is different from the one conducted by the USDA Agricultural Plant
Health Inspection Service (APHIS). The APHIS program inspects fruits and
vegetables for the presence of unwanted pests. Thus, inspection is a mandatory
program by a government branch, to insure wholesomeness and safety and to
prevent economic fraud in the food industry.
Summary
1. Quality attributes are often classified as external, internal, or hidden. External
quality attributes are those that are observed when the product is first
encountered. These attributes are generally related to appearance and feel.
Internal quality characteristics are generally not perceived until the product is
cut or bitten. Internal attributes include aroma, taste, and feel (for example,
mouthfeel and toughness). Hidden quality attributes include wholesomeness,
nutritional value, and safety of the product.
2. Food standards give precise criteria to ensure that products are fit for their
stated purposes. Standards are used to provide consumers with information
about the product, to maintain product quality uniformity, to establish market
value, and to prevent economic fraud. There are various bodies that set food
standards. For products sold internationally, these include the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the International Standards Organization,
ISO (ASQ, 2000), individual countries, and various markets, such as the
European Union. For Latin American and Caribbean markets, standards have
been established by organizations such as Mercosur, Caricom, and the
Andean Pact.
3. Grading is usually a voluntary program used by industry. Grade standards
describe the quality requirements for each grade of product, giving industry a
common language for buying and selling. In the U.S., the USDA Agricultural
Marketing Service (USDA-AMS) provides grading services for fresh fruits,
vegetables, and nuts. Users pay a fee to cover the cost of the service.
Grading is voluntary except for commodities that are regulated for quality by a
marketing order or marketing agreement, or that are subject to import or
export requirements.
4. Inspection is usually a mandatory process done by government or other
agencies to insure a products wholesomeness, safety, and adherence to
regulations.
V-16
Module 3
Quality Attributes and Spoilage
Learning Outcomes
Participants should become aware of the causes of spoilage and deterioration
of fresh produce and their effect on food safety.
Practical
Mechanisms of Produce Deterioration and Spoilage

Visual V.3-1
Fruit, vegetables and root crops are very perishable and, if care is not taken in
their harvesting, handling and transport, they will soon decay and become unfit for
human consumption.
Fruit, vegetables and root crops are very perishable and, if care is not taken in
their harvesting, handling and transport, they will soon decay and become unfit
for human consumption. Estimates of production losses in developing countries
are hard to judge, but some authorities put losses of sweet potatoes, plantain,
tomatoes, bananas and citrus fruit as high as 50 percent, or half of what is grown
(FAO, 1989). This figure is even higher for underdeveloped countries. Reduction
in these losses, particularly if they can be avoided economically, would be of
great significance to growers and consumers alike.
All fruits, vegetables and root crops are living plant parts containing 65 to 95
percent water and they continue their life processes after harvest (FAO, 1989).
The post-harvest life of produce depends on the rate at which stored food
reserves are used up and the rate of water loss.
The changes that occur not only lead to reduced quality but can also make the
product more susceptible to contamination with microorganisms. Although the
microorganisms involved in produce deterioration may be of public health
significance, their effects on human health are often limited since the
physiological deterioration of the product often makes the product unfit for
consumption. However, the potential for the growth of harmful microorganisms
along with the loss of product quality make it important to not only understand the
factors involved in product deterioration, but also the steps needed to maintain
the best possible quality for the life of the product.
V-17
The nature of the product itself, along with the handling and storage treatments it
receives, dictates the life of the product. The table below identifies some of the
principle causes of post harvest losses and poor quality for the various groups of
Table V-2. Principle Causes of Post-harvest Losses and Poor Quality for Various
Groups of Fruits and Vegetables (Kitinoja and Kader, 1995)
Product Group
Root Vegetable
(carrots, beets, onions, garlic, potato,
sweet potato)
Leafy Vegetables
(lettuce, chard, spinach, cabbage, green
onions)
Flower Vegetables
(artichokes, cauliflower, broccoli)
Immature Fruit Vegetables

(cucumbers, squash, eggplant, peppers,
okra, snap beans)
Mature Fruit Produce

(tomatoes, melons, bananas, mangoes,
apples, grapes, stone fruit)
Principle Causes Of
Postharvest Losses And Poor Quality
Mechanical injuries
Improper curing
Sprouting
Water Loss
Decay
Chilling injury
Water loss
Loss of green color
Mechanical injuries
Relatively high respiration rates
Decay
Mechanical injuries
Discoloration
Water loss
Abscission of florets
Decay
Overmaturity at harvest
Water loss
Bruising and other mechanical

injuries
Chilling injury
Decay
Bruising
Over-ripeness at harvest
Water loss
Chilling injury
Compositional changes
Deterioration, or undesirable quality changes, may be the result of biological,

microbiological, biochemical/physiological, or physical changes in the product.
Factors identified as causes of deterioration usually encourage the conditions
that lead to quality losses. These factors are usually the result of inadequate
training of product handlers, inadequate or non-existent storage structures,
unsuitable or inadequate technologies for handling and storing product,
ineffective quality control, and adverse/extreme environmental conditions (Satin,
V-18
2000). In addition, time is an important factor in the spoilage of produce (Potter

and Hotchkiss, 1995).
Table V-3. Causes of Deterioration/Spoilage Factors in Fruits and Vegetables
Deterioration Factor
Cause
Biological
Pests (insects, rodents, birds)
Microbiological
Physiological
Respiration
Ethylene production
Growth, development
Maturation, ripening, senescence
Transpiration and water loss
Disorders, injury
Chemical/Biochemical
Enzymic
Oxidation
Non-enzymic changes
Light oxidation
Inadequate GMPs
Inadequate controls
Heat
Environment (temp, gas atm.)
Time, environment
Time, environment
Packaging, RH, air velocity
Chilling, heat, freezing, gas comp.
Environment, handling/bruising
Oxygen
Packaging, composition, heat
Packaging
Physical
Bruising, crushing
Wilting
Texture changes
Moisture change
Handling, packaging
Relative humidity, packaging
Environment, packaging
Relative humidity, packaging,
environment
Time
Biological Causes of Deterioration
Visual V.3-2
Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of
biological deterioration of produce.
Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of
biological deterioration of produce. The presence of pests and/or their droppings
is cause for alarm. They can result in product that is unsightly and can produce a
significant food safety hazard. Pests can spread disease-causing organisms to
produce. They also cause damage to the surfaces of fruits and vegetables
V-19
leading to greater susceptibility to invasion by microorganisms that can cause

product spoilage and/or disease to consumers. Proper sanitation in all produce
handling and storage areas is the most effective weapon against these pests.
Visual V.3-3
Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major causes
of food deterioration.
Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major causes
of food deterioration. These organisms may cause softening, off-color, and offflavor in produce. Some microorganisms, called pathogens, will result in illness of
those consuming the product if present in sufficient quantity in the foods. In
general, fruits and vegetables offer considerable resistance to microbial activity.
However, the softening that usually accompanies aging of products and
mechanical injuries increase the susceptibility of produce to microorganisms.
Visual V.3-4
Respiration is the process by which plants take in oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide.
Respiration is the process by which plants take in oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide (FAO, 1989). Oxygen from the air is involved in the process of breaking
down carbohydrates in the plant into carbon dioxide and water. This reaction
produces energy in the form of heat. Respiration is a basic reaction of all plant
material, both in the field and after harvest. Product respiration is important to
fresh produce handling since the energy released as heat affects refrigeration
and ventilation requirements for the products.
The rate of deterioration of fruits and vegetables is usually proportional to their
rate of respiration. Lowering temperatures, minimizing bruising and damage, and
increasing CO2 in the gas atmosphere are steps to control respiration.
V-20
Table V-4. Classification of horticultural commodities according to their

respiration rates (Wilson et al., 1995).
Class
Very low
Range at 5oC
(mg CO2/Kg-hr)
<5
Low
5 10
Moderate
10-20
High
20-40
Very high
40-60
Extremely high
>60
Commodities
Nuts, dates, dried fruits
and vegetables
Apple, citrus, grape,
kiwifruit, garlic, onion,
potato (mature), sweet
potato
Apricot, banana, cherry,
Strawberry, blackberry,
raspberry, cauliflower,
lima bean, avocado
Artichoke, snap bean,
green onion, brussel
sprouts, cut flowers
Asparagus, broccoli,
mushroom, pea, spinach,
sweet corn
Ethylene (C2H4) regulates many aspects of plant growth and development,

including aging and ripening. This hormone, produced by plant tissue, is
physiologically active in trace amounts (<0.1 ppm), and its rate of activity is
increased by ripening, injury, disease, high temperatures (>30oC), and water
stress. Ethylene production is slowed/inhibited by storing produce at low
temperatures, reducing oxygen in the environment surrounding the product to
less than 8% and increasing CO2 to greater than 2%. A number of technologies,
such as ethylene absorbers, have been developed to help lower the ethylene
around produce.
Visual V.3-5
Based on ethylene production and respiration rates, the ripening behavior of fruits
and vegetables is designated as non-climacteric or climacteric
Based on ethylene production and respiration rates, the ripening behavior of
fruits and vegetables is designated as non-climacteric or climacteric (FAO, 1989):
Non-climacteric ripening refers to products that ripen only while still attached
to the parent plant. The eating quality of such products suffers if they are
harvested before they are fully ripe because their sugar and acid content
does not increase after harvest. Respiration rate slows gradually during
V-21
growth and after harvest. Maturation and ripening are gradual processes.
Examples are cherry, grape, lemon, and pineapple.
Climacteric products that can be harvested when mature but before ripening
has begun. These fruits may be ripened naturally or artificially after harvest.
The start of ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in both respiration rate
and ethylene production, called the respiratory climacteric. After the
climacteric, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and develops good
eating quality. Examples are apple, banana, papaya, and tomato.
In addition to respiration rate and ethylene production, other factors related to

growth, development, maturation and ripening/senescence contribute to a
products deterioration. Sprouting (rooting) of roots, bulbs and tubers, and
elongation and curvature may lead to problems in quality during plant
development. Increased lignin content (fibrousness) and browning reactions
during the maturation process may lead to reduced produce quality.
Plant material is constantly losing water through a process called transpiration. In
the living plant, this water is replaced by water taken up through the roots. When
produce is harvested, it loses its source of replacement water. Transpiration after
harvest can lead to shrinking, wilting, shriveling, softening, and loss of crispiness,
juiciness, and nutritional quality of produce. Adequate coating (waxes) or
packaging and controlling the environment around the product through
maintenance of high relative humidity, and control of circulation rate (air velocity)
may control transpiration.
Visual V.3-6
Freezing injury, chilling injury, heat injury, and CO2 injury may cause physiological
damage that can contribute to produce deterioration.
Physiological damage may result from pre-harvest environmental conditions or
inadequate post-harvest storage and handling. Freezing injury (when the product
is held below the freezing point), chilling injury (occurring in many tropical and
sub-tropical crops held below 5-15oC), heat injury (exposure to very high
temperatures), and CO2 injury (high CO2 concentrations in the surrounding
atmosphere) may cause physiological damage that can contribute to produce
deterioration. Some of the resulting symptoms are surface and internal
discoloration (browning by phenoloxidases), pitting/hardcore, water soaked
areas, failure to ripen/uneven ripening, off-flavor, accelerated decay, bleaching,
surface burning, and desiccation. These and other disorders due to physiological
damage can be prevented by proper harvest and post-harvest handling of the
products.
V-22
Chemical Factors of Deterioration

Enzymes are proteins that occur naturally in plant tissues and catalyze a number
of important biochemical reactions. Some enzyme-catalyzed reactions are
beneficial while others result in quality deterioration. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions
can result in softening of tissue due to the breakdown of structural material;
development of off-flavors through the breakdown of lipid components; and loss
of color and undesirable browning. Enzymes also may catalyze fermentation of
sugars, breakdown of ascorbic acid, and many other deterioration reactions.
Bruising, ripening, cutting, temperature, and presence of co-factors (e.g. Fe and
Mg) increase the rate of degradative enzyme activity.
Degradative oxidation is initiated by the presence of oxygen. Oxidation can result
in ascorbic acid breakdown, some pigment (color) loss and the formation of offflavors. Non-enzymatic browning and light-induced oxidation are not very
common deterioration factors in horticultural products.
Physical Causes of Deterioration
The high moisture content and soft texture of fruits and vegetables make them
susceptible to mechanical injury, which can occur at any stage from production to
retail marketing (FAO, 1989). This damage may occur because of:
poor harvesting practices
unsuitable field or marketing containers and crates, which may have
splintered wood, sharp edges, poor nailing or stapling
overpacking or underpacking of field or marketing containers
careless handling, such as dropping or throwing or walking on produce and
packed containers during the process of grading, transport or marketing.
Physical injuries are not only unsightly but also accelerate water loss, provide
sites for fungal and microbial infection, and stimulate the products production of
carbon dioxide and ethylene leading to more rapid decay. Cushioning, good
handling practices, and proper packaging are some of the ways to minimize
physical damage.
Time is a factor that plays a very important role in product decay. All products
eventually lose their minimum acceptable quality (MAQ), thus, age becomes a
very important factor in product deterioration and rapid transport to the consumer
is essential.
Summary
1. All fruits, vegetables and root crops are living plant parts containing 65 to 95
percent water. They continue their life processes after harvest. The changes
that occur not only lead to reduced quality but can also make the product
more susceptible to contamination with microorganisms. The nature of the
V-23
product itself, along with the handling and storage treatments it receives,
dictates the life of the product.
2. Deterioration, undesirable quality changes, may be the result of biological,
microbiological, biochemical/physiological, or physical changes in the product
3. Pests such as insects, rodents and birds, are often identified as causes of
biological deterioration of produce. They can result in product that is unsightly
and can produce a significant food safety hazard. Pests can spread diseasecausing organisms to produce. They also cause damage to the surfaces of
fruits and vegetables leading to greater susceptibility to invasion by
microorganisms that can cause product spoilage and/or disease to
consumers. Proper sanitation in all produce handling and storage areas is the
most effective weapon against these pests.
4. Spoilage microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are major
causes of food deterioration. These organisms may cause softening, off-color,
and off-flavor in produce. Some microorganisms, called pathogens, will result
in illness of those consuming the product if present in sufficient quantity in the
foods. In general, fruits and vegetables offer considerable resistance to
microbial activity. However, the softening that usually accompanies aging of
products and mechanical injuries increases the susceptibility of produce to
pathogens.
5. Respiration rate, ethylene production, transpiration, and other factors related
to growth, development, maturation and ripening/senescence contribute to
produce deterioration.
6. Injury due to freezing, chilling, heat, and CO2 buildup may cause physiological
damage that can contribute to produce deterioration. These and other
disorders due to physiological damage can be prevented by proper harvest
and post-harvest handling of the products.
V-24
References
ASQ. 2000. ISO 9000 Standards for quality. Amer. Soc. Qual. Available via the
Internet at http://www.iso-9000-2000.com
Boutrif, E. and Bessy, C. 1999. Basic approaches to consumer protection
FAO/WHO Model Food Act Control procedures. Presented at
Conference on International Food Trade Beyond 2000: Science-based
Decisions, Harmonization, Equivalence, and Mutual Recognition,
Melbourne, Austrailia October 11-15.
Codex. 2000. Codex committee on fresh fruits and vegetables. Available via the
Internet at http://www.codexalimentarius.net
FAO. 1989. Prevention of post-harvest food losses: Fruits, vegetables, and root
crops a training manual. FAO Training Series No. 17/2, Rome, Italy.
Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/
t0073e/T0073E00.htm
FAO/WHO. 1997. Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene Basic Texts. Joint
FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission.
Pub. # M-83.
FDA. 2000. Food standards. Available via the Internet at
www.fda.gov/opacom/morechoices/smallbusiness/blubook/ foodstds.htm
FDA. 2001. FDA publishes final rule to increase safety of fruit and vegetable
juices. Food and Drug Administration News Release, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration. Available via the Internet at
http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2001/NEW00749.html
Food Science Australia. 2000. Packaged minimally-processed fresh-cut
vegetables. In Food Safety and Hygiene- A Bulletin for the Australian
Food Industry, Food Science Australia. May. Available via the Internet at
http://www.dfst.csiro.au/fshbull/fshbull21.htm
FSIS. 1996. FSIS Pre-HACCP Standard Sanitation Operating Procedures
Reference Guide. Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
Gardner, S. 1993. Consumers and food safety: A food industry perspective. In
Food, Nutrition, and Agriculture Consumer participation in food control.
V-25
J.L. Albert, ed. FAO, Rome. Available via the Internet at

http://www.fao.org/docrep/v2890t/v2890t00.htm
Gould, W.A. and Gould, R.W. 1993. Total Quality Assurance for the Food
Industries. 2nd ed. CTI Publications, Baltimore, MD, USA.
IAFIS. 1999. Food standards library. Available via the Internet at
www.iafis.org/fiic/stan/stan1.htm
IFT. 2001. Introduction to the Food Industry Lesson 1. Food Quality and Safety
Assurance. Edited by Claus, L., Montecalvo, J., and Pappas, A. Available
via the Internet at http://www.ift.org/education/food_industry/
lesson1.shtml
Kitinoja, L. and Kader, A.A. 1995. Small-scale postharvest handling practices A
manual for horticultural crops. 3rd Edition. University of California, Davis.
Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/x5403e/
x5403e00.htm
Kramer, A., and Twigg, B.A. 1970. Quality Control for the Food Industry. 3rd ed.
AVI, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Lindenmayer, I. 1999. Harmonization of food regulations and food quality/safety
measures based on Codex standards, guidelines, and recommendations.
Presented at Conference on International Food Trade Beyond 2000:
Science-based Decisions, Harmonization, Equivalence, and Mutual
Recognition, Melbourne, Austrailia October 11-15.
Pattee, H. E. 1985. Evaluation of Quality of Fruits and Vegetables. AVI, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Potter, N. N., and Hotchkiss, J.H. 1995. Food Science. 5th ed. Chapman & Hall,
New York.
Rees, N. and Watson, D. 2000. International Standards for Food Safety. Aspen
Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD.
Satin, M. 2000. Trends in post-production technology. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Available via the Internet at http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/grey_lit/
g0002e/g0002e.htm
Shewfelt, R.L. 1987. Quality of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. J.
Food Qual. 10:143.
Shewfelt, R.L. 1990. Quality of fruits and vegetables. Food Technol. 44(6):99100.
V-26
Silva, J.L. 2000. Food laws and regulations in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Presented at IFT Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX. June 10-14.
Szczesniak, A.S. 1977. An overview of recent advances in food texture research.
Food Technol. 31(4): 71-75.
USDA. 2000. Fruit and vegetable programs. Available via the Internet at
www.ams.usda.gov/fv/fvstand.htm
U.S. EPA. 2001. Guidance for Preparing Standard Operating Procedures. Office
of Environmental Information, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA/240/B-01/004. Available via the internet at
http://www.epa.gov/quality1/qs-docs/g6-final.pdf
van Reeuwijk, L.P. 1998. Guidelines for quality management in soil and plant
laboratories. FAO, Rome. Publication #M-90. Available via the Internet at
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7295e/w7295e00.htm
Wilson, L.G., Boyette, M.D., and Estes, E.A. 1995. Postharvest handling and
cooling of fresh fruits, vegetables, and flowers for small farms. Part I:
Quality maintenance. Horticultural Information Leaflet #800, North
Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Available via the Internet at
http://ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-800.html
V-27
DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING

COURSE

VI-1
SECTION VI
DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING COURSE
Introduction*
This section is aimed at assisting trainers in implementing the steps for planning,
organizing and evaluating a training course. It complements the other sections on
good agricultural practices for improving the safety and quality of fresh fruit and
vegetables by providing information that can be useful in the preparation of a
training course. This section is based primarily on cited FAO publications related
to training methods and planning for effective training.
Module 1
Planning for Effective Training:
Identifying Needs and Setting Objectives
Learning Outcomes:
To assist trainees in applying the key steps in planning effective training
To provide practical information on identifying training needs and setting
training objectives
Practical:
Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on Good
Agricultural Practices (GAPs): 3 Scenarios (Questions 1-2)
Training is a complex activity and must be carefully planned. Too often when
technical experts are hired to conduct a workshop or a training session little
thought is given to careful planning and design of the instruction. Design and
preparation of a training course usually consumes more time than delivery of the
material. This module reviews steps for effective planning and delivery of a
training course.
Prepared by Mary Kenny, Nutrition Officer, Food Quality and Standards Service, Food and
Nutrition Division, FAO and Lydda Gaviria, Communication for Development, Education and
Extension Officer, FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean
VI-2
Visual VI.1-1
Definitions
Training - extends and develops capabilities for better job performance. It
involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to
perform specific roles in the workplace
Trainers include extension educators, university faculty, government officials,
industry personnel and consultants
Trainees are the people responsible for producing or handling fresh fruit and
vegetables
Training extends and develops capabilities for better performance on the job. It
involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to perform
specific roles in the workplace. Persons charged with training to improve the
quality and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables include extension educators,
university faculty, government officials, industry personnel and consultants. The
audience, or trainees, are the people responsible for producing or handling the
fresh fruit and vegetables, i.e. the farmers (both managers and workers) and
packinghouse and warehouse personnel.
Visual VI.1-2
Trainee Motivation
People are motivated to learn when they see that
through learning they can satisfy a need or a want
they may earn prestige, and/or increase their income and therefore provide a
better livelihood for themselves and their family
In all training/learning environments trainee motivation is essential for receptivity

and learning. Research has shown that learning is at a maximum when people
are motivated to learn (Knowles et al., 1998). For example, fresh food that is
produced using good agricultural practices can result in more income to all
involved in the production process.
VI-3
To highlight the importance of improving the quality and safety of fresh fruit and
vegetables, trainers may outline the following points:
agriculture makes an important contribution to the economy of most countries;
fresh fruit and vegetables have been associated with outbreaks of foodborne
illness, some of which have resulted in deaths;
food produced for rural and urban communities and for the export market
must be safe to avoid human illness and lost trade opportunities;
safe food is vital in protecting consumer health and the reputation of the
exporting country;
safety and quality controls are required at all stages in the food chain,
including that of the primary producer: the farmer or grower.
During implementation of training, continually referring to these practical
considerations will help trainees recognize the importance of the subject matter
and motivate them to learn.
Planning for Effective Training
Visual VI.1-3
Planning for Effective Training
Identify the participants and set a date for the training course (Module 1)
Assess training participants needs (Module 1)
Set training objectives (Module 1)
Prepare and organize training content (Module 2)
Select training methods and prepare materials (Module 2)
Organize the training course (Module 3)
Develop evaluation strategy (Module 3)
Successful training requires careful planning by the trainer. Planning helps the
trainer determine that the appropriate participants have been invited to the
training course and that the training is designed to meet their needs in an
effective way.
Identify the Participants
Target audiences may be identified by the trainer or by other professionals as an
observed group needing assistance. Alternatively, trainers may be approached
VI-4
by a group of several individuals seeking help to address a common problem or

need.
To address a common need it may be necessary to provide two different levels of
training: one for workers and one for management. It is important to ensure that
all of the trainees have received the appropriate level of information to bring
about the desired change and achieve training objectives.
Visual VI.1-4
Adult learning is strengthened when:
the message is pitched at the right level

the message adds to or builds on the existing knowledge of the audience
the learner is motivated and has a desire to learn
Research indicates that learning by adults is strengthened when: (Zemke and

Zemke, 1984):
the message is pitched at the right level;
the message adds to or builds on the existing knowledge of the audience;
the learner is motivated and has a desire to learn.
Farmers carry out many of the tasks that affect quality and safety of fresh
produce. Therefore, they are a primary audience for training on improving the
safety of fresh fruits and vegetables. Farmers generally have a great deal of life
experience and knowledge about farming practices and can build on this base
knowledge through access to information. Recognition of their existing
knowledge by the trainer is important for a productive learning environment. A
trainer should respect the expertise of the farmers in order not to appear
insulting. Farmers may come to the training environment with strong fixed ideas
on the subject matter. These ideas may interfere with their acceptance of new
information or new skills. A respectful attitude and presentation of training
material that adds to existing knowledge will help ensure acceptance of new
ideas.
To ensure the information is delivered at the appropriate level, the trainer needs
to listen and learn from the target audience about their existing level of
knowledge. A formal assessment of their understanding of the subject matter can
be made as indicated below.
Once the target audience is identified, the trainer should ensure that they are
invited and able to attend the training course. The trainer may need to determine
the most appropriate season, days of the week and time to conduct the training
course to ensure the participation of the identified group.
VI-5
Assess Participants Needs

Visual VI.1-5
Needs Assessment
A needs assessment:
Identifies the gap between what is and what should be

Indicates what training should focus on
Helps to define the training objectives and the selection of the training activities
Perhaps one of the most important and most often overlooked aspects of the
planning stages of a training course is needs assessment. A needs assessment
identifies the gap between what is and what should be. It indicates what
training should focus on and helps to define the training objectives. It also aids in
the selection of the training activities. (Swanson et al., 1997)
The assessment indicates what the participants want and need from the training
so that the training course is useful to the participants (Swanson et al., 1997).
Based on this, the training objectives for the course can be established.
Visual VI.1-6
A needs assessment helps avoid common mistakes in training, such as:
Including a topic that is already familiar to the trainees

Including a topic that has little relevance for the trainees
Omitting a topic that is important to the trainees
The trainer may have a perception of the needs of the trainees, but validation of
these needs is essential. A realistic look at the situation of the trainees will help
the trainer focus the presentation to the needs and realities of the participants. A
needs assessment will also indicate additional information that should be
presented, identify problems trainees may have with the topic and provide
information on possible constraints that could prevent trainees from applying the
new information and practices.
An assessment of the trainees needs can be carried out by meeting with the
trainees, administering questionnaires and/or reviewing key materials such as
policy documents, annual reports and evaluations. The needs assessment can
be conducted in advance of the training or in the initial stages of the training
course. The trainer should be alert to any new needs or problem areas the
trainees may identify during the course.
VI-6
A trainer who is less familiar with the specific circumstances and working
environment of their trainees may need to conduct a more in-depth needs
assessment. It might include gaining an increased familiarity with the trainees
concerns through field visits, discussions with their supervisors and/or more indepth interviews with the trainees.
Set Training Objectives
Training objectives state what will be accomplished as a result of the training and
are defined in light of the needs identified. They arise out of gaps and
deficiencies identified in the process of needs assessment. Training objectives
may indicate that trainees will display an understanding of certain concepts,
demonstrate a given skill or show a change in attitude. Content, method of
instruction, reading material, lab exercises and forms of evaluation strategies are
all derived from identifying the training objectives. Without measurable training
objectives, learning cannot be successfully planned or evaluated.
Visual VI.1-7
Clear training objectives provide a sound basis for:
Organizing the trainers work

Informing trainees of the learning expected
Selecting the training materials and methods
Delivering an effective training program
Evaluating the success of the training course
Well-defined training objectives will keep all involved on the right track throughout
the training. They provide an important link between the needs assessment and
the design and preparation of the training materials. The trainer can assess if the
objectives were met, indicating whether the training was successful in meeting
the needs of the trainees. The training objectives therefore provide the basis of
evaluation.
Visual VI.1-8
Objectives for training may involve
Improving Skills
Increasing Knowledge
Changing Attitude
In converting needs into objectives, three areas of performance may be

identified: skills, knowledge and attitude (Swanson et al., 1997). Skills-related
VI-7
objectives indicate what the trainee can do, demonstrate or perform as result of
the training. Knowledge-related objectives refer to the participants ability to
identify, define or describe given concepts as a result of the training. Attitude
objectives are less easy to measure although it may be useful to make explicit
the desired attitudinal change.
The trainer and the trainees should understand and agree on the objectives of
the training course. It is a useful technique for the trainer to refer to the course
objectives at key times in the course to ensure that the trainees recognize how
the training is progressing towards achieving the objectives. When participants
know what is expected of them they can organize their efforts more effectively.
Summary
1. Training involves transfer of new knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes to
perform specific roles in the workplace.
2. In order for training to be effective, trainees must recognize the importance of
the subject matter and be motivated to learn. With regard to the safety of
fresh fruits and vegetables, training is important because:
Agriculture makes an important economic contribution to most countries;
Fresh fruit and vegetables have been associated with outbreaks of
foodborne Illness, some of which have resulted in deaths;
Food produced for local use and for the export market must be safe;
Safe food is vital in protecting consumer health and the reputation of the
exporting country;
Safety and quality controls are required at all stages in the food chain.
3. The steps in planning for effective training include:
Identify the participants and set a date for the training course
Assess training participants needs
Set training objectives
Prepare and organize training content
Select training methods and prepare materials
Organize the training course
Develop evaluation strategy
4. A needs assessment identifies the gap between what is and what should
be. It indicates what the training should focus on, helps to define the training
objectives and aids in selection of the training activities.
5. Training objectives state what will be accomplished as a result of the training
and are defined in light of the needs identified. They arise out of gaps and
deficiencies identified in the process of needs assessment.
VI-8
Module 2
Preparing and Organizing the Training Content
Outcomes:
To assist trainees in applying key steps in planning effective training
To provide trainees with practical information on organizing the content of the
training course
To provide trainees with practical information on selecting training methods
and teaching aids
Practical:
Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3
Scenarios (Questions 3 and 4)
Field Site Visit Guide
Additional Resources:
Choosing the Correct Training Aids
The content of the training course should link directly with problem areas
identified in the needs assessment and the training objectives. The training
content can be organized in outline form to help prioritize and sequence the
material (Swanson et al., 1997). The end result should be that the training
content is presented at the correct level to meet the objectives of the trainees.
Visual VI.2-1
Preparing and Organizing the Training Content
The training content and flow of information should maintain the interest of the
audience
The training content can be organized in outline form
Each step in the outline should contain a distinct message that may be
presented in introduction, body and conclusion form
VI-9
In some instances the trainer may have a very clearly defined objective, even
before the needs assessment. For example, when a new law is being introduced,
certain groups may need to be informed about the new law, how it will affect
them and their responsibilities under it.
Outlining the training content will help identify the key messages to be presented.
Presentation of a message is usually organized into the three main parts:
introduction, body and conclusion (Carey, 1999). One or more messages may be
covered in each meeting session.
Introduction Opening statements should attract attention. The introduction
should include such key points as the purpose of the session, an outline of the
information to be covered, how the information will be presented, how it will
achieve the purpose of the session and the personal benefit to the trainers. A
primary consideration in planning the introduction of a talk is to acknowledge
what the trainees have been exposed to prior to this presentation and to address
what information will follow.
Body- The information presented should flow in a logical way. The message
should not be overloaded. A few well-developed points are more effective than
too many.
Conclusion A summary of the main points should be made. Trainees can be
asked what specific action should be taken following this course. Close with a
strong final statement. New information should not be presented at this time.
A trainer has the attention of the participants primarily at the beginning and end
of a session. Therefore, for greatest impact, it is good practice to make key
points in the introduction of the topic and to summarize them again at the end. An
adage often used to advise public speakers says Tell them what youre going to
tell them, tell them, and tell them what you told them.
Select Training Methods
Once the training content has been outlined and the messages have been
identified, training methods can be selected. A training method is a strategy or
tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the message so that the trainees achieve the
objectives of the program (Wentling, 1993). One or more training methods can be
used in the presentation of a message. It is good to use a variety of training
methods throughout a training course to maintain the interest of the trainees.
Lecturing is the most frequently used method for delivering a message. There
are, however, a variety of other techniques for conveying information to trainees.
These are described in the following table.
VI-10
Table VI-1. Common Training Methods (adapted from Carey, 1999)

Lecture
Lecture/Discussion
Demonstration
Group discussion
Symposium
Panel
Forum
Discussion groups
Mostly an oral presentation, but may be supplemented

with visual aids or handouts
The technique is generally confined to presenting only the
experts point of view
Often used because it is easier to organize and a great
deal of information can be presented in a short period of
time
Useful when there are a large group of trainees
Variation of the lecture where the trainer increases trainee
participation through facilitation of discussion at set times
during the session
Discussion is often initiated through the use of questions
Trainer must plan the discussion and carefully choose the
questions to lead the discussion
Oral explanations combined with visual activities
Method demonstrations show processes, concepts and
facts and are especially effective in teaching a skill that
can be observed
A result demonstration shows the outcome of some
practice or innovation, such as field tests of soil
treatments or product sanitation procedures and water
treatments
Trainer leads the trainees as a group through a discussion
of a given topic
May or may not be preceded by a short explanatory
lecture
A series of lectures presided over by a moderator
Allows for the presentation of several points of view or
several related topics
A dialogue among several experts sitting in front of the
room
A moderator coordinates the discussion
Differs from a symposium because panel members have
an opportunity to discuss and interact with each others
ideas and views
Following one or more presentations, the audience
interacts and discusses the topic(s), bringing up a wider
range of views
Involves every member of the audience in a small group
(4 to 20 people per group)
Groups may have a pre-selected or self-elected leader
The groups may be given a specific topic or asked to
develop a list of problems, issues, priorities, questions,
etc. and report back to the main group
VI-11
Case studies
Field visits
Discussion groups encourage/allow everyone to

participate, even if the audience is large
Group should be monitored to insure that one person is
not dominating the activities
Information is given to the trainees detailing a specific
situation or problem and the trainees are assigned (as
individuals or discussion groups) the task of making
recommendations for the most appropriate action to solve
the problem
Introduces a practical aspect to the training environment
and creates a problem solving situation similar to that
many trainees may face after returning to work
A visit to an organization or workplace, such as a farm or
packinghouse, that demonstrates the practical application
of the ideas under discussion
Care must be taken that the place to be visited is aware of
the objectives of the field trip
Adds a practical aspect to the training
Trainees need to be properly prepared for the visit and
should be encouraged to make specific observations that
will be discussed upon return to the classroom
(See Field Site Visit Guide Practical)
Selection of the method most appropriate for the participants in a training session
and for the information to be presented is an important part of planning the
training session.
Visual VI.2-2
Factors to Consider when Selecting a Training Method:
Size of audience
Maintaining attention through interaction
Variety
Available resources/infrastructure
Duration of the training session and amount of information to be covered in it
Experience of the trainer
Training aids required to support each method and the time and resources to
prepare and use them
Factors to consider when selecting a training method include:

Size of audience: larger audiences often require more formal training
methods with less audience participation
VI-12
Maintaining attention through interaction: methods which involve the trainees

in the instruction have the advantage of maintaining attention and involving all
participants
Variety: selection of different types of methods often maintains the interest of
trainees
Available resources/infrastructure: where resources are limited, the
opportunity to use resource intensive techniques like field visits and
demonstrations may also be limited
Duration of the training session and amount of information to be covered in it:
methods that involve discussion and casework take longer than more lectureoriented methods
Experience of the trainer: the trainer must be comfortable using the chosen
method
Training aids required to support each method and the time and resources to
prepare and use them
Visual VI.2-3
In preparing a presentation, remember the 5 Ps :
Proper
Planning
Prevents
Poor
Performance
The organization of the training content and the selection of the appropriate
training method for delivering the messages require careful planning. Planning
enables the trainer to project confidence and control throughout the training
session and to work with the trainees to achieve training objectives.
An example of an approach that incorporates maximum trainee involvement
might be to start with a lecture introducing the reasons why workers should be
encouraged to use field sanitation units. The lecture could be followed by a group
discussion about the practical difficulties preventing use of these units and how
these difficulties can be overcome. The trainees could then implement the new
sanitation practices in the field. After a suitable time, a review could assess
sanitation unit usage by workers. In a follow-up meeting, trainees might discuss
VI-13
the benefits of the new practices and highlight any other areas of concern that
may require further advice and training.
Select and Prepare Materials
Research shows that most people learn things through at least three of the five
senses. The trainer should try to use training methods that appeal to the senses
of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
In general, instruction by spoken or written word is more effective when it is
supported by methods that stimulate the other senses (OSHA, 1996). When
participatory, hands-on methods are used, they serve to convert the symbolism
of words into images in the learners mind. Visual aids and hands-on exercises
help make an abstract concept into a practical reality. This improves the chance
for storage in long-term memory (improved retention and recall). The more
senses to which instruction appeals, the stronger the impact of the message.
Visual VI.2-4
e
on
l
ra
a
su
Vi
a
su
l&
l
lA
Vi
Or
al
10
35
65
Retention of Information
Training aids refer to all forms of support prepared for and used in training. As
most training courses rely principally (though not exclusively) on the spoken
word, carefully chosen well-prepared materials can make an important
contribution to effective learning. They often make it easier for trainees to
understand the message as the information can be arranged in a logical, clear
manner with emphasis on the most important points.
Training aids improve the effectiveness of the trainer (Cheek and Beeman,
1990). To develop effective aids, the trainer must think through their message
from the receivers viewpoint. The trainer can feel more relaxed as the aids help
VI-14
insure the flow of information. Aids may also help trainers feel less pressure as
the trainees are focused on the training aid for part of the time.
Visual aids are especially useful in reinforcing the key points made by the trainer
in an oral presentation. They can be very useful in describing points that are
difficult to explain verbally. Anything that can be quantified or is factual can be
presented visually. Visual aids should be tested on others before using them in
the training room. It is also important to check the availability of equipment
needed for visuals both in planning for their use and on the day of the
presentation.
A variety of print materials can be used to enhance the learning process. These
may include handouts, summary notes, workbooks or manuals. They have a
clear advantage in that they provide a summary and/or can present additional
information and can reduce note taking. They can be made available to the
trainees for reference after the training session. A disadvantage is that these
materials may distract from the trainer. Care must be taken to insure that trainees
are not overwhelmed by so many print materials that they lose focus on the
trainer.
A detailed discussion on selecting and using visual aids is presented in the
Additional Resources section at the end of this manual.
Organize the Training Course
The trainer should envision the flow of the training course before it begins. The
more the trainer can visualize the format of the training course, the more
prepared he/she is for any questions or problems that may arise. A prepared
trainer is a relaxed and more effective trainer.
Questions that should be addressed when organizing a training course include:
How will the topics be introduced?

Would a question be a good way to start?
Which training methods will strengthen the message?
What questions are the trainees likely to ask?
What questions should the trainer ask the trainees?
When should breaks be planned in the session?
Planning will also involve developing the schedule or program for the course.
This will set out the course duration and the division of training sessions for each
day.
A program for the training course is useful to:
VI-15
Guide the trainers in leading the course

Organize the flow of information
Ensure a balance between theoretical information and practical sessions
Prevent repetition of information between different trainers
Include adequate breaks
Allow adequate time for all sessions
Ensure the interest and motivation of the trainees
Summarize and conclude the session and look ahead to the following session
Attention spans will vary from person to person, with the subject matter involved
and with the situation. In lecture-oriented training sessions, the presentation
should not exceed 20 minutes. Trainers often allow 4045 minutes for practical
and casework sessions. Trainers need to allow time for adequate interaction with
the audience when using questions, exercises and visual aids. Breaks in a
lecture presentation such as demonstrations, illustrations or question periods
have the effect of refreshing the training session. It is important however that the
breaks support the main body of the message. Also, time must be allowed
periodically (every 1-2 hours) to allow trainees to stretch their legs and use the
facilities.
Summary
1. Outlining the training content will help identify the key messages to be
presented. Presentation of a message is usually organized into three main
parts:
Introduction should include key points such as the purpose of the

session, an outline of the information to be covered, how the
information will be presented, how it will achieve the purpose of the
session and the personal benefit to the trainees.
Body- the main message presented as a few well-developed points

flowing in a logical manner
Conclusion summary of the main points. May include specific action

that should be taken following this course.
2. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the
message so that the trainees achieve the objectives of the program. Lecturing
is the most frequently used method for delivering a message. There are,
however, a variety of other techniques for conveying information to trainees.
These include: lecture/discussion, demonstrations, group discussion, panels,
forums, discussion groups, case studies, and field site visits.
3. Instruction by spoken or written word is more effective when it is supported by
methods that stimulate the other senses. Visual aids and hands-on exercises
help make an abstract concept into a practical reality. Print materials are
useful to supplement lectures since they reduce note taking and provide a
reference after the class has ended. Care should be taken that supplemental
VI-16
material does not distract the trainees, taking attention away from the
message.
4. Developing a program for the training course helps the trainer organize the
flow of information, avoid repetition between trainers, ensure interest and
motivation of trainees, and assure continuity between trainers and between
sessions.
VI-17
Module 3
Conducting and Evaluating the Course
Learning Outcomes:
To assist trainees in applying key steps in planning effective training
To identify considerations in using a team teaching approach
To assist trainees in applying key elements of evaluation to training activities.
Practical:
Problem Solving Exercise: Planning an Effective Training Course on GAPs;
3 Scenarios (Question 5-7)
Using a Training Team

Visual VI.3-1
Using a Training Team
When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days and
different types of information are covered a team of trainers may be used.
When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days
and different types of information are covered a team of trainers may be used. An
advantage of a team approach is that the diversity of different trainers makes the
course more interesting. It can become difficult to maintain attention if trainees
have to listen to one trainer for an extended period.
The members of a training team should be chosen to ensure they have
complementary styles, skills and knowledge. All trainers should be technically
competent in their subject and have experience as a trainer. Team members
must have credibility with the trainees. In addition to being technically competent
trainers must be familiar with the real circumstances in which the trainees work
and the problems they face. Trainers need to be willing to participate in the total
training activity. They may be called on to add comment to a co-trainers topic
during the discussion sessions, prepare for an additional training session if
required, interact with the trainees during free time between the training sessions
and contribute as needed to practical exercises.
VI-18
Visual VI.3-2
Tasks of the Training Team Leader
Brief trainers on their role in the training course

Facilitate introductions and allow time for trainers to become familiar with each
others strengths
Create a teamwork atmosphere
Discuss the training objectives
Provide information on the participants and local circumstances
Hold regular meetings to assess progress of the training and any
improvements required
In team teaching it is common to have a leader or facilitator to coordinate the

training course. This person may be responsible for the selection of the training
team. They should assure that all trainers are familiar with the other members of
the teaching team and that they are working together to assure the training
objectives are met. The team leader may need to hold meetings or arrange
conference calls to assess the progress of planning and training and to
determine when improvements are needed. The lead trainer should also provide
leadership in developing the schedule or program for the course.
Logistical Support
The steps above have focused on aspects of training related to content
development and presentation and the preparation required before training
begins. In addition to these issues there are logistical arrangements that need to
be considered before, during and after the training course. The trainer should
ensure that the logistical support arrangements are in place and satisfactory to
accommodate each session of the training course.
The following sample list includes key points that the trainer may consider.
Before the Training:
Identify and engage appropriate instructors
Select suitable training venues (well-lit and well-ventilated with adequate
space away from sources of noise)
Select and notify the trainees, through the proper channels, of the dates, time
and location
Prepare training materials: handouts, overheads, etc.
Arrange for appropriate training equipment (may include microphone,
chalkboard and chalk, flipchart paper, writing materials, slide and/or overhead
projector, LCD projector and computer, video equipment, screen, spare bulbs,
etc.)
VI-19
Arrange training room, seating arrangements, name cards, position of

chalkboard, screen, etc.
Arrange coffee and meal breaks during course
Arrange transportation/accommodation as needed for outside
speakers/trainers
During the Training:
Remind other trainers of their sessions

Introduce and thank trainers
Meet emergencies (rearrange or cover sessions)
Check facilities and equipment (projects, boards, chalk, etc.)
Ensure trainees receive course materials
Have trainees introduce themselves
Introduce visitors
Following the Training:
Leave room tidy return equipment and aids to proper place

Compile feedback/evaluations from course participants
Prepare thank you letters as needed for guest speakers, volunteers, etc.
Prepare reports on course
Checklists:
Visual VI.3-3
Sample Checklist for the day before your session
Visit the training room and be sure you know how to control the lights and
ventilation
Check the arrangement of the tables and chairs. The trainees should be able
to see trainers and visual aids clearly
Confirm the catering arrangements for coffee breaks, lunch and/or other
refreshments
Arrange the projector to have the largest, most focused picture possible
Check supplies handouts, visual aids, flipcharts, makers, pens, etc.
Since there are many details to remember when making the final arrangements
for the training course, trainers may wish to develop more detailed checklists to
support them in their preparation for the training. Examples of checklists that may
be developed include ones to assist the trainer in assuring required facilities,
equipment, supplies and materials.
VI-20
Visual VI.3-4
Sample Checklist: For a field demonstration
Fix a time for the training session

Visit the farm or food plant the day before the training session
Ensure that work will be conducted during the time of the training session
Verify the practices that you want the trainees to observe
Explain the objectives to the farm or plant manager
Agree with the manager on the conduction of the training session, number of
trainees, what they will observe, etc.
Evaluating Training
Although evaluation is presented as the final portion of the discussion on

developing effective training, it is important to plan the evaluation strategy well
before the training takes place. Evaluation is not merely an activity at the end of
the training course, but is an on-going process throughout the training that allows
the trainer(s) to assess how well the course is progressing and that objectives
are being met.
Visual VI.3-5
Training Evaluation
A systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity
which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the
relevance and effectiveness of various training components.
Training evaluation has been described as a systematic process of collecting

information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding
decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various
training components (Raab et al., 1987). Training evaluation gives a measure of
the extent to which the training has been successful in accomplishing the training
objectives. Evaluation methods result in feedback from the trainees. Proper
evaluation allows for continual improvement of the training program.
VI-21
Visual VI.3-6
Evaluation Strategies
Pre-training
Process
Terminal
Follow-up
The choice of evaluation strategy depends on the purpose of the evaluation

(Hakimian and Teshome, 1993):
Pre-training evaluation occurs during course development and allows for pretesting of the adequacy, scope and coverage of the training program under
preparation. This type of evaluation checks outs shortcomings of the training
and allows corrective steps at an early stage. Pilot tests of presentations and
materials are part of pre-training evaluation.
Process evaluation is conducted while the course is in progress. This ongoing assessment allows for adaptations to be made during the course as
needs are identified. This evaluation may involve a formal evaluation where
feedback is sought from trainees at the end of each day, each session or on a
particular schedule. Also included may be observations by the trainer
regarding trainees responses.
Terminal evaluation occurs upon completion of the course. This type of
evaluation allows trainers and trainees to assess how well course objectives
were met and where adjustments are needed for future training efforts.
Follow-up evaluation is usually conducted at some point after the training.
Since a training program is often conducted to bring about changes in
behavior or attitudes related to the working methods of the trainees, training
effectiveness is best assessed following a lapse of time, for example two
months, after the training course. By this time trainees have had time to rethink the training that they received and to incorporate the information into
their work.
Terminal evaluation, at the end of a training course, is most common and is used
to allow trainees an opportunity to provide feedback on the usefulness of the
training and on aspects of the training that could be improved for future training
courses. Four criteria have been suggested to evaluate training programs:
reaction, learning, behavior and results (Kirkpatrick , 1976). Each criterion is
used to measure different aspects of the training program. Reaction measures
how the trainees liked the program in terms of content, methods, duration,
trainers, facilities and management. Learning measures the trainees skills and
the knowledge they were able to obtain during the training. Behavior is
concerned with the extent to which the trainees were able to apply their
knowledge to real field situations. Results are concerned with the tangible impact
VI-22
of the training program on individuals, their job environment or the organization

as a whole.
Evaluation can be informal or formal. Informal methods involve feedback
provided by trainees through language, questions, interest and enthusiasm for
the topic. The trainer may request formal feedback by asking questions to assess
the trainees understanding and appreciation of the subject discussed. Common
formal evaluation methods include written evaluations or questionnaires
completed by the trainee or a structured interview with the trainee about training
techniques and information gained.
Feedback should be analyzed. This will allow the trainer to amend and improve
materials for subsequent training. It may also identify gaps in training that need to
be addressed. It is essential that the best use is made from all feedback received
and that it is not simply an exercise on paper.
In addition to feedback received from the trainees on the use and effectiveness
of the training course, self-evaluation by the trainer is essential. Every time
training is conducted, the trainer should assess how he/she functioned as a
trainer and make adjustments before the next training program. If a team
teaching approach is used, team members should be asked for input regarding
training organization and effectiveness. A meeting of the teaching team after the
course to assess the training is a good way to conduct this evaluation.
Although trainers often view evaluation as a necessary exercise with very little
value, effective evaluation can be a valuable tool. Benefits of conducting
evaluation include:
Measuring how well the course objectives were achieved
Improving the efficiency of training to allow better use of limited resources
Highlighting the value of the training and increasing the organizations
commitment to training
Fostering interest in training at all levels of the organizational structure
Summary
1. When the training course takes place over several hours or a number of days
and different types of information are covered using a team of trainers
desirable. An advantage of a team approach is that the diversity of different
trainers makes the course more interesting.
2. A training team leader may be identified. This person may be responsible for
the selection of the training team; for assuring that all trainers are working
together to assure the training objectives are met; for assessing the progress
of planning and training; and for developing the schedule or program for the
course.
VI-23
3. Since there are many details to remember when making the final
arrangements for the training course, trainers may wish to develop detailed
checklists to support them in their preparation for the training.
4. Training evaluation is a systematic process of collecting information for and
about a training activity. This information can then be used for guiding
decision making and for assessing how well the course is progressing and
that objectives are being met. Evaluation is not merely an activity at the end
of the training course, but is an on-going process throughout the training.
5. The choice of evaluation strategy depends on the purpose of the evaluation.
Pre-training evaluation occurs during course development and allows

for pre-testing of the adequacy, scope and coverage of the training
program under preparation.
On-going process evaluation throughout the course allows for

adaptations to be made during the course as needs are identified. This
evaluation may involve a formal evaluation where feedback is sought
from trainees and/or observations by the trainer regarding trainees
responses.
Terminal evaluation, the most common evaluation strategy, occurs

upon completion of the course and allows assessment of how well
course objectives were met and where adjustments are needed for
future training efforts.
Follow-up evaluation after the training looks at training effectiveness

following time for trainees to re-think the training that they received
and to incorporate the information into their work.
VI-24
References
Carey, H.A. 1999. Communication in Extension: A Teaching and Learning Guide.
FAO, Rome.
Cheek, J.G. and Beeman, C.E. 1990. Using visual aids in extension teaching.
University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service Pub SS-AEE-01.
Available via the Internet at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG098
Hakimian, H. and Teshome, A. 1993. Trainers Guide: Concepts, Principles, and
Methods of Training With Special Reference to Agricultural Development.
Vol. 1. FAO, Rome.
Kirkpatrick, D. 1976. Evaluation of training. In R.L. Craig (ed.), Training and
Development Handbook. McGraw Hill, New York.
Knowles, Malcolm S., Holton, E.F., III, and Swanson, R.A. 1998. The Adult
Learner. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
OSHA, 1996. Presenting effective presentation with visual aids. Construction
OSHA Office of Training and Education. Available via the Internet at
www.osha-slc.gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/traintec.html
Raab, R.T., Swanson, B.E., Wentling, T.L., and Dark, C.E. (eds) 1987. A
Trainers Guide to Evaluation. FAO, Rome.
Swanson, B.E., Bentz, R.P. and Sofranko, A.J. (eds). 1997. Improving
Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO, Rome. Available via
the Internet http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/w5830e00.htm#Contents
Wentling, T.L. 1993. Planning for Effective Training: A Guide to Curriculum
Development. FAO, Rome.
Zemke, R. and Zemke, S. 1984. 30 things we know for sure about adult learners.
Innovation Abstracts, VI(8).
VI-25
PRACTICAL

P-1
Introduction ............................................................................................................P-3
Water as a Contamination Agent .............................................................P-4

Product Integrity and Produce Contamination .........................................P-6
Handwashing ............................................................................................P-8
Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management ........................P-10
Fruit Spoilage ............................................................................................P-13
Experiments Using Artificial Germs:
Handwashing .......................................................................................P-15
How Germs are Spread - I...................................................................P-16
How Germs are Spread II ................................................................P-16
Germs and Produce ............................................................................P-16
Fresh Produce Quality ..............................................................................P-18
Discussion Questions ............................................................................................P-19

Problem Solving
Traceback Investigation ...........................................................................P-20

Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs: 3 Scenarios ..........P-22
Field Site Visit Guide .............................................................................................P-24
P-2
Introduction
The most serious gap in food safety training is often the lack of practical activities
to reinforce the passive lecture. Frequently, the need to provide lab space and
limited instructional time and supervision prevents inclusion of activities. In
addition, trainers are often reluctant to sacrifice time needed for presenting new
concepts to allow time for activities.
However, if food safety training is to have a lasting impact, involvement of the
trainees is essential. All participants (as groups or individually) should take part in
practical activities such as experiments, discussion groups and problem solving
exercises. Time also should be allowed for feedback from these activities. In
addition to critical listening, this leads to critical thinking.
Trainers are encouraged to use as many of the practical activities as possible to
complement the lecture material. Activities associated with lesson content are
identified at the beginning of many of the Training Modules. In determining the
best ways to increase the trainees comprehension of the training material,
trainers may decide to use the suggested activities, to select from others in this
section or to use ones from other sources. Use of activities not only will increase
comprehension of the material by those being trained as trainers, but will also
provide them with ideas for involving the participants in training they conduct.
Types of activities presented in this section include:
Experiments/demonstrations exercises to demonstrate lesson concepts. All
experiments have been designed to be simple, inexpensive, and to use
minimum equipment. Although some require a source of water, none require
an actual laboratory so can be conducted in almost any training setting.
Discussion questions provide an opportunity for input by course
participants. These may be addressed by the group as a whole or may be
discussed within small groups with a summary session for the whole group.
Problem solving are brief story problems that allow trainees to apply lesson
concepts as they work through the problem.
Field Site Visit Guide brief outline of key points to observe during site visits.
Volume II, Commodity Specific Case Studies, which accompanies this manual
provides situations in which course participants apply recommended GAPs and
GMPs in examples relevant to Latin America and the Caribbean. These case
studies have been developed with direct input from producers in the region to
ensure that topics and presentation are appropriate. They are intended to build
understanding and awareness of practices that may be presented to individual
growers, packers, and shippers for consideration and incorporation into their own
operations.
P-3
Water as a Contamination Agent
Purpose:
To investigate how water can serve as a source of contamination for fresh
produce
Materials
For each group:
Fresh produce sample - need 2-3 whole pieces per group. (Note: Produce
may be specific to that being grown by participants or may be
representative of various types of products such as a leafy product, a
product with an edible skin and a product with skin that is removed before
eating).
Knife
Bowl
1 liter water
Blue food coloring or dye
Slotted spoon, tongs, or other way to remove fruit from water
Procedure
1. Divide class into groups of 3 4 people.
2. Assign each group a produce product and give each 2-3 whole pieces of
the assigned product. (Note: the same product may be assigned to more
than one group)
3. Place water in bowl. Add 10 drops of food coloring (or dye) to the water.
Stir to mix.
4. Submerge fruit samples in the water for 10 minutes.
5. Remove fruit from the water and allow it to drain for 10 minutes.
6. Observe the amount of dye on the outer surface of product. Record
observations in chart below.
7. Using a sharp knife, remove a slice about 1 inch from the stem end of the
product. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration.
8. Clean the knife to remove any dye. Cut the product in half. Observe and
record the amount of dye penetration on the cut surface.
Results
Use the following scale to record amount of dye penetration:
4 = lots of dye
3 = moderate dye
2 = some dye
1 = slight dye
0 = no dye
P-4
Product
Outer Surface
Stem End
Cut Surface
Discussion Results
1. How much dye was on the surface of the product?
2. How much in the interior?
3. What kinds of barriers prevented the dye from penetrating throughout the
product?
4. Suppose the dye represents microorganisms in the water. What
conclusions can be drawn about water as a means for these organisms to
contaminate produce?
P-5
Product Integrity and Produce Contamination

Purpose:
To investigate how product integrity can affect water infiltration into the
product.
Materials
For each group:
Fresh produce samples - need 1-2 pieces of intact product and 1-2 pieces
of damaged product (bruised, insect damaged, cut, etc.) per group.
(Note: Produce may be specific to that being grown by participants or may
be representative of various types of products such as a leafy product, a
product with an edible skin and a product with skin that is removed before
eating).
Knife
Bowl
1 liter water
Blue food coloring or dye
Slotted spoon, tongs, or other way to remove fruit from water
Procedure
1. Divide class into groups of 3 4 people.
2. Assign each group a produce product and give each 1-2 pieces of intact
product and 1-2 pieces of damaged product. (Note: the same product may
be assigned to more than one group)
3. Place water in bowl. Add 10 drops of food coloring (or dye) to the water.
Stir to mix.
4. Submerge the intact samples in the water for 10 minutes.
5. Remove fruit from the water and allow it to drain for 10 minutes.
6. Observe the amount of dye on the outer surface of product. Record
observations in chart below.
7. Using a sharp knife, remove a slice about 1 inch from the stem end of the
product. Observe and record the amount of dye penetration.
8. Clean the knife to remove any dye. Cut the product in half. Observe and
record the amount of dye penetration on the cut surface.
9. Repeat steps 4-8 for the damaged samples. Clean the knife and cut into
the damaged areas. Observe and record dye penetration.
Results
Use the following scale to record amount of dye penetration:
4 = lots of dye
3 = moderate dye
2 = some dye
1 = slight dye
0 = no dye
P-6
Product
Outer Surface
Stem End
Cut Surface
Damaged
Area
Discussion Results
1. How much dye was on the surface of the product?
2. How much in the interior?
3. What kinds of barriers prevented the dye from penetrating throughout the
product?
4. What effect did damages to the surface of the product have on the amount
of color penetration?
5. Suppose the dye represents microorganisms in the water. What
conclusions can be drawn about product damage as a means for these
organisms to contaminate produce?
P-7
Handwashing
Purpose
To look at the effect of washing time and use of soap on the removal of
microorganisms from hands.
Materials
Facilities for washing hands
Markers
For each pair of students:
- Two petri plates containing nutrient agar
- Soap
Procedure
1. On the bottom of the petri dishes, draw lines to divide each plate into four
quadrants.
a. Label the quadrants on each plate 1 through 4.
b. Label one plate "Water," the other "Soap."
2. One student in each pair should work with the "Water" plate.
a. Quadrant 1 should be touched lightly with one or more fingers.
b. Hands are then rinsed with water (without soap), excess water is
shaken off, and, while hands are still wet, Quadrant 2 is touched.
c. Step b. is repeated twice more, touching Quadrant 3 and then 4.
3. The second student in the pair should use the plate labeled "Soap." Step 2
above is followed except soap is used in each of the washing steps.
4. Plates should be covered and incubated, inverted, at 35C or room
temperature for 24 to 48 hours.
Results
Record the results in the table below using the scale:
4 = maximum growth 3 = moderate growth 2 = some growth
1 = a little growth 0 = no growth
Quadrants
Plate
Water
Soap
P-8
Discussing Results
1. How effective was rinsing with plain water for removing microorganisms
from hands?
2. Was the effectiveness improved with more rinsing?
3. What was the effect of adding soap to the washing process?
4. In our experiment, each step added to the amount of time the hands were
washed. Were more microorganisms removed by using a longer wash and
more soap?
P-9
Chlorine Concentration and Water Quality Management

(Demonstration originally prepared by Dr. Mark Ritenour, University of Florida;
provided for this course by Dr. James Rushing, Clemson University)
Part A: Calculating Volume of Chlorine Needed
Purpose:
To provide experience in calculating the volume of chlorine (sodium
hypochlorite) needed to provide the desire concentration of free chlorine
(ppm) in a solution.
Procedure
The following discussion would provide the class with a demonstration of how
to calculate the amount of sodium hypochlorite concentrate to use to prepare
a solution with a desired level of free chlorine.
The following formula would be used to determine how much sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl) to add:
Volume of NaOCl needed = (desired ppm of free chlorine) X (total tank volume)
(% NaOCl in concentrate) X (10,000)
For this small scale demonstration, we have the following criteria:

The concentrated NaOCl is 5.25% chlorine (approximately the
concentration of household bleach). Since 5.25% is the same as 5.25
parts per hundred, we would multiple this number by 10,000 to get parts
per million (ppm).
The desired free chlorine concentration in our processing water is 100
ppm.
We want to make a total volume of 500 ml for our processing tank.
To calculate the amount of NaOCl that would be needed, plug the above
values into the formula and calculate as follows:
Volume of NaOCl needed = (100 ppm of free chlorine) X (500 ml) = 0.95 ml
(5.25) X (10,000)
Taking it a step further:

Remember: This is a small demonstration. A more reasonable volume of
water in a commercial setting might be 500 to 5,000 gallons in the processing
tank. The values from this small scale calculation can be applied to any
volume to prepare a solution with 100 ppm free chlorine from a 5.25% NaOCl
concentrate by calculating a dilution factor. This factor is derived by dividing
P-10
the total volume of solution, in this case 500 ml, by the amount of chlorine
concentrate to be added, which is 0.95 ml:
Dilution factor =
500 ml = 526, which is a unit-less term.

0.95 ml
Suppose there is a tank size of 8,000 liters. To determine how much chlorine
concentrate would be needed to yield 100 ppm free chlorine, divide 8,000 by
the dilution factor of 526.
8,000 liters = 15.21 liters
526
Therefore, 15.21 liters of chlorine concentrate would be added to the 8,000
liter tank to give 100 ppm free chlorine.
Part B: Influence of pH and organic matter on free chlorine levels.

Purpose:
To observe the effects of pH and organic matter on the free chlorine levels
in a solution.
Materials
t
500 ml deionized water
t
chlorine test strips
t
pH meter or other method of determining pH
t
weak hypochlorous acid solution
t
tomato juice
Procedure
1. Measure the pH of the 500 ml of deionized water.
2. Using the calculations from Part A above, add the proper amount of
chlorine (0.95 ml) needed to give this 500 ml solution 100 ppm free
chlorine.
3. Measure the chlorine concentration with a test strip. Was the
calculation correct to give 100 ppm free chlorine?
4. Measure the pH of the solution. Recall that under these conditions
most of the chlorine is in hypochlorite form.
5. Adjust the pH to about 7.0 with dilute acid. This establishes the desired
equilibrium between hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid.
6. To simulate the addition of organic matter to the water, add a few
drops of tomato juice. The tomato juice quickly lowers the pH to about
4.5, but most importantly it completely depletes the amount of free
chlorine to near zero.
P-11
Results
Use the following table to record the results of the tests in the steps
above.
(Instructors note: Column of values from previous experiments may be
used as a guide for expected values or for discussion if teaching
conditions do not allow actually performing the experiment)
Parameter
pH of deionized water (Step 1)

Chlorine concentration after adding
0.95 ml chlorine concentrate (Step 3)
pH of the chlorinated solution (Step 4)
pH after adding organic matter (Step 6)
Chlorine concentration after adding
organic matter (Step 6)
Values
obtained from
previous
experiments
6.6
Measure
d
100 ppm
9.8
4.5
about 0
Discussion Questions:
1. What effect does adding chlorine have on the pH of water?
2. What effect does lowering pH and adding organic matter have on the
chlorine concentration?
3. What are the implications of these effects to a fruit or vegetable
operation using chlorine as a sanitizing agent?
Conclusion: Any substantial adjustment of the chlorine concentration in
water will require an adjustment of pH as well. Water quality management
involves many parameters, not just chlorine.
P-12
Fruit Spoilage
Purpose
To demonstrate the effects of produce handling and storage conditions on
product spoilage.
Materials
For each group:
Produce select kinds most likely to be encountered by class
participants
Knife
Plastic bag
Procedure
(For a 1-day class, set up this experiment early in the day and look at the
results at the end of the day. For a multiple day class, evaluate the products
24 to 48 hours after the experiment is set up.)
1. Divide class into groups of 3-4 people.
2. Provide each group with several pieces of the same product. Have
participants assess the quality of the produce, noting the presence of any
defects.
3. One piece of the product should be placed in the coolest possible place in
the teaching area. If a refrigerator is available, this could be used. Place a
second piece in a warm, sunny spot. A third piece should be placed in a
plastic bag, the bag closed and placed in the sun.
4. A fourth piece of product should be cut into three pieces. Place one of the
pieces in each of the locations described in step 3 above.
Results
At the end of the experiment, look at the product. Evaluate its condition using
the following scale:
4 = high quality product, good condition 3 = good quality, slight spoilage
2 = fair quality, moderate spoilage 1 = poor quality, extreme spoilage
P-13
Storage Conditions
Product
PreStorage
Cool
Warm
Packaged
Intact
Cut
Intact
Cut
Discussing the Results
1. What spoilage/deterioration factors played a role in the changes observed
in these products?
2. What are the implications of observations from this experiment on how

produce should be handled during storage and transportation?
P-14
Experiments Using Artificial Germs

GloGerm and Glitterbug are commercially available products that contain
plastic germs which fluoresce when exposed to UV light1. The products come in
both lotion and powder forms. They are useful to represent microorganisms in
demonstrations. The following are ideas for experiments using these products.
Instructors needs and situations may suggest additional ways these products
can aid in demonstrating sanitation practices.
(Note: Because some people have expressed concerned about working with
germs in these experiments, be careful to reassure participants that these are
simulations and that the germs are not real nor are they in any way harmful.)
Handwashing
(Depending on class size, time and facilities, this experiment may be done with a
few volunteers demonstrating to the class or it may be an activity for the entire
class.)
a) Participants apply a small amount of the lotion form of the product to their
hands, rubbing it on like hand lotion. When they look at their hands under a
UV light, they should be covered with glowing germs.
b) Participants then wash their hands as they would normally. After washing,
look at their hands under the UV light again. If handwashing was thorough,
there should not be any germs remaining. Any areas not washed well will
glow.
Discuss:
Was the handwashing procedure complete so that all of the germs washed
off?
If not, where were problem areas (between fingers, around cuticles, etc)?
Describe for participants the correct handwashing procedure (Visual II.4-12).
Repeat the activity above with participants using this procedure.
GloGerm is available from:

Glo Germ Company
P.O. Box 537
Moab, Utah, 84532 USA
Phone: 435-259-5831
Web address: www.glogerm.com.
Glitterbug is available from:

Brevis Corporation
3310 South 2700 East
Salt Lake City, Utah 84109 USA
Phone: 801-466-6677
Web address: www.glitterbug.com
Sources of UV lights include either of the companies above, scientific supply companies, and novelty
suppliers.
P-15
Discuss:
Was this procedure more effective in removing germs? Why?
How Germs are Spread - I
a) Prior to the arrival of class participants, the instructor rubs the Germ product
on their instructor hands. As the class participants arrive, the instructor greets
several with a handshake.
b) After a period of time, a UV light is passed over participants.
c) Germs spread from the instructors greeting should glow on participants
hands and on articles they have touched. Likely places for glowing to appear
include participants hands, pencils and paper, chairs, clothing, hair, etc.
Discuss:
Ease with which germs were spread from the instructors hands to the
participants and then to anything they touched.
Implications of the easy spread of germs in produce production and handling
situations.
How Germs are Spread - II
a) Prior to the arrival of class participants, a light dusting of germ powder is
placed in various areas of the teaching room - on tables, counters, etc.
b) During the class session, students should move about the room normally. As
this occurs, the powder will be spread to their hands, clothing, and other parts
of the room.
c) At the end of a suitable period, a UV light is used to look at where the germs
are in the room.
Discuss:
Ease with which germs were spread
Implications of the easy spread of germs in produce production situations
Importance of proper cleaning and sanitation in preventing the spread of
microorganisms
Germs and Produce
a) Place several pieces of produce in 3 bags. Add a small amount of germ
powder to one of the bags and shake to distribute the powder on the product.
b) Ask class participants to look at the treated product under a UV light and to
note the presence of germs. Ask them to compare this product with product
from a bag that was not treated with the powder.
Discuss:
Were germs on the untreated product? How did they get there?
P-16
Have participants look at their hands under the UV light? Are germs present
on their hands? Where did they come from?
What are the implications of these observations in terms of product handling
procedures?
c) Place the product from all three bags into a fourth bag.
d) Check the fruit under the UV light.
Discuss
What has happened to the fruit that was not treated with the germs?
Were germs on the untreated product? How did they get there?
Suggest to participants that this is similar to what happens when fruit from
several locations are combined in a packinghouse.
What are the implications of these observations in terms of produce handling
procedures?
P-17
Fresh Produce Quality

Purpose
To look at attributes affecting produce quality.
Materials
Produce samples of the same product from several different sources, such
as farms, packinghouses, and grocery stores.
Procedure
Divide the class into groups of 3-5. Assign a produce product to each
group (be sure the same product is assigned to at least 2 groups).
Ask the groups to develop a set of Standards for their assigned product.
Have available samples of the products assigned to the participants.
Provide groups with samples of their product from several sources - such
as from farms, packinghouses, and grocery stores. Ask the groups to rate
these based on their established standards.
Have groups with the same products compare their list of standards and
the ratings assigned to products from the different sources. Provide time
for the groups to discuss their lists and to explain why they chose the
criteria they used. Multiple groups with the same product should be
allowed time to discuss the items that on their standards lists and to reach
agreement on items to include.
Discussing results
1. What factors were considered in setting up the standards?
2. When standards were actually applied to produce, was there a need to
alter or revise original criteria? Explain.
3. Was it easy for different groups to reach a consensus on a single set of
standards? Why or why not?
4. The different groups with different ideas about quality standards would be
similar to different countries setting up their own standards. What are
some of the problems that might occur in attempting to harmonize
standards between countries?
P-18
Discussion Questions
1) Using your country as an example, how could application of programs to
enhance the safety of produce enhance:
a) The export potential for local agricultural products?
b) The domestic market for fresh produce?
c) Give examples of each.
2) An outbreak of foodborne illness may have serious effects on the health of
those who ate the contaminated food. However, its long-term effects may go
much further. Within your country, how would a foodborne illness outbreak
affect
a) The economy?
b) The labor force?
3) With the goal of harmonizing your countrys food laws and regulations with
those of trade partners (or Codex) how would you go about:
a) Accessing information on national laws?
b) Obtaining comparable data on trading partners or from international
sources?
c) Writing a step-by-step procedure for your industry on How to export fresh
produce to the U.S.?
4) What fresh produce standards would you like to adopt for your local industry
and why?
5) What components should be considered in developing for industry use:
a) Inspection protocols for surveying the GAP compliance status of fresh
produce farms.
b) An industry protocol for monitoring and responding to fresh produceinduced food illness outbreaks.
6) Discuss the target groups you anticipate training.
a) What characteristics are unique to this target group?
b) What techniques will you employ to best get the message across to this
group?
7) a) Describe the food safety system in your country. Identify the various
government Agencies, Departments or Ministries involved in ensuring the
safety of fresh fruits and vegetables and the responsibilities of each.
b) Discuss how the produce industry should approach interacting with each
of these?
c) Discuss ways that you can obtain information from these groups that is
relevant to your fresh produce industry. For areas that you are uncertain
about, prepare a list of questions that you can take home with you for
further research about obtaining this information.
P-19
Problem Solving
Traceback Investigation
Multistate Outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 Infection 1, 2
In the State of Michigan during June1997, 52 cases of E. coli 0157:H7
infections were reported compared to only 18 cases reported in June 1996.
Based on laboratory testing, it was suspected that the cases of E. coli
infection resulted from a common source. The cases were spread over 10
counties in Michigan indicating the source was relatively widespread. Onset
of symptoms among known cases extended over approximately one month
suggesting that the source of contamination was either a product with an
appreciable shelf-life or that there was on-going production of a contaminated
product. Interviews were conducted with a limited number of patients to
explore all potential sources of infection. Interviews revealed that most
patients had consumed lettuce and alfalfa sprouts in the week before they
became ill. No single restaurant or special event was identified that all
patients had attended. A traceback was triggered when further epidemiolgical
studies indicated a statistically significant link between alfalfa sprouts and the
outbreak.
Of the 16 patients who ate sprouts for whom the source of the sprouts could
be traced, 15 led to a single sprouting facility in Michigan. Investigations of
the source of the alfalfa sprouts led to a single sprouting facility. Sprouts
grown in the facility at the time of the outbreak came from two lots of seeds:
one from Idaho and one from Australia. At this point in the investigation, a
concurrent outbreak of E. coli 0157:H7 infection was reported in the State of
Virginia. Epidemiological studies also linked this outbreak to alfalfa sprouts. In
Virginia the source of sprouts could be traced for 13 patients and all led to a
single lot of seed harvested from Idaho. This was the same lot as the one
used at the implicated facility in Michigan.
Traceback of the seed to the distributor identified it as part of a 17,000-pound
lot of which 6,000 pounds still remained. The implicated seed lot was a blend
of 5 lots from fields of four farmers and was harvested between 1984 and
1996. The seed processor and the farmers were located in Idaho. Because
two sprouting facilities (in two states) were associated with the implicated
alfalfa sprouts and a single lot of seeds (from Idaho) were common to both it
was likely that the contamination of the seeds occurred before sprouting.
Immediate control measures were put into place, including removing the 6,000
pounds of seed from the marketplace. Meetings were held with public health
officials explaining to seed growers the need to protect alfalfa seed in sprouting
from contamination during growing, harvesting and packing. Public television and
radio announcements were made to advice the public about the risks of
P-20
contaminated sprouting seeds. The sprout industry explored ways to treat

sprouts to make them safe for human consumption.
Further Investigation:
Inspection of the alfalfa fields revealed three possible sources of contamination:
cattle manure, irrigation water and deer feces. Although manure is not normally
applied to alfalfa fields in Idaho, cattle feed lots were common in the area and
alfalfa fields of one farmer were adjacent to a feed lot. Manure may have leaked
or been illegally dumped into the alfalfa fields or run-off water from neighboring
fields. Water contaminated by manure may have been used to irrigate the fields.
In addition, three of four farmers occasionally saw deer in their fields and one
field was located near a wildlife refuge. The seed from each farmer was
harvested and mechanically cleaned at the same seed processing plant. The
seeds were then placed in 50-pound bags. No further processing occurred. Most
of the seed was produced to plant alfalfa fields (e.g., to produce hay for livestock
feed): the relatively small amount of seed used for sprouting was not handled any
differently than the raw agricultural commodity seed. In the situation described,
the source of contaminated seed was identified.
1. Using visual I.5-3 in the manual, prepare a flow chart of this traceback.
2. What information did the investigators need at each step of the
investigation to proceed to the next step? What difficulties might have
prevented them from getting the information needed?
3. After identifying the source of the seeds, what additional steps would be
needed to help prevent outbreaks from occurring in the future?
4. In inspecting the alfalfa fields and harvesting process, what possible
points of contamination should be considered?
1
Information on this case study was taken from the Centers of Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) Case Study: A Multistate Outbreak of E. Coli 0157:H7
Infection: Instructors Version. The case study was based on two-real life
outbreak investigations undertaken in Michigan and Virginia in 1997. Some of
the information on the actual traceback had been altered to better serve as a
learning exercise. The complete case study is available on the CDCs website:
http://www.cdc.gov/phtn/casestudies
For more information on safe handling of sprouts, see FDA Publications in

Additional Resources section.
P-21
Planning for an Effective Training Course on GAPs:

3 Scenarios
The following exercise is designed to allow trainees to apply the ideas presented
in Section IV. Sample situations are provided below. The information for each
situation and the questions to be discussed should be printed on handouts or on
a visual so the trainees can easily view them.
The exercise may be conducted as part of each of the training modules in this
section or at the completion of the entire section. For the exercise, assign the
trainees to small working groups. Each group can be presented with a separate
training situation or the same situation may be discussed by all of the groups.
Situation 1: Cooperative Farm Worker Supervisors
The agriculture department wants assistance in developing and delivering a
training course aimed at the supervisors of farm workers at a local snow pea
cooperative.
Situation 2: Tomato Packinghouse Personnel
The owner/operator of a large tomato packing facility has requested a training
course for plant workers.
Situation 3: Fresh Produce Warehouse
A training team of technical advisors has been asked to deliver a training course
for warehouse workers and supervisors.
Groups should consider the following questions about the organization and
delivery of a training course for their assigned situation:
1. How will the needs of the participants be identified/confirmed?
2. What are the training objectives?
3. What method of organization of the training content will be the most logical
(outline form only)?
4. What training methods will be used and on what basis were they selected?
5. What type of training material will be used and why?
6. What is an interesting way to organize the training course?
7. How will the course be evaluated?
After the working groups have completed their summary, each small group
should present its plan to the entire audience for discussion and feedback.
Trainers should encourage discussion and refer trainees to appropriate
sections/pages in the manual for guidance in answering the questions.
P-22
1. Methods to determine and validate participants need should be listed.

2. Training objectives should be measurable and should address changes in
knowledge, behavior/practices and/or attitude.
3. Organization of the training content should have a logical flow.
4. The training methods selected should be specified and justified.
5. The type of training aids to be used should be justified.
6. The organization of the course should fit the time allotted and include meals
and breaks.
7. An evaluation should include measures of reaction, learning, behavior and
results.
P-23
Field Site Visit Guide

The purpose of field site visits may vary depending on the needs of the
participants and the focus of the training course. Once determined, the purpose
of the field site visit should be made clear to the trainees prior to the visit and
should serve to reinforce the Principle material presented in the course. Having
trainees take an active role in making observations and in class discussion after
site visits is useful to make the visits more meaningful.
Trainers are encouraged to visit the site prior to the visit by trainees. During this
preliminary visit, the trainers can note practices and be prepared to point these
out during the training visit. This preliminary visit would also offer a good
opportunity for the trainers to obtain the information to answer trainees questions
during the visit.
Trainees should be made aware of the sensitivities of visiting a produce growing
or handling facility to avoid misunderstandings due to questions, comments or
gestures made to the management, supervisors or workers at the site. Trainees
should be reminded not to interrupt workers performing their job.
One approach to reinforce Principle material through a field site visit is to note
the Good Agricultural Practices and Good Manufacturing Practices that are in
place, or that may need to be strengthened to avoid contamination of fresh
produce along the production and distribution chain. As a guide for information to
note, the following worksheet/checklist can be used by trainees and adapted as
appropriate for a site visit to a given operation or facility. Some of the information
can be gathered through observation and some through questions directed to the
tour guide for the facility. Prior to the visit, a spokesperson may be designated to
ask questions of the tour guide on behalf of the group.
P-24
Name of Farmer/Operation:
Location:
Date of Visit:
Crops Grown:
Agricultural Water
What activities in this operation use water? What is the source of the water
used?
Has the quality of the water been determined? How? Results?
Were treatments needed to improve the water quality? What treatments?
When were they applied?
Were efforts made to identify possible sources of water contamination? What
control measures were used to prevent water contamination?
Manure Management
Is animal manure used for fertilizer?

Is the manure composted? How?
How is manure applied?
Are records kept of manure use, dates applied?
Animal/Pest Management
What controls are in place to limit farm animals and domestic animals near
production fields?
What controls are in place to limit wild animals (birds, rodents) from fields?
Treatments/Fertilizers/Pesticides
Are chemical fertilizers used?

What records are kept of their use?
What is the source of water used to mix with chemical fertilizers?
What methods are used to control pests (use of pesticides, biological
treatments, etc.)?
What is the water source for mixing and applying pesticides?
What records are kept on fertilizer and pesticide use?
Harvest Tools and Equipment
What harvest methods are used? (i.e. bare hands, gloved hands, automated
machines)?
How are harvest tools cleaned and sanitized?
P-25
What types of harvest containers are used? (i.e., re-usable, made from what
materials)
How are containers cleaned and stored when not in use?
How is large crop equipment cleaned? (i.e. blades, chutes, conveyors)
Is equipment used for hauling fresh produce also used for other tasks such as
hauling garbage, manure? If so how is it cleaned?
Packing Facility
How is packing facility cleaned?

What is the water source for cleaning the packing facility?
Does the packing facility recycle water? If so explain procedure.
Is the produce cooled? How is it cooled? (i.e. water spray, hydro-cooler,
hydro-vac, forced air). What is the source of the water?
Is water with a disinfectant used in the packing facility? How are residues of
the disinfectant monitored and recorded?
If hydro-coolers are used, are they cleaned and how often? How often is the
water changed?
If ice is used, what is the source of the ice?
What is the disposal method for wastewater?
What controls are taken to limit reptiles/insects, birds inside the packing area?
What measures are taken to avoid cross-contamination within the packing
facility?
Transportation: Vehicles and Equipment
What types of vehicles are used to transport produce from the field to the
packinghouse? Are the vehicles also used for transporting animals, manure,
or chemicals?
What measures are taken to ensure trucks are clean and sanitary? Are they
inspected?
Is the produce temperature monitored while it is being transported?
Worker Health and Hygiene
Are there health and hygiene and sanitation training programs for workers? If
so, are they in their own language?
Is there supervisory oversight for worker health/hygiene/sanitation? What
measures are taken to ensure that ill workers are not handling produce?
What type of toilets and handwashing facilities are provided for workers?
Where are they located? Are they being used?
What is the disposal method for wastewater/sewage?
What measures are taken to ensure handwashing and toilet facilities are well
supplied with soap, water and drying devises and that workers use the
facilities?
P-26
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Part I. Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce
Table 1 Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ...Res-2

Table 2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with
Fresh Fruits and Vegetables .................................................Res-6
Part II. FDA Publications
The Guide to Minimize Microbial Hazards for Fresh Fruits and

Vegetables - In Brief .............................................................................Res-10
Farm Investigation Questionnaire .........................................................Res-14
Do Your Own Establishment Inspection A Guide to Self Inspection
for the Smaller Food Processor and Warehouse ..................................Res-25
Guidance for Industry: Reducing Microbial Food Safety
Hazards for Sprouted Seeds .................................................................Res-36
FDA Publishes Final Rule to Increase Safety of Fruit and
Vegetable Juices ..................................................................................Res-39
Part III. Disinfecting Contaminated Wells ............................................................Res-41

Part IV. Composting Facility .................................................................................Res-43
Part V. Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables .......................................Res-46
Part VI. Fundamentals of HACCP..........................................................................Res-48
Part VII. Choosing the Correct Training Aids ......................................................Res-60
Part VIII. Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................Res-64
Part IX. Where to Find Additional Information ....................................................Res-68
Res-1
PART I
Foodborne Disease and Fresh Produce
Table 1. Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
Disease / Microorganism
Source of Illness
Symptoms
BACTERIAL ILLNESSES
Botulism
Botulinum toxin produced by
Clostridium botulinum
Campylobacteriosis
Campylobacter jejuni
Listeriosis, meningitis encephalitis

Listeria monocytogenes
Spores of this bacterium are widespread. But they produce toxin only in
an anaerobic (without oxygen)
environment with low acidity. Can
cause problems in low-acid canned
goods if the foods are not properly
processed. Such products include
corn, green beans, soups, beets,
asparagus, mushrooms, tuna, and
liver pate. Problems have also been
identified in luncheon meats, ham,
sausage, stuffed eggplant, lobster,
and smoked and salted fish. Potential
hazard exists when fruit and
vegetables are placed in packages
with poor oxygen permeability.
Onset: Generally 4-36 hours after

eating.
Bacterium on poultry, cattle, and

sheep can contaminate meat and milk
of these animals. Raw food sources:
raw poultry, meat, and unpasteurized
milk. Organism has been isolated from
the surface of cucumbers. It can get
introduced to produce through cross
contamination from infected animal
products.
Onset: Generally 2-5 days after

eating.
Found in some types of unpasteurized

soft cheese, unpasteurized milk,
seafood products, frozen cooked
crabmeat, cooked shrimp and cooked
surimi (imitation shellfish), coleslaw
and produce. Listeria is much more
resistant to heat, salt, nitrite, and
acidity than many other microorganisms. They survive and grow at
low temperatures. Other potential
sources of contamination include
processing equipment, sewage and
other inert surfaces.
Onset: From 7-30 days after eating,

but most symptoms have been
reported 48-72 hours after
consumption of contaminated food.
Res-2
Symptoms: Neurotoxic symptoms,

including double vision, inability to
swallow, speech difficulty, and
progressive paralysis of the
respiratory system.
Get medical help immediately.
Botulism can be Fatal.
Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal

cramping, fever, and sometimes
bloody stools. Lasts 7-10 days.
Symptoms: Fever, headache,

nausea, and vomiting. Primarily
affects pregnant women and their
fetuses, newborns, the elderly, people
with cancer, and those with impaired
immune systems. Can cause fetal and
infant death.
Infection by Escherichia coli
Perfringens food poisoning

Clostridium perfringens
Salmonellosis
Salmonella
Part of normal gastrointestinal tract

microflora of humans and other warmblooded animals. Their presence in
foods is generally used as an index of
handling or post-heat processing
contamination.
Illnesses associated with E. coli
O157:H7 have been associated with
unpasteurized apple juice and cider,
lettuce, salads, salmon and cheese.
Onset: From 8-44 hours after

consumption of contaminated food.
In most instances, caused

by failure to keep food
hot. A few cells are often present after
cooking and multiply to toxic levels
during cool down and storage of
prepared foods.
Meats and meat products are the
foods most frequently implicated in
outbreaks.
Raw vegetables also have been
implicated in outbreaks.

eating.
Raw produce sources implicated in

outbreaks include melons, tomatoes,
alfalfa sprouts and orange juice. Raw
meats, poultry, eggs, milk and other
dairy products, shrimp, frog legs,
yeast, coconut, pasta, and chocolate
are most frequently involved.
Individuals carrying this organism but
exhibiting no symptoms of illness
could contaminate produce due to
poor hygiene practices.
Nontyphoid Infections (gastroenteritis)
Enterotoxigenic E. coliSymptoms: Fever, abdominal spasms,

shriveling, aqueous diarrhea, vomiting
and dehydration.
Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (O157:H7)most important in terms of foodborne
disease.
Symptoms: stools with blood, leading
cause of renal failure in children, can
cause damage to the brain. Mortality
rate is very high.
Symptoms: Abdominal pain and

diarrhea, and sometimes nausea and
vomiting.
Symptoms last for a day or less and
are usually mild. Can be more serious
in older or debilitated people.

eating.
Symptoms: Abdominal pain and
diarrhea, and sometimes nausea and
vomiting.
Symptoms last a day or less and are
usually mild. Can be more serious in
older or debilitated people.
Typhoid Fever
Onset: 8 to 15 days incubation, fever
continues for several days, septicemia
10 days or more after infection.
Symptoms: Malaise, anorexia and
headache, gradual increase in
temperature.
Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)

Shigella
Have been found in lettuce, green

peas, milk, dairy products, poultry,
and potato salad. Food becomes
contaminated when a human carrier
does not wash hands and then
handles produce. Organisms multiply
in food left at room temperature.
Res-3
Onset: 1-7 days after eating.

Symptoms:
Abdominal cramps,
diarrhea, fever, sometimes vomiting
and blood, pus, or mucus in stool.
Staphylococcal food poisoning

Staphylococcal enterotoxin produced
by Staphylococcus aureus
Vibrio Infection
Vibrio vulnificus
Vibrio cholerae
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Bacterium found everywhere in the

environment. Toxin is produced when
food contaminated with the bacteria is
left too long at room temperature.
Most outbreaks are due to human
food handling. High-protein foods are
more commonly associated with toxin
production. Such foods include meats,
poultry, egg products, tuna, potato
and macaroni salads, and cream filled
pastries. Usually not a problem in raw
produce due to competition by natural
microflora.
Onset: Generally 30 minutes-8 hours

after eating.
Contaminated
water
has
been
associated with foodborne outbreaks.
The bacterium lives in coastal waters
and can infect humans either through
open wounds or through consumption
of contaminated seafood. The bacteria
are most numerous in warm weather.
Can reach raw fruits and vegetables
through cross contamination or
handling.
Vibrio vulnificus
Onset: 1-7 days
Symptoms: Chills, fever, and/or
prostration. At high risk are people
with liver conditions, low gastric
(stomach) acid, and weakened
immune systems.
Symptoms: Diarrhea vomiting,

nausea, abdominal pain, cramps, and
prostration. Lasts 24-48 hours. Rarely
fatal.
Vibrio cholerae
Onset: 24-72 hrs
Symptoms: Profuse watery diarrhea
and vomiting, which can lead to
severe dehydration and death within
hours.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Onset: 2-48 hrs
Symptoms: Watery diarrhea,
abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting.
PARASITIC ILLNESSES
Amebiasis
Entamoeba histolytica
Cryptoporidiosis
Cryptosporidium parvum
Exist in the intestinal tract of humans

and are expelled in feces. Polluted
water and vegetables grown in
polluted soil spread the infection.
Infected handlers can also be sources
of contamination.
Onset: 3-10 days after exposure.
Cryptosporidium sp. could occur, on

any food touched by a contaminated
food handler. Fertilizing salad
vegetables with manure is another
possible source of human infection.
Large outbreaks are associated with
contaminated water supplies.
Onset: 7 days average (2-28 days)
Res-4
Symptoms: Severe cramp pain,

tenderness over the colon or liver,
loose morning stools, recurrent
diarrhea, loss weight, fatigue, and
sometimes anemia.
Symptoms: Severe watery diarrhea,

but may, alternatively, be
asymptomatic. Pulmonary and
tracheal disease in humans is
associated with coughing frequently a
low-grade fever, these symptoms
often accompanied by severe
intestinal distress. Lasts 2-4 days, has
extended to 1-4 weeks.
Cyclospora cayetanesis
Contaminated water, berries and

lettuce
Onset: 1-11 days

Symptoms: Fatigue, protracted
diarrhea, often relapsing. Lasts from
several days to several months.
Giardiasis
Giardia lamblia
Most frequently associated with

consumption of contaminated water.
Have been found in vegetables
including carrots. May be transmitted
by uncooked foods that become
contaminated while growing or after
cooking by infected food handlers.
Cool, moist conditions favor
organisms survival.
Onset: 1-3 days.

Symptoms: Sudden onset of
explosive watery stools, abnormal
cramps, anorexia, nausea, and
vomiting. Especially infects, children,
travelers, and institutionalized
patients.
VIRAL ILLNESSES
Hepatitis A
Norwalk-like viruses
Outbreaks have been associated with

raspberries, strawberries, lettuce,
mollusks (oysters, clams, mussels,
scallops) and other foods that become
carriers when untreated sewage
pollutes them. Raw shellfish are
especially potent carriers, since
cooking does not always kill the virus.
Symptoms and Onset:
Generally associated with poorly

cooked shellfish however can be
transmitted through ready-to-eat foods
touched by infected workers, salads,
ice, fruit.
Onset: 24-48 hrs.
Begin with malaise, appetite loss,

nausea, vomiting, and fever.
After 3-10 days patient develops
jaundice with darkened urine. Severe
cases can cause liver damage and
death.
Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, watery

large-volume diarrhea, fever rare.
Adapted from:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. Diagnosis and Management
of Foodborne Illnesses: A Primer for Physicians. MMWR, Vol. 50. RR-2
FDA. 2001. Foodborne Illness: Ten Least Wanted Foodborne Pathogens. U.S.
Food and Drug Administration-Partnership for Food Safety Education The Fight BAC! campaign. Available via the Internet at:
http://www.fightbac.org/10least.cfm
Res-5
Table 2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with Fresh

Fruits and Vegetables*
Agent
Bacillus cereus
Campylobacter
Campylobacter jejuni
Cryptosporidium
Cyclospora
Cyclospora
Cyclospora
E. coli O157
E. coli O157
E. coli O157
E. coli O157
E. coli O157
Fasciolia hepatica
Giardia
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis A virus
Hepatitis A virus
Norwalk virus
Salmonella agona
Salmonella miami
Salmonella muenchen
Salmonella oranienburg
Salmonella poona
Salmonella saint-paul
Salmonella stanley
Salmonella thompson
Shigella flexneri
Shigella sonnei
Shigella sonnei
Shigella sonnei
Implicated/suspected
food
Sprouts
Cucumber
Lettuce
Vegetable salad
Bamboo shoots
Apple cider
Raspberries
Basil
Raspberries
Radish sprouts
Apple juice
Apple cider
Iceberg lettuce
Alfalfa sprouts
Watercress
Vegetables, incl. Carrots
Iceberg lettuce
Raspberries
Strawberries
Tossed salad
Coleslaw & onions
Watermelon
Orange juice
Watermelon
Cantaloupes
Bean sprouts
Alfalfa sprouts
Root vegetables & dried
seaweed
Mixed salad
Iceberg lettuce
Parsley
Tossed salad
Reference
Portnoy et.al. ( 1976)
Kirk et al. (1997)
CDC (1998)
PHLS (1978)
CDC (1999)
CDR (1991)
Herwaldt et al. (1997)
CDC (1997)
CDC (1998)
WHO (1996)
CDC (1996)
Besser et al. (1993)
CDR (1997)
CDC (1997)
Hardman (1970)
Mintz et al. (1993)
Rosenblum et al. (1990)
Ramsey et al. (1989)
Niu et al. (1992)
Lieb et al. (1985)
Clark et al. (1973)
Gayler et al. (1955)
CDC (1999)
CDC (1979)
CDC (1991)
OMahony et al. (1990)
Mahon et al. (1997)
Kano et al. (1996)
Dunn et al. (1995)
Kapperud et al. (1995)
CDC (1999)
Martin et al. (1986)
Adapted from Beuchat, L. R.1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw:
A review. WHO/FSF/FOS/98.2. Available via the Internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf
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References
Besser, R.E., Lett, S.M., Weber, J.T., Doyle, M.P., Barrett, T.J., Wells, J.G., and
Griffin, P.M. 1993. An outbreak of diarrhea and hemolytic uremic
syndrome from Escherica coli O157:H7 in fresh-pressed apple cider.
Journal of the American Medical Association 269(17): 2217.
CDR. 1991. Outbreaks of Escherica coli O157:H7 infection and crytosporidiosis
associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider, Connecticut and New
York, October, 1996. Communicable Disease Intelligence 15(17). 292.
CDR. 1997. Hospital outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 associated with a rare phage
type, Ontario. Canada Communicable Disease Report 23(5): 33.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1979. Salmonella oranienburg
gastroenteritis associated with precut watermelons Illinois. Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report 28(44): 522.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1991. Multi-state outbreak of
Salmonella poona infections United States and Canada. Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report 40(32): 549.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Outbreaks of Escherica coli
O157:H7 infection associated with eating alfalfa sprouts Michigan and
Virginia, June-July, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
46(32):741.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Outbreak of Salmonella
muenchen infections associated with unpasteurized orange juice United
States and Canada, June, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
48(27): 582.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. Outbreak of Escherica coli
O157:H7 infections associated with drinking unpasteurized commercial
apple juice British Columbia, California, Colorado, and Washington,
October, 1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 45(44): 975.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Outbreaks of Cyclosporiasis
Northern Virginia -Washington, D.C. - Baltimore, MD - Metropolitan Area,
1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46(30): 689.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1998. Outbreaks of Cyclosporiasis
Ontario, Canada, May, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
47(38): 806.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Foodborne botulism

associated with home-canned bamboo sprouts Thailand, 1998.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48(27): 437.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1999. Outbreaks of Shigella sonnei
infection associated with eating fresh parsley United States and Canada,
July August, 1998. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48(14): 285.
Clark, G.M. et al. 1973. Epidemiology of an international outbreak of Salmonella
agona. Lancet, Spetember 1:490.
Dunn, R.A., Hall, W.N., Altamirano, J.V., Dietrich, S.E., Robinson-Dunn, B., and
Johnson, D.R. 1995. Outbreak of Shigella flexneri linked to salad prepared
at a central commissary in Michigan. Public Health Reports 110: 580.
Gayler, G.E., MacCready, R.A., Reardon, J.P., and McKernan, B.F. 1955. An
outbreak of Salmonellosis traced to watermelon. Public Health Reports
70(3): 311.
Hardman, E.W. 1970. Fascioliasis A large outbreak. British Medical Journal 3:
502.
Herwaldt, B.L., et al. 1997. An outbreak in 1996 of cyclosporiasis associated with
imported raspberries. New England Journal of Medicine 336(22): 1548.
Kano, A. et al. 1996. Outbreak of S. thompson suspected source, crosscontamination from soft turtle. Infectious Agents Surveillance Report
11(8):12(91).
Kapperud, G., Rorvik, L.M., Hasseltvedt, V., Hoiby, E.A., Iverson, B.G.,
Staveland, K., Johnson, G., Leitao, J., Herikstad, H., Andersson, Y.,
Langeland, Y., Gondrosen, B., and Lassen, J. 1995. Outbreak of Shigella
sonnei infection traced to imported iceberg lettuce. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology 33(3): 609.
Kirk, M., et al. 1997. A prolonged outbreak of Campylobacter infection at a
training facility. Communicable Disease Intelligence 21(12): 57.
Lieb, S., et al. 1985. Norwalk virus gastroenterititis an outbreak assocaited with a
cafeteria at a college. American Journal of Epidemiology 121(2): 259.
Mahon, B.E., Pnk, A., Hall, W., Komatsu, K., Beuchat, L., Dietrich, S., Siitonen,
A., Cage, G., Lambert-Fair, M., Hayes, P., Bean, N., Griffin, P. and
Slutsker, L. 1997. An international outbreak of Salmonella infections
caused by alfalfa sprouts grown from contaminated seeds. Journal of
Infectious Diseases 175: 876.
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Martin, D.L., Gustafson, T.L., Pelosi, K.W., Suarez, L., and Pierce, G.V. 1986.
Contaminated produce a common source for two outbreaks of Shigella
gastroenteritis. American Journal of Epidemiology 124(2):299.
Mintz, E.D., Hudson-Wragg, m. Mshar, P., Cartter, M.L., and Hadler, J.L. 1993.
Foodborne giardiasis in a corporate office setting. Journal of Infectious
Disease 167: 250.
Niu, M.T., Polish, L.B., Robertson, B.H., Khanna, B.K., Woodruff, B.A., Shapiro,
C.N., Miller, M.A., Smith, J.D., Gedrose, J.K., Alter, M.J., and Margoles,
H.S. 1992. Multistate outbreak of hepatitis A associated with frozen
strawberries. Journal of Infectious Disease 166: 518.
OMahony, M, Crowden, J., Smyth, B., Lynch, D., Hall, M., Rowe, B., Teare, E.L.,
Tettmar, R.E., Coles, A.M., Gilbert, R.J., Kingcott, E., and Bartlett, C.L.R.
1990. An outbreak of Salmonella saint-paul infection associated with
beansprouts. Epidemiology and Infection 104: 229.
Portnoy, B.L., Goepfert, J.M., Harmon, S.M. 1996. An outbreak of Bacillus cereus
food poisoning resulting from contaminated vegetable sprouts. American
Journal of Epidemiology, 103(6): 589-594.
Public Health Laboratory Service. 1997. Outbreaks of foodborne illness in
humans, England and Wales: Quarterly Report. Communicable Disease
Rep. Weekly 7(24): 207.
Ramsey, C.N. and Upton, P.A. 1989. Hepatitis A and frozen raspberries. Lancet.
1:43.
Rosenblum, L.S., Mirkin, I.R., Allen, D.T., Safford, S., and Hadler, S.C. 1990. A
multifocal outbreak of hepatitis A traced to commercially distributed
lettuce. American Journal of Public Health 80(9): 1075.
World Health Organization. 1996. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherica coli infection.
Weekly Epideminological Record 35(267.
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PART II
FDA Publications
The Guide at a Glance

The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards
for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables In Brief
This Guide provides general, broad-based voluntary guidance that may be applied, as appropriate, to
individual operations
The Guide
Is intended to assist domestic and foreign growers, packers, and shippers of unprocessed or minimally
processed (raw) fresh fruits and vegetables by increasing awareness of potential hazards and providing
suggestions for practices to minimize these hazards
Covers agricultural and postharvest water uses, manure and biosolids, worker health and hygiene, field and
facility sanitation, transportation, and traceback
Does not impose any new requirements or supercede existing laws or regulations
Will be most effective when used to evaluate individual operations and to institute good agricultural and good
manufacturing practices (GAPs and GMPs) appropriate to the individual operations
Basic Principles include

Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce is favored over reliance on corrective actions once
contamination has occurred
Accountability at all levels of the agricultural and packing environments is important to a successful food
safety program
Water
Wherever water comes into contact with fresh produce, its quality dictates the potential for pathogen
contamination
Agricultural Water
Identify source and distribution of water used
Be aware of current and historical use of land
Review existing practices and conditions to identify potential sources of contamination. Consider practices
that will protect water quality
Maintain wells in good working condition
Consider practices to minimize contact of the edible portion of fresh produce with contaminated irrigation
water. Where water quality is good, risk is low regardless of irrigation method
Processing Water
Follow GMPs to ensure water quality is adequate at the start of and throughout all processes
Maintain water quality, such as by periodic testing for microbial contamination, changing water regularly,
and cleaning and sanitizing water contact surfaces
Antimicrobial chemicals may help minimize the potential for microbial contamination to be spread by
processing water; levels of antimicrobial chemicals should be routinely monitored and recorded to ensure
they are maintained at appropriate levels
As organic material and microbial load increase, the effectiveness of many antimicrobial chemicals will
decrease. Filtering recirculating water or scooping organic material from tanks may help reduce the build-up
of organic materials
Cooling Operations
Maintain temperatures that promote optimum produce quality and minimize pathogen growth
Keep air cooling and chilling equipment clean and sanitary
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Keep water and ice clean and sanitary

Manufacture, transport, and store ice under sanitary conditions
Manure and Municipal Biosolids

Properly treated manure or biosolids can be an effective and safe fertilizer.
If manure is used as a fertilizer, it should be managed to minimize microbial hazards

Federal regulations address the requirements for use of biosolids in the U.S.. Some states also have specific
requirements for the use of biosolids. Foreign growers should follow these or similar requirements
Manure
Use treatments to reduce pathogens in manure and other organic materials. Treatments may be active (e.g.,
composting) or passive (e.g., aging)
Manure treatment and storage sites close to fresh produce fields increase the risk of contamination
Consider factors such as slope and rainfall and the likelihood of runoff into fresh produce production areas
Use barriers or physical containment to secure storage and treatment sites
Protect treated manure from being re-contaminated
When purchasing treated manure, get information about the method of treatment
Maximize the time between application of manure to production areas and harvest
Use of raw manure on produce during the growing season is not recommended
Animal Feces
While not possible to exclude all animal life from fresh produce production areas, many field programs
include elements to protect crops from animal damage.
Domestic animals should be excluded from fields and orchards during the growing and harvesting season
Follow GAPs to ensure animal waste from adjacent fields, pastures, or waste storage facilities does not
contaminate fresh produce production areas. Where necessary, consider physical barriers such as ditches,
mounds, grass/sod waterways, diversion berms, and vegetative buffer areas
Control of wild animal populations may be difficult or restricted by animal protection requirements.
However, to the extent feasible, where high concentrations of wildlife are a concern, consider practices to
deter or redirect wildlife to areas where crops are not destined for fresh produce markets
Worker Health and Hygiene

Infected employees who work with fresh produce increase the risk of transmitting foodborne illness.
Train employees to follow good hygienic practices

Establish a training program directed towards health and hygiene include basics such as proper
handwashing techniques and the importance of using toilet facilities
Become familiar with typical signs and symptoms of infectious diseases
Offer protection to workers with cuts or lesions on parts of the body that may make contact with fresh
produce
If employees wear gloves, be sure the gloves are used properly and do not become a vehicle for spreading
pathogens
Customer-pick and road-side produce operations should promote good hygienic practices with customers
encourage handwashing, provide toilets that are well equipped, clean, and sanitary and encourage washing
fresh produce before consumption
Sanitary Facilities
Poor management of human and other wastes in the field or packing facility increases the risk of
contaminating fresh produce
Be familiar with laws and regulations that apply to field and facility sanitation practices
Toilet facilities should be accessible to workers, properly located, and well supplied
Keep toilets, handwashing stations, and water containers clean and sanitary
Use caution when servicing portable toilets to prevent leakage into a field
Have a plan for containment in the event of waste spillage
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Field Sanitation
Fresh produce may become contaminated during pre-harvest and harvest activities from contact with soil,
fertilizers, water, workers, and harvesting equipment.
Clean harvest storage facilities and containers or bins prior to use

Take care not to contaminate fresh produce that is washed, cooled, or packaged
Use harvesting and packing equipment appropriately and keep as clean as practicable
Assign responsibility for equipment to the person in charge
Packing Facility
Maintain packing facilities in good condition to reduce the potential for microbial contamination.
Remove as much dirt as practicable outside of packing facility

Clean pallets, containers, or bins before use; discard damaged containers
Keep packing equipment, packing areas, and storage areas clean
Store empty containers in a way that protects them from contamination
Pest Control
Establish and maintain a pest control program
Block access of pests into enclosed facilities
Maintain a pest control log
Transportation
Proper transport of fresh produce will help reduce the potential for microbial contamination.
Good hygienic and sanitation practices should be used when loading, unloading, and inspecting fresh produce
Inspect transportation vehicles for cleanliness, odors, obvious dirt and debris before loading
Maintain proper transport temperatures
Load produce to minimize physical damage
Traceback
The ability to identify the source of a product can serve as an important complement to good agricultural
and management practices.
Develop procedures to track produce containers from the farm, to the packer, distributor, and retailer
Documentation should indicate the source of the product and other information, such as date of harvest, farm
identification, and who handled the produce
Growers, packers and shippers should partner with transporters, distributors and retailers to develop
technologies to facilitate the traceback process
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Once good agricultural and management practices are in place, ensure that the process is working
correctly. Without accountability, the best efforts to minimize microbial contamination are subject to
failure.
Copies of the Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, October 1998, are
available from:
Food Safety Initiative Staff (HFS-32)
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food safety and Applied Nutrition
200 C Street SW
Washington, DC 20204
Or on the Internet at:
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/prodguid.html
The Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables is available in English,
Spanish, French, and Portuguese
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U. S. Food and Drug Administration

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
April 6, 2000
Farm Investigation Questionnaire

The following form has been used in the domestic survey follow-ups, the imported
survey follow-ups and outbreak tracebacks. This questionnaire has been developed by
CFSAN and ORA for use on investigations of farms implicated in outbreaks or farms that
grew produce that was found positive for pathogens by FDA testing.
General Information:
Name of Farm Owner:
Farm Address:
Phone Number:
Location of Suspect Fields:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Date of Farm visit:

Outbreak Name/Location/Number:
Implicated Food:
Agent in Outbreak:
Reservoir(s) for this agent:
Planting date for implicated field:
Harvest date(s) for implicated field:
Interim steps (with dates) between planting and harvest (fertilizing, pesticide
applications, irrigation):
Other crops/ foods raised on this or adjoining fields:
Farm Diagram:
9. Obtain or draw a map of the farm layout. Use the farmer's or one you draw to
identify any possible sources of contamination on the farm or in close proximity:
e.g. slope of the land, type of soil, feedlots, sewage treatment plants, sewage
disposal systems/latrines/cesspools, areas that would collect drainage,
ponds/streams/rivers/ irrigation ditches, water wells, animal grazing/housing,
manure storage/composting, accumulations of trash, waste, debris that would
attract pests, housing for people. Attach the map to this report. Take photos to
further document the layout. Use a geological survey map or global positioning
device to describe the longitude and latitude of the suspect field(s).
Take pictures of everything possible during your investigation.
Weather:
10. Were there any unusual weather conditions during the growing or harvesting
period e.g. drought, heavy rains, fog or humidity? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
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Flooding:
11. Was the field exposed to flooding any time during the growing or harvesting
period? N ____ , Y ____
If yes when in relation to harvest:
What was the depth:
How long did the water cover crops:
12. Could heavy rainfall or flooding have contained or spread sewage, manure or
other contaminants? N ____ , Y ____
If yes list the sources and their distance from the farm:
Manure Management:
13. Has animal manure been used for fertilizer within the last year? N ____ , Y ____
14. What kind of animals is the manure from?
____ Cattle ____ Swine ____ Poultry
____ Unknown
15. What/who is the source/supplier?

Name:
Address:
Telephone:
(Investigator: obtain copies of invoices of manure shipments and attach)
16. What were the delivery dates:
17. What were the application dates:
18. Where was the manure stored prior to application:
19. When is manure applied e.g. before planting (how far), at the time of planting,
between planting and harvest?
20. How close to harvest was the last application?
21. Can applied manure blow onto downwind crops?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
22. How is manure applied e.g. topical, side dressing, plowed or disked into the soil?
23. How close is manure/compost stored to crop field?
24. Is it covered to prevent drift or contained to prevent runoff (e.g., manure
lagoons)? N ____ , Y ____
The following questions may have to be asked of the manure provider/seller:
25. Is the manure composted? N ____ , Y ____
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26. If manure is composted, for how long and how is the composting managed (e.g.,
is the manure turned to assure more complete breakdown?)?
27. Is manure treated? N ____ , Y ____
If yes, how was it treated e.g. composted, heat dried, treated with lime, aged,
anaerobic digestion, treated in a waste lagoon?
28. Was the treated manure tested? N ____ , Y ____
If yes what was it tested for and what were the findings:
Animal Management:
29. Are farm animals or domestic animals, e.g. cattle, dogs, housed or grazed
anywhere near the field? N ____ , Y _____
30. Is there a field lot or dairy farm within 1 mile of the field? N ____ , Y ____
If yes to either question, what animals and how far away? Describe relevant
topography (e.g., animal production uphill from fields):
31. Are there fences to keep them out of crops and away from water sources?
N ____ , Y ____
32. Would animal production areas drain into the field or water source?
N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain:
33. What wild animals have been observed in the area (e.g., deer and other mammals,
birds):
34. Describe the number of animals and the frequency that they are in the area:
35. Are they excluded or discouraged in anyway? If so how?
36. Is there any evidence of animal feces in the field? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
37. Are amphibians or reptiles (e.g. frogs, snakes, alligators) possible sources of
contamination in the field or in agriculture water sources?
N ____ , Y ____ If yes explain:
38. Are farm animals (e.g. horses, donkeys) used in the fields? N ____ , Y ____
39. Are Domestic animals intentionally introduced into crop production areas (e.g.,
for weed or pest control, to eat residual produce after harvest?) N ____ , Y ____
If yes explain. Include time between animals in production area and subsequent
harvest:
40. Are there any relevant health problems in the farm animals?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
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Further follow-up animal health may be required with the farmer that owns the
animals.
Sewage Use:
41. Is human waste used as fertilizer?
N ____ , Y ____
42. Is sewage (sewage sludge or biosolids) use on this crop?

N ____ , Y ____ If so where is it from?
43. How was it treated (e.g., composted, heat dried, treated with lime, aged, anaerobic
digestion, treated in a waste lagoon)?
44. On what crops are the sludge/biosolids used?
45. How close to harvest was it applied?
46. Is recycled (sewage plant treated) water used? N ____ , Y ____
If yes when was it applied:
How was it applied:
47. Is grey water e.g. non-human wastewater used for irrigation? N ____ , Y ____
If yes, what is the source of the grey water, how is it applied and how close to
harvest is it applied?
Treatments/Fertilizers/Pesticides:
48. Are chemical fertilizers used? N ____ , Y ____
49. How many days prior to harvest were the chemicals applied?
50. What crops are treated with chemical fertilizers?
51. How is it applied?
52. Was water used to mix with the chemicals applied?
N ____ , Y ____ If yes what was the source of the water?
53. Are biological treatments used e.g. bees for pollination, mites for competitive
exclusion, Bacillus thuringiensis for pest control? N ____ , Y ____
If yes explain which ones are used, for how long, and how close to harvest:
54. Does the farm apply pesticides or herbicides to crops? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
55. How are they applied:
____ Truck or tractor mounted spray rig ____ Airplane ____ Manual spray
____ Other
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56. What is the water source used for mixing and applying pesticides?
57. How close to harvest are pesticides applied?
58. Are pesticide mixing tanks, mixing paddles, spray tanks clean? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
59. Where is pesticide equipment stored when not in use e.g. on ground, protected
from contamination?
Harvest Tools and Equipment:

60. Harvest method:
____ Bare hand ____ Bare hand with utensil (e.g., knife) ____ Gloved hand
____ Gloved hand with utensil ____ Automated/machine (no hand contact)
____ Other Explain:
61. What tools are used in harvesting the crop e.g. knives, clippers?
62. Are they designed and constructed to allow for cleaning? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
Are they clean? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
63. How are they cleaned and sanitized, by whom and how often?
64. Are re-usable harvest containers used? N ____ , Y ____
65. What materials are they made from?
____ Wood ____ Plastic ____ Cardboard ____ Other
66. How are they cleaned before and during use?
67. How and where are they stored when not in use (e.g., on the ground, in a shed)?
68. How is large crop equipment that comes in contact with eatable crops cleaned
(e.g. blades, chutes, and conveyors)?
69. Is harvest equipment leased or contracted out? N ____ , Y ____
If yes who is the contractor and what other crops are harvested with this
equipment?
70. Answer the equipment design, condition, cleaning and sanitizing questions for
this equipment.
71. Is equipment used to haul crops used for other tasks such as hauling garbage,
manure? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
72. How is this equipment cleaned prior to use for hauling harvested crops?
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73. Are crops washed/processed in the field? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
Packing Facility:
74. Characterize the size of the operation (e.g., number of employees, stability of
work force, season of operation):
75. Draw a diagram and flow chart of the packing facility/shed and identify any
possible sources of contamination (include location of restrooms, break areas,
storage areas for equipment, chemicals, packaging, and personal items).
76. Is the packing equipment designed and constructed and maintained to facilitate
cleaning and sanitization? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
77. Is the packing equipment cleaned? N ____ , Y ____
And sanitized? N ____ , Y ____ If so how, how often, using what compounds?
Explain:
78. Does the plant recycle water? N ____ , Y ____
79. Does recycled water flow go from relatively clean to relatively dirty operations?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
80. Is the crop cooled? N ____ , Y ____
How is it cooled (e.g., is a water spray, hydro-cooler, hydro-vac, forced air used)?
Explain:
81. Is water with a disinfectant used in the packing facility/shed? N ____ , Y ____
Where is it used, what chemical, and how much is used?
82. What residual of disinfectant is in the cooling water at the time of inspection?
____ ppm
83. How was the residual measured?
84. How does the operator monitor disinfectant residual in the process water?
Are records kept of the test findings? N ____ , Y ____
85. How and how often is the hydro-cooler cleaned?
86. How and how often is the water changed in the hydro-cooler?
87. How and how often is flume water changed?
88. Measure the temperature of the product immediately before it is
washed/processed by water. ____ degrees
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89. Measure the temperature of the water when it is used to wash/process produce?
____ degrees
Record the location where these temperatures were taken.
(For some produce (e.g., tomatoes, celery, apples), it is recommended that the
water be 10 degrees F warmer than the product to prevent uptake of the
water by the produce.)
90. What is the source of ice used in the packing facility/shed?
91. Is ice produced, stored and used in a sanitary manner? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
92. Describe how sewage and wastewater are disposed of.
93. Is there evidence of amphibians, reptiles, insects or other birds inside the packing
area? N ____ , Y ____ Explain including proximity to product.
94. What is the temperature of product refrigeration rooms? ________
What is the temperature of product under refrigeration? ________
95. How long has the product been stored?
96. Examine the refrigeration rooms for condensate problems, pest control,
cleanliness:
Transportation:
97. Are vehicles used to transport produce from the field to the packing shed and
from the farm to market also used to transport animals, manure or other sources of
contamination? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
98. Is someone assigned responsibility for ensuring trucks are: clean and sanitary?
N ____ , Y ____ ; precooled (if appropriate for crop)? N ____ , Y ____
Is someone aware of previous load hauled? N ____ , Y ____
99. Are the transport vehicles cleaned and sanitized prior to being used for produce?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
100. Are transport vehicles inspected prior to each use? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
101. Are the transport vehicles onsite at the time of inspection clean and sanitary?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
102. Is the product temperature monitored while being transported? N ____ , Y ____
103. How is product temperature monitored in vehicles transporting the produce from
farm to market (e.g., do they use temperature monitoring devices)?
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Environmental and Product Sampling:

Prior to your visit determine whether the samples are for regulatory or epidemiological
purposes or both. Determine with laboratory, regulatory and epidemiology consultants
what should be sampled (e.g., produce, soil, water, workers, food contact surfaces, wild
life, domestic animals) prior to visiting the farm. These discussions should also cover
what tests should be run on samples, who has the expertise to collect and analyze the
samples, how the sample findings will be interpreted, and what will be done with positive
findings. If surface waters are used for irrigation or other product contact use, use Moore
swab tests to identify the pathogen.
Water Sources:
Complete one copy of this form for each water source used for growing, processing
or transportation.
Date:
Name of source:
How used (e.g., irrigation, cooling, and pesticide application)?:
Complete one copy of this page for each water source (e.g., use a separate page for
agricultural and process water).
In addition complete the appropriate forms* from the attached forms for each water
source:
Form G2 - "Record Review of On-site Investigations and Test Results Prior to and
During Outbreak"
Form G3 - "Source and Mode of Contamination of Surface Waters"
Form G4 - "Source and Mode of Contamination of Ground Waters"
Form G5a - "Disinfection Failures That Allowed Survival of Pathogens or Toxic
Substances"
Form G5b - "Source of Contamination and Treatment Failures That Allowed Survival of
Pathogens or Toxic Substances"
Form G6 - "Sources and Modes of Contamination During Distribution and at Point of
Use"
*From "Procedures To Investigate Waterborne Illness - Second Edition - 1996" International Association
of Milk Food and Environmental Sanitarians Inc. Des Moines, Iowa.
104. Draw a diagram of the water systems using Form G1- "Illustration of
Contamination Flow".
105. What are the state, local, regional water quality standards for agricultural water?
106. Does the water used on this farm meet the state standard? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
107. If this water is used for irrigation, how is it applied e.g. drip, flood, overhead
spray/sprinkler?
108. Does the agricultural water come in contact with the edible portion of the crop?
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N ____ , Y ____ Explain:

109. Has the water been treated? N ____ , Y ____ If so explain:
110. Has the water been tested for bacterial contamination/indicators? N ___ , Y ____
111. What were the test results?
112. When was the test conducted?
113. What lab did the testing?
Attach a copy of the test report.
Worker Health and Hygiene:

Complete one form for field workers and one for packing facility workers.
Investigators should speak with local/regional medical/public health officials
regarding the following questions:
114. What kind of surveillance and reporting are conducted by local/regional public
health authorities for the agent in this outbreak?
Investigators should request copies of summary surveillance reports from the
local/regional public health authorities for the agent of concern for the past
year or two. This will allow for an evaluation of disease trends.
115. Has there been any enteric disease in the farm workers or their families?
N ____ , Y ____ If so, explain what disease(s), and what testing was done.
116. Do workers seek medical attention when they are ill? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
Investigators should ensure that any workers with enteric disease are tested for the
agent of concern by a public health agency or the operator. Investigators should
attempt to obtain isolates from recent positive worker tests performed by clinical
labs. for comparison to isolates from outbreak victims.
117. What is the prevalence/incidence of enteric disease in the community and what
agents are involved?
118. Are there cases of the disease under investigation among household contacts of
workers? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
Ask the following questions at the farm and packing shed. Complete one form for
field and one for the packing shed.
119. Is there health and hygiene training of workers in their own language?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
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120. Is there training in sanitation practices for farm workers in their own language?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
121. Is there supervisory oversight for worker health/hygiene/sanitation?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
122. What toilet facilities are provided for workers (e.g., pit latrines, portable toilets,
flush toilets)?
123. Does the worker housing area provide toilet facilities and handwashing facilities?
Explain:
Are the toilets and handwashing facilities clean and supplied with soap, towels,
toilet paper? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
124. Is dirty handwash water collected in a waste tank or sewage system?
N ____ , Y ____
125. Does dirty handwash water drain on to the ground? N ____ , Y ____
126. Are toilet facilities provided convenient for workers in the fields?
N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
Are workers given time to use the facilities as needed? N ____ , Y ____
127. Is there any evidence that the toilet facilities are used? N ____ , Y ____
128. Where are portable field toilets serviced (e.g., emptied)?
129. Is this done in a way that protects crops from contamination? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
130. How is the sewage collected from the holding tanks disposed of?
131. Is there evidence of human feces in or adjacent to the fields? N ____ , Y ____
Explain:
132. Are handwashing facilities provided for field workers and are they supplied with
water, soap and drying devices? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
133. Is there evidence that workers use the handwashing facilities after they use the
toilet? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
134. Is liquid hand sanitizer used in place of handwashing? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
135. Do workers touch the produce with their bare hands? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
136. Do workers wear disposable gloves when touching produce? N ____ , Y ____
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Who provides them? Explain:

137. Are there children in the fields? N ____ , Y ____
138. Do they come in contact with the produce? N ____ , Y ____
139. Do they use toilet facilities vs excreting in the fields? N ____ , Y ____
140. Do they wash their hands? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
141. Where are diapers changed and how are the soiled diapers disposed of?
142. Are worker's clothes, including mothers of small children, worn in the field or
packing shed clean? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
143. Do farm workers or other persons frequent the fields at times when they are not
working on the crops (e.g., is there loitering in the fields by persons who could
contaminate the crops? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
144. Do the field or plant workers have animals at home? N ____ , Y ____
If yes, do they have any relevant health problems? N ____ , Y ____ Explain:
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Industry Activities Section
1994
Do Your Own Establishment Inspection

A Guide to Self Inspection for the Smaller
Food Processor and Warehouse
Why This Booklet?
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers establishment inspection one of its
prime enforcement tools. During 1980, FDA made over 25,000 inspections of food plants
and warehouses. Clearly, this is an important way of determining whether or not food
firms are in compliance with the FDA's law and regulations. Many of the regulatory
actions FDA takes against food firms are based on FDA's findings during inspections.
But inspecting your own establishment, you can see if your operation could face
regulatory problems. This booklet will aid you in performing a check of your own
operations so that the FDA inspection will not necessarily surprise you with its findings.
While not a substitute for the FDA establishment inspection, conducting your own "self
inspection" can help you to detect and solve compliance problems you might have before
they get out of hand.
This booklet tells you - why you should be fully aware of your firm's problem areas
what problems you will face as you conduct your inspection
how to make your own establishment inspection
Why You Should Be Fully Aware of Your Plant's

Problem Areas
It's Good Business
No one wants to deal with poor merchandise. If your business gets a reputation for being
shoddy, dirty or otherwise negligent, your prospective customers will seek greener--at
least, cleaner--pastures. It makes good business sense to keep your operation healthy and
reputable. Safe, quality foods help you do this.
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It's Your Responsibility
The food laws and regulations that FDA enforces apply to firms that receive or ship food
in interstate commerce. The requirements place the prime legal responsibility for safe,
quality foods, adequately labeled, upon you, the food processor. If you just store foods,
you too are legally bound to prevent contamination of the food while it is in your
possession. This is the law.
It Can Keep You Out of Trouble
The FDA does enforce the law. If your facilities are found to be out of compliance with
the Federal requirements for proper food processing and warehouse storage practices, you
can face any number of Federal actions. These include:
Notice of Adverse Findings Letter: Issuance of this official correspondence, while not
considered a regulatory action, indicates FDA's awareness of a violation that must be
corrected.
Regulatory Letter: A formal notification that the FDA is prepared to take a legal action if
the violations cited in the letter are not corrected immediately.
Seizure: This is a civil court action against a specific lot of goods to remove them from
the channels of commerce. Seizure actions are concerned primarily with the confiscation
of food products which are in violation of the law and with the condemnation and
destruction or reconditioning of these products.
Prosecution: Criminal action taken against a firm responsible for causing the charged
violations of law. A first offense can draw one year in prison, $1,000 fine, or both, on
each count or proven violation. A second offense can mean a sentence of three years in
prison and $10,000 for each count. A first offense with intent to defraud or mislead is
subject to imprisonment for not more than three years, or a fine of $10,000, or both for
each offense.
Injunction: A decree that restrains the defendants from engaging in violative food
processing or warehouse practices and remains in force until termination. This would
occur if the firm has a history of insanitary problems or when there is a health hazard
involved with the operation.
It Isn't That Hard
In terms of cost and manpower, self inspection is the most resonable means of helping to
ensure a satisfactory food processing and storage operation, and a "clean bill of health"
from the FDA. By taking the time and effort to inspect your operations on a regular basis,
you have the opportunity to correct potential problems and safeguard your investment.
The Problem Areas: What You Are Up Against

There are seven problem areas that, if left unwatched and unchecked, can become severe
hindrances in your efforts to maintain a sanitary food operation free of compliance
problems.
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First is the rodent (usually, rats and mice). Rodents carry many diseases and parasites
which, because of their biological similarity to people, can be transmitted to man. These
diseases and parasites include leptospirosis (Weil's Disease), salmonellosis, tapeworms,
trichinosis and others.
Rodents will deposit excreta, urine and other filth on food products and around your
facilities. They will also gnaw on materials in order to build nests. Rodents contaminate
much more than they eat.
Against rodents, you cannot take the security of your plant or firm for granted. Some
rodents can walk along telephone wires or leap horizontally 18 feet. They can squeeze
through gaps the width of a pencil or drop 50 feet without being killed. Their instinct for
survival is high, and they can deviate from "normal" behavior patterns to trick man. They
are extremely prolific creatures, and once they've infiltrated your operations, your
problems will multiply!
Birds also carry diseases and parasites potentially hazardous to people. They are capable
of flying through any open window, door or other gaps in your building, and, like
rodents, will leave insanitary droppings that can contaminate your plant and your food
products.
Insects seek heat, moisture and darkness, and once in, can be even more elusive than
rodents or birds. However, they aren't invisible--they leave trails in the dust, and can also
be spotted around likely insect hideouts: holes, damp places, behind boxes and in seams
in bags and folds of paper. Like rodents, some insects--notably cockroaches--have a
highly developed survival instinct and they are adaptable--they can develop an immunity
to poisons you use within a few insect generations. They are even more prolific than
rodents. With their hairy legs, they spread dirt, debris and bacteria around your firm.
They carry either within or outside of their bodies the causes for many serious diseases
and ailments such as boils, food poisoning and typhoid fever.
In dealing with any of the above pest problems, you may want to try to cope with them
on your own, but it is highly recommended that you seek the help of a good pest control
operator, or "exterminator." The results will probably be better, and in the long run, this
may be a more cost effective method.
If you were to take all the rodents and insects in the world, they would be outnumbered
by the bacteria to be found in one vat of spoiled egg batter. Bacteria are a worse problem
than any of the previously mentioned creatures because they can't be seen, yet they can
sicken or kill just the same.
Bacteria cannot be eliminated, but they can be defeated. Like any creatures, bacteria need
a combination of food, water and the proper temperature to survive. By regulating the
availability of each, you can take a big step toward keeping their population down.
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Molds will grow on almost anything, especially where there is moisture. The presence of
mold in a product is an indication that the product contains excessive decomposed
material and may also indicate insanitary practices on the part of the processor. Molds
can make you ill, and scraping off mold or getting rid of the one "bad apple" doesn't
always solve the problem.
While the other problem areas are active, aggressive opponents, chemical contaminants
can only become a problem through misuse or neglect--yet the end result of their
presence can be equally disastrous. Still, this is one of the easier problems to control.
This brings us to the seventh problem area--ignorance and carelessness. As a problem,
this can be just as dangerous as any of the preceeding, but it can combatted by applying
the guidelines given in this booklet, and by just using common sense. Now, let's get on
with the tactics for waging an offensive against the problems.
Police the Area--Know What's in Your Plant

Self-inspection is a most cost effective way for you to maintain a firm that is in
compliance with federal requirements for food processing and storage. By assuming the
role of an investigator, you can uncover potential problems and solve them before they
become big problems.
Let's "walk" through an operation--your operation--using the following checklist to
investigate major areas of concern. This checklist can serve as a basic guide to help you
maintain or improve compliance with federal requirements and to ensure that only safe,
quality products reach the consumers.
Here are some pointers for using the checklist:
9. Check the box to the left of each item to indicate a situation that is ok, or the box
to the right of each item that Needs Attention.
10. At the end of each topic section to note what you intend to do to correct an
identified problem, and to note any compliance problems you face that are not
addressed by the checklist. This checklist is a guide to be developed according to
the needs of your operation.
11. Feel free to photocopy this checklist and to use it regularly during your
inspections.
Employees
We'll begin the check with your employees. They are your most important resource.
OK
Needs Attention
Are the employees well-trained in what they do? You can avoid
many problems by making sure that your employees clearly
understand their functions.
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In handling food products, do your employees wear the proper

hair covering and clean uniforms?
Are your employees wearing jewelry, bandages, or have any
illnesses, infections or injuries (i.e., boils, cuts) which can
contaminate foods?
Do your employees wash after each visit to the toilet?
Do you have washing facilities available for your
employees near their work stations, and do they use
them when their hands become soiled or contaminated?
You must display "reminder" posters in your rest rooms
for employees to wash their hands.
Do your employees maintain clean personal habits? They
should keep their hands away from body surfaces, which are
loaded with bacteria.
Is the traffic within your plant controlled to prevent
contamination of the processing areas?
Have your employees been told the reasons why they should
undertake the above precautions?
Other Employee practices that need attention:
Plant/Grounds
OK
Needs Attention
Is the area around your firm clear of weeds, grass and brush?
This sort of foliage can be an effective cover for pests to
infiltrate your firm.
Is there any standing water on your ground which also attracts
pests?
Other outside Plant conditions that I want to look into:
Building/Facility
OK
Needs Attention
Do windows and doors seal tightly to ward off pests and

contaminants?
Do windows have fine mesh screens to keep out insects?
Will a pencil pass under the door? That's all the space required
for a rodent to enter.
Have all holes and cracks been filled so as not to provide hiding
places or entry points for pests?
Not only should your firm be free of vermin and pests--there
shouldn't even be evidence of the presence of domestic animals
such as cats and dogs.
Are rest rooms cleaned regularly?
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Are the hand-washing facilities furnished with paper or air hand

dryers and soap?
The hand-washing facilities should be furnished with
running water at a suitable temperature for washing
hands.
They should provide effective hand-washing and
sanitizing preparations.
Does the roof leak? This can add to the problems of humidity,
standing water and product contamination.
Are the overhead lights covered with shields to prevent
contamination of products by broken glass in case the lamps
burst?
Other Building/Facility problems that need to be addressed:
Equipment
OK
Needs Attention
Is all equipment which comes in contact with food cleaned and

sanitized as often as necessary to prevent contamination of the
product? You should follow appropriate cleaning schedules for
each piece of equipment.
Is the equipment designed, or otherwise suitable, for use in a
food plant? For example, equipment for handling or processing
foods cannot contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), which
are very toxic (this does not apply to electrical transformers and
condensers containing PCB's in sealed containers).
Is there a build-up of food or other static material on the
equipment? This can serve as a breeding place for insects and
bacteria.
Is there any build-up or seepage of cleaning solvents or
lubricants on your equipment which can contaminate foods? All
repairs on equipment should be of a permanent nature (e.g., no
bobby pins in place of cotter pins), as temporary repair parts
can break or rupture and get in the food product.
Is the equipment hard to disassemble for clean-up and
inspection? The more difficult it is, the less inclined you or an
employee will be to clean it.
Is there a lot of "dead space" in or around the machinery where
food and other debris can collect as a nest for insects and
bacteria?
Can the surface of the equipment be sanitized? Wood is one
material that cannot.
Other Equipment cleaning and maintenance issues that should
be covered:
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Housekeeping
OK
Needs Attention
Are trash, debris, and clutter picked up so as not to provide

hiding places for pests?
Do employees eat and smoke only in designated areas?
Is the food spilled or uneaten by employees cleaned up quickly
so as not to attract pests or breed bacteria?
Has old rodent excreta been cleaned up so you can spot any
new activity?
Additional Housekeeping duties that must be attended to:
Garbage
OK
Needs Attention
Is garbage quickly removed and dumped in appropriate bins? It

should not sit around your facilities to attract pests.
Is the garbage kept covered? An open garbage pile is an
excellent breeding ground for insects and rodents.
Other Garbage-handling problems that should be explored:
Plumbing
OK
Needs Attention
Is the water used in your firm from an approved source (either

municipal supply or tested private source)?
Have you made sure there are no hoses left dangling in sinks or
on the ground? Loss of pressure can cause a back flow that will
contaminate your water supply.
Do your facilities have back flow and vacuum breaker valves to
prevent contaminate your water supply?
Avoid standing water around your firm.
Other Plumbing needs that require attention:
Humidity
OK
Needs Attention
Does your building have dripping condensation or leaky

plumbing which can contaminate foods?
Are you keeping the humidity in your operation low? Molds,
insects and bacteria thrive in damp climate.
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Other problems to attend to regarding Humidity:
Temperature
OK
Needs Attention
Are storage areas intended for room temperature subject to

extremes of temperature, either hot or cold? This can damage
foods.
For refrigeration storage, coolers should be kept at or
below 40 degrees F.
For freezer storage, the temperature should be kept at or
below 0 degrees F.
Are you keeping a record of temperatures for all storage areas
on a regular basis?
Are you keeping your facilities at the proper temperature range?
Insects love high temperatures, and their activity will pick up as
the temperature goes up.
Additional Temperature-related difficulties to explore:
Incoming Raw Materials

OK
Needs Attention
Have you checked to see that the compartment door seals on the
truck are intact?
Is there a clean smell when the compartment doors are opened,
or are there signs of contamination such as petroleum distillate,
putrefaction, or other off-odors?
Is any refrigerated compartment set at the proper temperature?
Are boxes properly stacked and intact?
Is there evidence of activity by insects, rodents or birds?
Is there evidence of the misuse of pesticides such as DDT
tracking powder, 1080, or insect sprays?
Additional problems that should be dealt with on Incoming
Raw Materials:
The FDA publication Inspecting Incoming Food Materials will provide further information on
conducting an inspection of incoming food materials.
Storage of Raw Materials and Products
OK
Needs Attention
Is the storage area over-crowded? Such a condition prevents

adequate inspection and clean-up and also increases the
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likelihood of damage to products during handling.

Are products stored on pallets and at least 18 inches away from
the walls? It is important to leave space for inspection aisles so
that rodent and insect activity can be seen more readily. You
might consider painting a white line on the floor along the walls
to indicate inspection aisles.
Other Storage problems that should be corrected:
Rotation
OK
Needs Attention
Are products stored on a first-in, first-out basis to reduce the

possibility of contamination through spoilage?
Are old products kept in front of the new to help in the
rotation process?
Are all incoming products dated to ensure a proper rotation of
stocks?
Are items overstocked? This increases the chances of spoilage
and contamination.
When checking containers for contamination, are dusty, faded
or discolored containers checked first? They are obviously the
most suspect items.
Additional issues to address on the Rotation process:
Quarantine
OK
Needs Attention
Are all products spoiled by damage, insects, rodents or other

causes stored in a designated "Quarantine Area" to prevent their
contact with safe products?
Are such quarantined items disposed of quickly to prevent the
development of pest breeding places?
Are incoming materials inspected for damage or contamination
so that they can be rejected?
Other problems to address in the Quarantine procedure:
Pest Control
OK
Needs Attention
If you hire an outside pest control operator you should:

Check regularly on what the pest control operator is doing.
Don't accept what he's doing on faith.
Check to see what poisons he is using. Make sure the poisons
do not contaminate foods.
Learn where and how many bait stations there are.
They should be placed so as not to present any chance
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of food contamination.
They should be checked regularly.
Check to see if fumigators are being used. Do they represent a
hazard to employees or food safety?
If doing your own exterminating, you should:
Know there is no such thing as an all-purpose pesticide,
especially where foods are concerned. Get qualified advice
before using any poisons.
Make a map showing locations of all traps, bait stations, etc.,
and check them regularly.
Put money into building maintenance if that will help solve
your pest problems. For instance, don't rely solely on
rodenticides to control your pest problem and leave gaps in the
doors for the rodents to enter. Make sure those gaps are sealed.
Extermination is a poor second choice, and will cost you as
much, or more, in the long run.
Other Pest Control situations to explore:
Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials

OK
Needs Attention
Are materials such as pesticides, herbicides, cleaning solvents,

lubricants and boiler compounds accessible for use only by
authorized employees? This will help prevent accidents such as
food contamination and employee injuries due to ignorance and
misuse.
Additional situations to consider regarding Hazardous
Material Storage:
Labeling
OK
Needs Attention
Are all hazardous materials kept in bottles, or drums, or boxes

that reflect their dangerous nature?
Even non-hazardous materials should be labeled correctly.
Several babies died in a hospital because salt was mistakenly
used for sugar in their formulae.
Make sure that any labels you market comply with the Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act and Fair Packaging and Labeling Act.
Other questions on Labeling that need to be considered:
FDA does not have the authority to approve labels prior to marketing, but it does have
jurisdiction once the label is in interstate commerce. FDA will take legal action if a product is
not labeled in accordance with the law. FDA is willing to provide comments on your labeling
prior to marketing, if you desire.
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Food Additives
OK
Needs Attention
Make certain that the food additives you use are suitable and
safe for the intended purposes.
Other issues regarding Food Additives to be resolved:
Product Codes
OK
Needs Attention
Do you have an effective recall procedure set up?

Other considerations on Product Codes:
By completing this brief inspection "patrol," you now have an idea of what the FDA
investigator will generally look for when he visits your firm. This "short course" is far
from complete, but it should provide a foundation to help you maintain a safe, quality
food processing and storage operation.
Here are some last-minute hints to help you in your inspection and sanitation efforts:
1. As you inspect, use the checklist to make a record of the problems you encounter
so you won't forget them. You can then make corrections based on the checklist.
2. Formulate inspection, clean-up and maintenance schedules and stick to them.
3. Define your employees' responsibilities; make sure each one understands his
duties so that no essential details are ignored.
4. Be diligent in your sanitation efforts. The struggle to control pests, bacteria and
the other problem areas is a fulltime effort.
You've just taken your first big step in the campaign for better food processing and
storage. By reading this booklet, you've gained an awareness of the problems you might
face, tactics for dealing with them, and knowledge that FDA is ready to help you with
advice and further information on how you can deal with specific problems you
encounter.
By taking preventive measures now, you can avoid potentially costly, mandated
adjustments that might arise when the FDA investigator pays you a visit--and you can
ensure that only quality, safe food products find their way to the consumers...a move we
all want.
Document available via the Internet at: http://www.cfsna.fda.gov/~dms/selfinsp.html
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Food and Drug Administration

October 27, 1999
GUIDANCE FOR INDUSTRY
Reducing Microbial Food Safety Hazards

For Sprouted Seeds1
All parties involved in the production of sprouts -- seed producers, seed conditioners, and
distributors, and sprout producers -- should be aware that seeds and sprouted seeds have
been recognized as an important cause of foodborne illness. The following
recommendations identify the preventive controls that the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) believes should be taken immediately to reduce the risk of raw sprouts serving as
a vehicle for foodborne illness and ensure sprouts are not adulterated under the food
safety provisions of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the act). Failure to adopt
effective preventive controls can be considered insanitary conditions which may render
food injurious to health. Food produced under such conditions is adulterated under the act
(21 U.S.C. 342(a)(4)). FDA will consider enforcement actions against any party who
does not have effective preventive controls in place, in particular, microbial testing.
These recommendations are based on the recommendations of the National Advisory
Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1999) and elaborate on
Compliance Policy Guide 7120.28 (CPG 7120.28).
Seed Production: Seeds for sprout production should be grown under good agricultural
practices (GAPs) in order to minimize the likelihood that they will contain pathogenic
bacteria. For more information on GAPs, see FDA's 1998 "Guidance for Industry: Guide
to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables". Copies of
this guidance are available on the internet
(http://www.foodsafety.gov/~dms/prodguid.html) or by calling the number listed in the
references and resources at the end of this guidance.
Seed Conditioning, Storage, and Transportation: Seeds that may be used for sprouting
should be conditioned, stored, and transported in a manner that minimizes the likelihood
that the seeds will be contaminated with pathogens. For example, seed should be stored in
closed or covered containers in a clean dry area dedicated to seed storage. Containers
should be positioned off the floor and away from walls to reduce the possibility of
contamination by rodents or other pests and to facilitate regular monitoring for pest
problems.
Sprout Production: Sprouters should implement appropriate practices to ensure that
sprouts are not produced in violation of the act which prohibits the production of food
under insanitary conditions which may render food injurious to health (21 U.S.C.
342(a)(4)). In addition to seed treatment and testing for pathogens (see below), sprouters
should maintain facilities and equipment in a condition that will protect against
contamination. Facilities with poor sanitation can significantly increase the risk of
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contaminating product. Sprouters should employ good sanitation practices as a standard

operating procedure to maintain control throughout all stages of sprout production.
Inadequate water quality and poor health and hygienic practices can all increase the risk
of food becoming contaminated with pathogens. Sprouters may wish to review 21 CFR
Part 110 which sets forth good manufacturing practices (GMPs) in manufacturing,
packaging, or holding human food that cover these aspects of food production.
Seed Treatment: Seeds for sprouting should be treated with one or more treatments (such
as 20,000 ppm calcium hypochlorite) that have been approved for reduction of pathogens
in seeds or sprouts 2. Some treatments can be applied at the sprouting facility while others
will have to be applied earlier in the seed production process. However, at least one
approved antimicrobial treatment should be applied immediately before sprouting 3.
Sprouters should carefully follow all label directions when mixing and using
antimicrobial chemicals.
Testing for Pathogens: Because currently approved antimicrobials have not been shown
to be capable of eliminating all pathogens from seed, sprout producers should conduct
microbiological testing of spent irrigation water from each production lot to ensure that
contaminated product is not distributed. Because testing for pathogens can be done with
irrigation water as early as 48 hours into what is generally a 3 to 10 day growing period,
producers who plan accordingly can obtain test results before shipping product without
losing product shelf-life. Testing, whether done by the producer or contracted out, should
be done by trained personnel, in a qualified laboratory, using validated methods.
Additional information on sample collection and microbial testing, including how to
sample and test sprouts when testing spent irrigation water is not practicable (as may be
the case with soil-grown sprouts), can be found in a companion guidance document
referenced below.
Traceback: Traceback cannot prevent a foodborne illness outbreak from occurring.
However, being able to trace a food back to it's source quickly can limit the public health
and economic impacts of an outbreak, if it occurs. Information gained in traceback
investigations may also help prevent future outbreaks. Sprout producers, seed producers,
conditioners and distributors should develop and implement systems to facilitate
traceback and recalls in the event of a problem. All parties should test their systems in
advance of a real problem.
References and resources:
1. Food and Drug Administration. 1982. Compliance Policy Guide Sec. 555.750 Seeds
for Sprouting Prior to Food Use, i.e., Dried Mung Beans, Alfalfa Seeds, etc. (CPG
7120.28 ) can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the following address
http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgfod/cpg555-750.html
2. Food and Drug Administration. 1998. Guidance for Industry -- Guide to Minimize
Microbial Food Safety Hazards for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables can be viewed and
printed from the WWW at the following address
http://www.foodsafety.gov/~dms/prodguid.html or may be obtained by calling 202-4019725.
3. Food and Drug Administration, 1999. Press Release -- Consumers Advised of Risks
Associated with Raw Sprouts. P99 - 13.
http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/NEW00684.html
Res-37
4. FDA, 1999. "Guidance for Industry: Sampling and Microbial Testing of Spent
Irrigation Water During Sprout Production" can be viewed and printed from the WWW at
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/sprougd2.html
5. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 1999a.
Microbiological Safety Evaluations and Recommendations on Sprouted Seeds.
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/sprouts2.html
6. National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods. 1999b.
Microbiological Safety Evaluations and Recommendations on Fresh Produce. Food
Control. 10:117 - 143.
7. Copies of Federal regulations in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) may be
purchased from the U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512 - 1800.
The CFR is also available at local branches of U.S. Government Printing Office
Bookstores. Information on location of regional branches is available on the WWW at the
following address: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/ob-reg.html
8. Sections of the CFR, such as 21 CFR Part 110 Current Good Manufacturing Practices
in Manufacturing, Packing, or Holding Human Food, can be viewed and printed from the
WWW at the following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html.
Footnotes:
1. This guidance has been prepared by the Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages in the Center for
Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at the Food and Drug Administration. This guidance represents the
agency's current thinking on reducing microbial food safety hazards for sprouted seeds. It does not create or
confer any rights for or on any person and does not operate to bind FDA or the public. An alternative
approach may be used if such approach satisfies the requirements of the applicable statute and regulations.
Following the recommendations in this guidance will not shield any person or any food from appropriate
enforcement under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act if adulterated food is distributed in interstate
commerce.
2. In 1998, the Environmental Protection Agency issued a "section 18" for the temporary use of 20,000
ppm calcium hypochlorite to disinfect seed for sprouting. In the fall of 1999, the exemption was renewed
for another year. However, in order to ensure continued availability of this treatment, registrants should be
actively pursuing a full registration under section 3 in 2000.
3. Antimicrobials are either pesticides chemicals or food additives, depending on where they are used. As
such their use on seeds for sprouting must be approved by EPA or FDA. To find out what antimicrobials
have been approved by EPA or FDA for use on seeds for sprouting, you can call 202-418-3098.
Res-38
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

P01-03
January 18, 2001
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION

Print Media: 301-827-6242
Broadcast Media: 301-827-3434
Consumer Inquiries: 888-INFO-FDA
FDA PUBLISHES FINAL RULE TO INCREASE

SAFETY OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE JUICES
The Food and Drug Administration today announced a final rule designed to improve the
safety of fruit and vegetable juice and juice products. Under the rule, juice processors
must use Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles for juice
processing. Implementation of a HACCP system will increase the protection of
consumers from illness-causing microbes and other hazards in juices.
"This rule will help ensure the safety of the juice that American families consume each
day," said Jane E. Henney, M.D. Commissioner of Food and Drugs. "It is another step in
protecting the public health through the safety of our food."
The rule comes after a rise in the number of foodborne illness outbreaks and consumer
illnesses associated with juice products during the past several years, including a 1996 E.
coli O157:H7 outbreak associated with apple juice products and two citrus juice
outbreaks attributed to Salmonella spp. in 1999 and 2000. The apple juice outbreak
sickened 70 people in the western United States and Canada, including a child who died
from hemolytic uremic syndrome caused by the infection. The Salmonella Enteritidis
outbreak in 2000 was caused by unpasteurized orange juice and resulted in 88 illnesses in
six western states. The Salmonella Muenchen outbreak in 1999 was caused by
unpasteurized orange juice and resulted in 423 illness in 20 states and 3 Canadian
provinces and contributed to one death. Foodborne infections are especially dangerous
for young children, older adults and those with weakened immune systems. FDA
estimates that there are between 16,000 to 48,000 cases of juice-related illnesses each
year. It is estimated that the action taken due to the rule will prevent at least 6,000
illnesses per year.
HACCP systems call for a science-based analysis of potential hazards, determination of
where the hazards can occur in processing, implementing control measures at points
where hazards can occur to prevent problems, and rapid corrective actions if a problem
occurs. Firms will be required to maintain records in association with implementation of
their HACCP plans and verification of those plans. HACCP systems are already federally
required for seafood, meat processors and poultry processors.
The juice HACCP regulation applies to juice products in both interstate and intrastate
commerce. Juice processors will be required to evaluate their manufacturing process to
determine whether there are any microbiological, chemical, or physical hazards that
could contaminate their products. If a potential hazard is identified, processors will be
required to implement control measures to prevent, reduce, or eliminate those hazards.
Processors are also required to use processes that achieve a 5-log, or 100,000-fold,
reduction in the numbers of the most resistant pathogen in their finished products
compared to levels that may be present in untreated juice. Juice processors may use
microbial reduction methods other than pasteurization, including approved alternative
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technologies (such as the recently approved UV irradiation technology) or a combination

of techniques.
Citrus processors may opt to apply the 5-log pathogen reduction on the surface of the
fruit, in combination with microbial testing to assure that this process is effective.
Processors making shelf-stable juices or concentrates that use a single thermal processing
step are exempt from the microbial hazard requirements of the HACCP regulation. Retail
establishments where packaged juice is made and only sold directly to consumers (such
as juice bars) are not required to comply with this regulation.
Large companies will have one year after publication of the regulation to implement
HACCP programs. Small companies must comply 2 years after publication and very
small companies must comply 3 years after publication. Processors must continue to use
the previously required warning label statement until they implement HACCP programs.
In the interim, FDA will continue to inspect juice processing facilities to assure that they
are producing safe juice and juice products.
This is a mirror of the page at
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Part III
Disinfecting Contaminated Wells
When microbiological analysis indicates that a well is contaminated, a
disinfecting procedure should be carefully applied. An example of the
decontamination procedure recommended by the California Strawberry
Commission (1998) is described in the following steps. The procedure is placed
in this manual for educational purposes; however, in the event of a contamination
the trainer is advised to recommend that the grower contact regional government
authorities for information on procedures that may need to be adjusted for
specific needs or country requirements.
Step 1- Addition of Chlorine Solution. Contaminated water sources should be
treated with a dose of at least 50mg/L (parts per million) of available chlorine.
Visual IIII.1-20 indicates the quantities of various commercial chlorine
compounds required to treat 100 feet (30 meters) of a water-filled casing with
50 ppm chlorine for diameters ranging from 2-24 inches (5-60 cm). Some
authorities recommend a minimum concentration of 100 ppm available
chlorine. To obtain that concentration, the amounts indicated in the visual can
be doubled.
Visual III.1-20
Chlorine compound required to dose 100 ft (30 meters) of water-filled casing
at 50 mg/L (ppm)1
70% Calcium 25% Chloride of 5.25% Sodium
Diameter of Casing
Hypochlorite
Lime
Hypochlorite3
2
(dry weight)
(dry weight)
(liquid measure)
inches
Cm
Amount
Amount
Amount
2
5
7g
14 g
59 ml
4
10
28 g
57 g
266 ml
6
15
57 g
113 g
0.6 L
8
20
85 g
0.2 Kg
1.0 L
10
25
113 g
0.3 Kg
1.7 L
12
30
0.2 Kg
0.45 Kg
2.4 L
16
40
0.3 Kg
0.9 Kg
3.8 L
20
50
0.45 Kg
1.4 Kg
6.3 L
24
60
0. 7 Kg
1.8 Kg
8.8 L
1
Water pH should be 6.5-7.5

Commercial brands include HTH, Perchloron, Pittchlor, etc.
3
Commercial household bleaches such as Chlorox, Purex, etc.
2
Note: If dry chloride is being used, it should be mixed with water to form a
chloride solution prior to placing it in the well. Dry chloride should always be
added slowly to water, not vice versa, to prevent a violent chemical reaction.
(The exothermic reaction can produce sufficient heat to boil and splash added
water.)
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Step 2- Rinsing of the pump column. It is recommended that the pump

column or drop pipe be rinsed with the chlorine solution as it is lowered into
the well.
Step 3- Mixing the disinfectant with water in the well. The pump should be
turned on and off several times (surged) to mix the chlorine with the water in
the well. Repeat this procedure several times at one-hour intervals until the
water discharged has the odor of chlorine. Heavily chlorinated water should
not be dumped into sewage disposal systems (septic tanks). Such strong
disinfectants can inactivate the bacteria used to treat the sewage and can
also damage the soil absorption system. Chlorination can be an effective
sanitation measure, but may represent a source of chemical contamination, if
misused.
Step 4- Allow enough time for disinfecting. The well should be allowed to
stand without pumping for 24 hours.
Step 5- Test for residual chlorine. The water should be pumped to waste until
the presence of chlorine is no longer detectable. The absence of chlorine is
best determined by testing for available chlorine residue using a test kit
designed for this purpose. Test kits can be obtained from chemical supply
houses, swimming pool suppliers, etc. and they are relatively inexpensive.
Step 6- Collect a sample for microbiological analyses. A sample should be
collected according to the previously described sampling procedures and
submitted to a laboratory for analysis.
Step 7- Repetition of the disinfecting procedure if the contamination persists.
When the laboratory analysis indicates that the water is not free of
contamination, the process should be repeated. If repeated attempts to
disinfect the well are unsuccessful, a detailed investigation should be
undertaken to identify the cause of contamination.
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PART IV
COMPOSTING FACILITY
NATURAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SERVICE
CODE 317
DEFINITION
This is a treatment component of an agricultural management

system for the biological stabilization of organic material.
Facility Siting. The bottom elevation of the composting

facility shall be above the seasonal high water table and on
soils with an acceptable permeability that does not allow
materials to contaminate the ground water, and meets all
applicable regulations, or the facility shall be installed on
concrete slabs or other appropriate liners.
PURPOSES
Ideally, compost facilities should be located outside of
floodplains. However, if site restrictions require location
within a floodplain, they shall be protected from inundation
or damage from a 25-year flood event, or larger.
To reduce the pollution potential of organic agricultural

wastes to surface and ground water.
CONDITIONS WHERE PRACTICE APPLIES
Locate compost facilities so prevailing winds and landscape

elements such as building arrangement, landforms, and
vegetation minimize odors and protect the visual resource.
This practice applies where:
Organic waste material is generated by

agricultural production or processing;
A composting facility is a component of a
planned agricultural waste management
system; and,
A composting facility can be constructed,
operated and maintained without polluting
air and/or water resources.
Direct surface runoff away from the compost facility.

Direct contaminated runoff from compost facilities to an
appropriate storage or treatment facility for further
management.
Compost Mix. Develop a compost mix that encourages
aerobic microbial decomposition and avoids nuisance
odors.
Carbon-Nitrogen Ratio. The initial compost mix shall result
in a Carbon to Nitrogen ratio between 25:1 and 40:1. Compost
with a greater carbon to nitrogen ratio can be used if nitrogen
immobilization is not a concern.
CRITERIA
General Criteria Applicable To All Purposes
Laws and Regulations. The installation and operation of the
composting facility shall comply with all federal, state, and
local laws, rules, and regulations.
Carbon Source. A dependable source of carbonaceous

material with a high carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) shall be
stored and available to mix with nitrogen rich waste materials.
Safety. Safety and personal protection features and practices

shall be incorporated into the facility and its operation as
appropriate to minimize the occurrence of equipment hazards
and biological agents during the composting process.
Bulking Materials. Add bulking materials to the mix as

necessary to enhance aeration.
The bulking material may be the carbonaceous
I Conservation practice standards are reviewed periodically, and updated if needed. To obtain
the current version of this standard, contact the Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Res-43
March 2001
material used in the mix or a non-biodegradable material that

is salvaged at the end of the compost period. If a
non-biodegradable material is used, provision shall be made
for its salvage.
Sizing of facilities for composting dead animals shall be

based on normal mortality loss records for the operation. Or,
if not available, locally established mortality rates for the type
of operation shall be used.
Moisture Level. Provision may be made for maintaining

adequate moisture in the compost mix throughout the
compost period within the range of 40 to 65 percent (wet
basis).
In high precipitation climatic regions, care shall be taken to
prevent excess moisture from accumulating in the compost.
Facility covers may be required to provide for a suitable
product
Compost Period. Continue the composting process long

enough for the compost mix to reach the stability level where
it can be safely stored without undesirable odors. It shall also
possess the desired characteristics for its use, such as lack of
noxious odor, desired moisture content, level of
decomposition of original components and texture. The
compost period shall involve primary and secondary
composting as required to achieve these characteristics.
Test the finished compost as appropriate to assure that the
required stabilization has been reached.
Temperature of Compost Mix. Manage the compost to

attain and then maintain the internal temperature for the
duration required to meet management goals.
When the management goal is to reduce pathogens, the
compost shall attain a temperature greater than 130F for
at least 5 days as an average throughout the compost
mass.
This temperature and time criterion may be achieved during
either primary or secondary composting stages or as the
cumulative time of greater than 130F in both stages.
Turning/Aeration. The frequency of turning/aeration
shall be appropriate for the composting method used, and
to attain the desired amount of moisture removal and
temperature control while maintaining aerobic
degradation.
Facility Type. Selection of the composting facility/method
shall be based on the availability of raw material, the desired
quality of final compost, equipment, labor, time, and land
available.
Facility structural elements such as permanent bins, concrete
slabs, and roofs shall meet the requirements of Conservation
Practice Standard 313, Waste Storage Facility.
Facility Size. Size the compost facility to accommodate
the amount of raw material planned for active
composting plus space required for curing.
Use of Finished Compost. Land application of finished

compost shall be in accordance with Conservation Practice
Standards 590, Nutrient Management, and 633, Waste
Utilization.
CONSIDERATIONS
Develop an initial compost mix with a Carbon to Nitrogen

ratio of at least 30:1 to reduce most offensive odors.
Minimize odors and nitrogen loss by selecting carbonaceous
material that, when blended with the nitrogenous material,
provides a balance of nutrients and porous texture for
aeration.
Maximize solar warming by aligning piles north to south
configured with moderate side slopes.
In humid areas, do not locate piles (windrows) across the
slope to prevent ponding and sogginess.
Protect compost facilities from the wind in cold climates.
Wind protection may help prevent excess drying of the
compost in dry climates.
Dimensions selected for elements of the compost facility shall

accommodate equipment used for loading, unloading, and
aeration
PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Plans and specifications shall be prepared in accordance with
the criteria of this standard and shall describe the requirements
for applying the practice to achieve its intended use.
Res-44
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Develop an operation and maintenance plan that is consistent
with the purposes of this practice, and the life of the
composting facility. Recipe ingredients and sequence that
they are layered and mixed shall be given in the plan.
Safety requirements for operation of the
composting facility shall be provided.
Manage the compost piles for temperature, odors, moisture,

and oxygen, as appropriate. Make adjustments throughout
the composting period to insure proper composting
processes.
Closely monitor temperatures above 165F. Take action
immediately to cool piles that have reached temperatures
above 185F.
The operation and maintenance plan shall state that
composting is a biological process. It requires a combination
of art and science for success. Hence, the operation may
need to undergo some trial and error in the start-up of a new
composting facility
Source: Natural Resources Conservation Service, Conservation Practice Standard 317 (March
2001), Composting Facility in National Handbook of Conservation Practices. Available
via the internet at: ftp://ftp.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/pub/nhcp/pdf/317.pdf (accessed 7/01).
Res-45
PART V
Storage Conditions for Fruits and Vegetables*
Temperature
F
Apples
30-40
Apricots
32
Asparagus
32-35
Avocados
40-55
Bananas
56-58
Beans, snap
40-45
Beans, lima
37-41
Beets, root
32
Blackberries
31-32
Blueberries
31-32
Broccoli
32
Brussel sprouts
32
Cabbage
32
Cantaloupe
36-41
Carrots, topped
32
Cauliflower
32
Celery
32
Cherries, sweet
30-31
Corn, sweet
32
Cranberries
36-40
Cucumbers
50-55
Eggplant
46-54
Endive
32
Garlic
32-34
Grapefruit
50-60
Grapes
32
Kiwifruit
32
Leeks
32
Lemons
50-55
Lettuce
32
Limes
48-50
Mushrooms
32
Nectarines
31-32
Okra
45-50
Onions, bulb
32
Onions, green
32
Oranges
32-48
Peaches
31-32
Pears
32
% Relative
humidity
90-95
90-95
95-100
85-90
90-95
95
95
98-100
90-95
90-95
95-100
95-100
98-100
95
98-100
90-98
98-100
90-95
95-98
90-95
95
90-95
90-95
65-75
85-90
85
95-100
95-100
85-90
85-90
85-90
95
95
90-95
65-70
95-100
85-90
90-95
90-95
Precooling
Method
R, F, H
R, H
H, I
R, F, H
R
R, F
R, F
I, F, H
H, V, I
R, F
H, F
I, R
H, V
I
H, F
H, I, V
F, H
R, F
H, I
N
F
H, I
H, I
F, H
N
H, I
F, H
F, R, H
Storage Life Days

90-240
7-14
14-21
14-28
7-28
10-14
7-10
90-150
2-3
10-18
10-14
21-35
90-180
10-14
28-180
20-30
14-28
14-21
4-6
60-120
10-14
10-14
14-21
90-210
28-42
56-180
28-84
60-90
30-180
14-21
21-35
12-17
14-18
7-14
30-180
7-10
21-56
14-28
60-90
Adapted from Bachmann, J. and Earles, R. 2000. Postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables.
Appendix 1. Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA). Available via the
Internet at http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/postharvest.html
Res-46
Peas, in pods
32
95-98
F, H, I
7-10
Peppers, bell
40-55
90-95
R, F
12-18
Peppers, hot
45-50
60-70
R, F
14-21
Pineapple
45-55
85-90
14-36
Plums
32
90-95
F, H
14-28
Potatoes, early
50-60
90
R, F
56-140
Potatoes, late
40-50
90
R, F
56-140
Pumpkins
50-60
50-75
N
84-160
Raspberries
32
90-95
R, F
2-3
Rutabagas
32
98-100
R
120-180
Spinanch
32
95-100
H, I
10-14
Squash,
41-50
95
R, F
7-14
summer
Squash, winter
50-55
50-70
N
84-150
Strawberries
32
90-95
R, F
5-10
Sweet potatoes
55-60
85-90
N
120-210
Tangerines
40
90-95
14-28
Tomatoes
62-68
90-95
R, F
7-28
Turnips
32
95
R, H, V, I
120-150
Watermelon
50-60
90
N
14-21
F = forced-air cooling, H = hydrocooling, I = package icing, R = room cooling, V = vacuum
cooling, N = no precooling needed.
Sources: USDA Agricultural Marketing Service,
Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Service
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PART VI
Fundamentals of HACCP
A food safety assurance program often used by the food processing industry is
the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Pillsbury Co. and
Natick Laboratories along with the US Armed Forces for the NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Administration) space project developed this concept in
the 1960s.
Use of the HACCP system in production agriculture is limited and is not
recommended by the U.S. FDA. When fruits and vegetables are to be consumed
fresh, there are no control steps that can eliminate or reduce biological hazards
to acceptable levels after contamination. Basically, controlling contamination
through the application of Good Agricultural Practices and Good Management
Practices are the only ways to reduce hazards.
Although the total HACCP concept is generally not used in production
agriculture, it is important for the agricultural safety trainer to learn the basics of
HACCP methodology and to understand how these processes can be applied in
improving the safety of fresh produce. This knowledge is considered vital to
assist produce industry personnel in understanding the safety requirements that
may be requested by clients such as processing facilities, supermarket chains,
distributors and the food service industry.
Prerequisite programs provide the basic environmental and operating conditions
that are necessary for the production of safe, wholesome food. Many of the
conditions and practices are specified in federal, state and local regulations and
guidelines (i.e. GMPs and Food Code).
Preliminary Steps for HACCP
In order to develop a HACCP system, five preliminary tasks are required. They
are important fundamentals that precede the implementation of the seven
HACCP principles. These preliminary steps include:
Form a HACCP team

Describe the product
Identify the consumer (or end user) of the product
Develop a process flow diagram
Verify the process flow diagram
Form a HACCP Team

The HACCP concept is a systemic approach, which involves all the process
steps in the production chain for a specific product. The design of the system
requires the expertise of a multidisciplinary team.
Res-48
Management involvement and commitment to the development and

implementation of the HACCP system is necessary. Management should
designate one of the team members as the general team coordinator. This
person is responsible for coordinating the work of the HACCP team for the daily
operation and implementation of the system. As the HACCP program is
implemented, an education component should provide training on the program to
all employees throughout the organization, although the training levels will vary.
Describe the Product
A detailed description of each product should be written. Included should be a
description of composition, processing, packaging, storage conditions,
distribution requirements, retail conditions and usage instructions. HACCP
methodology proposes the following format for the description of the product.
Figure 1 - Suggested Product Description Outline
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Name of the product
Characteristics (pH, Water
activity,
humidity,
protein
content, fat, additives, etc.)
Use by the consumer
Type of package
Shelf Life
Point of sale
Instructions for use in the label
Special distribution conditions*
*This point is included in reference to instructions for retail stores and the
conditions for proper transportation and handling, the label is directed towards the
consumer.
The development of this description is very important. Information on product

characteristics such as water activity (Aw), pH, etc, will indicate the barriers (or
lack of them) that are in place to assure safety. In raw products there are few
ways to control microbiological growth and product deterioration however in
processed foods a number of control methods exist. Some examples are the use
of chemical preservatives, heat treatments, modification of the product package
and atmosphere, and temperature control.
Res-49
Fresh fruit and vegetables generally have a high moisture content, which makes
them very susceptible to decay, and microbial contamination. Although many of
the protection barriers listed above do not apply to fresh produce, temperature
control does.
It is recommended that barriers be identified on the product label and on the
containers used for transportation and storage of the product. Barriers, such as
temperature control for fresh produce, constitute the basis for the handling,
distribution and commercialization logistics of the product. Protection barriers
should also be considered later during development of the HACCP plan when
determining the critical control points of a process.
Figure 2 - Sample Product Description
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
NAME: Sliced Carrot 300 gms.
CHARACTERISTICS
Sliced Fresh Carrots, without additives
USAGE BY THE
Direct Consumption by the
CONSUMER
General Public
PACKAGE
Flexible Bag with some oxygen permeability
PACKAGE
Expiration Date, Lot and a legend of Refrigerated Storage
INSTRUCTIONS
Required
SHELF LIFE
15 days
RETAIL AND
Inventory Rotation (first in, first out), product that arrives first
DISTRIBUTION
should go out first
Maintain temperatures of 2-4C (35.6-39.2F) throughout the
INSTRUCTIONS
chain
Instructions on hygiene practices through transportation
PRODUCT POINT OF Retail Food Stores
SALE
Convenience Stores
RETAIL STORE
Storage temperature of 1- 7C (33.8- 44.6F)
INSTRUCTIONS
Maintain cold chain during storage, handling and
merchandising
Identify Consumers and Mode of Use of the Product

The identification of target consumers and their use of the product are important
in identifying population groups that may be at higher risk for a particular hazard.
For example, infants, children, pregnant women, the elderly and immunecompromised individuals (including HIV, cancer and transplant patients, among
others) are at higher risk for certain biological hazards. For all of these groups
the use of a particular product may cause harm even if it is safe for the normal
consumer.
Res-50
The way the consumer uses a product is another important consideration,

because it is directly related to the severity of a particular hazard. For example,
potatoes are generally consumed cooked, a step which could eliminate many
potential biological hazards. Some fruits such as oranges and bananas, are
consumed by removing the outer layers. In these commodities there is little risk
unless there is cross-contamination of bacteria from the peel to the edible tissue.
With products like apples, tomatoes and leafy vegetables where the outer,
periderm tissue is eaten, a higher risk to the consumer may occur if the product
has not been handled properly throughout production and distribution.
Develop a Process Flow Diagram
In the HACCP system, a complete production flow diagram should be developed
for each product. It should include all the process steps in the production of the
product.
The flow diagram should contain information on all of the production steps from
farm to table including:
Field activities
Packaging/transportation
Processing
Distribution
Commercialization
Final use at the consumer table
Although the flow diagram considers the whole production process, the
implementation of a HACCP system involves considering only those steps where
adequate controls can be applied. This concept is an essential point in
understanding the limitations of HACCP methodology when implemented for
fresh fruit and vegetable products.
Verify the Flow Diagram
After the flow diagram has been constructed, the HACCP team should inspect
the production facility and verify that the flow diagram is accurate. Any
discrepancies should be corrected.
Once the preliminary tasks have been completed, the HACCP team then
evaluates prerequisite programs, GAPs and GMPs then proceeds with the steps
described in the seven principles of HACCP.
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Figure 3 - The 7 Principles of HACCP

Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis.
Principle 2: Determine the critical control points (CCPs).
Principle 3: Establish critical limits.
Principle 4: Establish monitoring procedures.
Principle 5: Establish corrective actions.
Principle 6: Establish verification procedures.
Principle 7: Establish record-keeping and documentation procedures.
HACCP Principle 1. Conduct a Hazard Analysis

This first principle involves the development of a list of all possible hazards
associated with the product. This is done considering each individual step of the
flow diagram, product description and additional information.
As it was discussed in Section 1 Module 1, hazards can be classified into three
major categories:
1) Biological hazards (pathogenic bacteria, parasites and viruses)
2) Chemical hazards including among others: pesticides, fertilizers, cleaning
substances, antibiotics, metals, intentional and incidental additives, etc. and
3) Physical hazards such as metal, glass fragments, stones, wood pieces, etc.
When all possible hazards have been identified, control measures should be
defined for each type of hazard. This is an important step since the HACCP
system is focused on prevention rather than correction.
Control measures are any action or activity that can be used to prevent, eliminate
or reduce a significant hazard. Generally, these actions are implemented through
GAP and GMP programs, but some will be considered critical and will receive a
different classification within the HACCP plan.
The identification of hazards in a process is a valuable tool to identify any control
measures that can be implemented; in many instances these measures are
already in place or are common sense practices. However making a conscious
effort to strengthen preventative actions can minimize or prevent the hazard from
occurring.
HACCP methodology proposes systematically identifying hazards throughout the
process. A proposed format to use as an aid in the hazard description is shown
in the sample with sliced carrots below.
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Figure 4. Sample Hazard Identification

Sliced Carrots
STEP
TYPE
(B,C,P)*
HAZARD
Washing
Prevalence of
pathogenic bacteria
Sorting of
raw material
Presence of foreign
material (stones,
plastic, etc)
Microbiological
contamination due to
handling by sorting
personnel
Contamination due to
contact with equipment
Sorting of
raw material
Sorting of
raw material
PREVENTIVE MEASURE
Use of potable water in washing

step and change it often if it is not
a continuous system. Monitor the
efficiency of washing procedure.
Inspection of raw material and
removal of foreign objects
Follow GMPs, training of
employees, and use of hand
sanitizing station
Equipment washing and

sanitizing following established
procedures
Sorting of
Contamination with
B, P
Follow GMPs as they refer to
raw material foreign material by
removal of jewelry and other
sorting personnel
accessories that could fall into
the product
Slicing
Microbial contamination B
Equipment washing and
by equipment
sanitizing following established
procedures
Sanitizing
Prevalence of
B
Control water chlorine levels and
pathogenic bacteria
pH of washing water. Change
periodically or filter to remove
organic solids
* B=Biological Hazard, P=Physical Hazard and C=Chemical Hazard
HACCP Principle 2. Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs)

After identifying and evaluating potential hazards associated with a product, the
next step is to focus on the process(es) that represent greatest risk to the
consumer and how to control the occurrence of these hazards. Within the
HACCP system, such steps are called Critical Control Points (CCP) and are
defined as steps or procedures in a process that when under control can
prevent, eliminate or reduce a hazard to an acceptable level
To aid in the identification of CCPs, a HACCP decision tree is used (FAO, 1998).
This consists of asking a series of questions that aid in the differentiation
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between critical control points (CCPs) and control measures. Remember this
decision tree, cannot be applied blindly. It is necessary to consider the step
within the context of each individual process.
Figure 5. CCP Decision Tree
NO
Does a preventive measure exist for the

identified hazard?
Is the control at this point

NO Finish
necessary in order to assure
safety?
YES
Define control
measure
YES
Does this step eliminate or reduce the

occurrence of the hazard to an acceptable
level?
YES
It is a CCP
NO
Can the hazard at this step occur or
increment to an unacceptable level?
NO
It is not a CCP
YES
Can a further step eliminate or reduce the
hazard to an acceptable level?
YES
It is not a CCP
NO
It is a CCP
During the design of a HACCP plan it is often a debate whether or not a certain
step in the process is a CCP. A great deal of confusion is generated when some
steps of the process are critical for the product, but are not involved in assuring
safety and wholesomeness. It is important to keep in mind that HACCP is geared
towards food safety assurance. When theres a quality assurance program
integrated with HACCP, those steps that are not critical to assure a products
wholesomeness and food safety are called control points (CP) and are often
related to product quality.
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HACCP Principle 3. Establishment of Critical Limits (CL) for each CCP

Once a CCP has been identified, limits should be established for every variable
that is going to be monitored. In a HACCP system these are referred to as
Critical Limits.
These critical limits are physical and chemical parameters, which can be
extracted from bibliographic sources, regulatory standards, scientific
investigations, experimental studies, etc. Again it is important not to confuse
quality specifications with process operating conditions. CLs are exclusively set
for a CCP.
Figure 6 Sample Critical Limits
CCP
Sanitizing control (chlorination
of water)
VARIABLE
Total Chlorine
Residual chlorine
pH
CRITICAL LIMIT
100-150 ppm chlorine
2-7 ppm residual chlorine
6.0 7.0 (over 7.5 chlorine
looses is bactericidal
properties)
Examples of critical limits in processed foods are cooking temperatures, cooling

times, pH, water activity, concentration of chemical additives etc. When HACCP
is used for fresh produce and the sanitation operation is considered a CCP for a
biological hazard, critical limits are generally set for wash water temperature,
chlorine concentration, pH of the solution, etc.
HACCP Principle 4. Establish Monitoring Procedures
The monitoring procedure has a preventive focus, it should be able to detect any
deviation outside the critical limits. The idea is to detect a deviation in a process
or buildup of a trend before the finished product reaches the end of the line. As it
will be discussed in Principle 5, corrective actions will be established, and should
be applied when monitoring indicates that a particular CL is out of control.
When establishing a monitoring system variables to be defined include:
Place
Frequency
Sample size
Procedure
Necessary material
Responsible person
Training and knowledge
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Figure 7 - Example of monitoring procedure for a produce washing step:
CRITICAL
LIMIT
MONITORING
PROCEDURE
CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS
Total
chlorine
Residual
chlorine
100-150
ppm
chlorine
2-7 ppm
residual
chlorine
Sample every
hour. Chlorine
measurement
kit
Adjust total
chlorine.
Desinfect
product again.
RECORD03-HACCP
Quality
assurance
supervisor
pH
6.07.0
(over 7.5
chlorine
looses
bactericidal
properties)
Measurement
of pH every
hour. pH
meter.
Adjust pH with
acid/base
chemicals.
RECORD03-HACCP
Quality
assurance
supervisor.
CCP
VARIABLE
Sanitizing
control
(water
chlorination)
CCP
RECORDS
PERSON
RESPONSIBLE
When it is not possible to monitor a CCP on a continuous basis then it is

necessary to establish sample frequency intervals short enough to keep the
hazard under control. It is important to establish the monitoring procedures as
rapid methods in order to apply an immediate corrective action and reestablish
control in the process. Microbiological assays or other analyses that can take a
long time are generally used for verification that the HACCP plan is working and
not as monitoring procedures.
HACCP Principle 5. Establish Corrective Actions for each CCP to be applied
when a deviation from a particular CL takes place.
In a HACCP plan, corrective actions are ways to proceed to reestablish control
when the monitoring procedure indicates that a CL is out of its boundaries.
Corrective actions also describe ways to dispose of or reprocess the product that
was produced outside the CLs.
Corrective actions may include activities such as stopping the production line
until the problem is solved, reprocessing a product that was manufactured
outside of the CL boundaries or applying an additional treatment. Other actions
may call for utilization of the product in a manner different than the one stipulated
or even destruction of the product.
When a deviation occurs and corrective actions are taken to correct the problem,
the source of the problem should be investigated and registered in the correction
action log to prevent future occurrence.
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Figure 8 - Examples of corrective actions implemented to minimize biological

hazards in a produce-washing step
CRITICAL
LIMIT
MONITORING
PROCEDURE
CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS
Total
chlorine
Residual
chlorine
100-150
ppm chlorine
2-7 ppm
residual
chlorine
Sample every
hour. Chlorine
measurement
kit
Adjust total
chlorine.
Desinfect
product again.
RECORD03-HACCP
Quality
assurance
supervisor
pH
6.07.0
(over 7.5
chlorine
looses
bactericidal
properties)
Measurement
of pH every
hour. pH
meter.
Adjust pH with
acid/base
chemicals.
RECORD03-HACCP
Quality
assurance
supervisor.
CCP
VARIABLE
Sanitizing
control
(water
chlorination)
CCP
RECORDS
RESPONSIBLE
PERSON
Corrective actions should be written as detailed procedures, and the person

responsible of implementing such actions should have enough authority and
knowledge to be an efficient decision-maker. The flow of information should be
efficient enough to allow for the action to be taken in a rapid manner. Corrective
actions should be documented in the general logbook, defining clearly how the
CCP was brought back to control within the CLs.
HACCP Principle 6. Establish Verification Procedures for the HACCP System
Verification is defined as those activities, other than monitoring, that determine
the validity of the HACCP plan and that the system is operating according to the
plan. It may involve doing microbiological, physical and chemical analyses, which
are more complex and take longer turn-around times. These analyses are done
with the purpose of verifying that the HACCP system is designed correctly and
working properly.
Initial and subsequent validation activities are part of the verification schedule
and may include designing experiments and tests to determine if the HACCP
plan is correct and operating as planned. An example would be the inoculation of
a bacterial pathogen and verifying the ability of a CCP to eliminate it or reduce it
to safe levels.
Additional verification activities include audits of the CCP records, deviations of
CL, taken corrective actions, equipment and instrument calibration among other
things. The frequency of verification should guarantee that the HACCP system is
preventing safety problems.
Res-57
Figure 9 Verification of corrective actions

CORRECTIVE
ACTIONS
RECORD
Weekly
Correct chlorine
levels and/or retrain operator
RECORD06HACCP
Operations
Manager
pH meter
calibration record
review
RECORD-09HACCP
Weekly
Correct
calibration
and/or re-train
operator
RECORD06HACCP
Operations
Manager
Microbiological
assay of product
after washing
step. Aerobic
mesophilics, Total
coliforms, fecal
coliforms
Daily 1 sample
per product
Correct the
problem, wash
equipments,
change water
and apply other
measures
RECORD10HACCP
Operation
Manager
CCP
VERIFICATION
FREQUENCY
Water
chlorination
control.
(desinfection)
CCP
Chlorination
record review
RECORD-03HACCP
RESPONSIBLE
PERSON
HACCP Principle 7. Establish Record-Keeping and Documentation Procedures

Records must include conditions at every CCP and all necessary information to
assure the system is functioning properly. This information is the evidence of the
performance of the process in case of internal or external audits.
When a HACCP system is implemented, documentation and records usually
include:
A summary of the hazard analysis, including the rationale for determining
hazards and control measures.
HACCP Plan
o Listing of the HACCP team and assigned responsibilities.
o Description of the food, its distribution, intended use, and
consumer.
o Verified flow diagram.
o HACCP Plan Summary Table that includes information for:
Steps in the process that are CCPs
The hazard(s) of concern
Critical limits
Monitoring
Corrective actions
Verification procedures and schedule
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Record-keeping procedures
Support documentation such as validation records.

Records that are generated during the operation of the plan.
HACCP methodology recommends the use of a Master Format in which all
information regarding CCPs is collected and organized.
Figure 10 HACCP Master Format
Step of
the
process
CCP
Type of
hazard
Critical
limit
Monitoring
procedure /
Frequency /
Responsible
Corrective
action /
Responsible
HACCP
Record
Verification
procedure /
Responsible
B
P
C
Having records means having evidence that the system is working properly.
References
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Codex Alimentarius Commission.
1997. Food Hygiene Basic Texts. Publishing Management Group, FAO
Information Division, Rome.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 1998. Food
Quality and Safety System: A training manual on food hygiene and the
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Publishing
Management Group, FAO Information Division, Rome.
National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF).
1997. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines. Adopted August 14, 1997.
U.S. Food and Drug Adminitration (FDA). 2001. Final rule to increase the safety
of fruit and vegetable juices. Available via the internet at:
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Part VII
Choosing the Correct Training Aids
A visual aid is anything the audience can see that helps the speaker get the
message to the audience (Cheek and Beeman, 1991). Visuals, such as
flipcharts, overhead transparencies, posters, slides, etc. are an important part of
effective presentations.
In addition to improving the effectiveness of communicating the message to the
audience, good visuals serve a number of other important functions. These
include:
Helping focus the audiences attention on the presentation
Making the presenter more persuasive, concise, and interesting
Increasing the receivers retention of the information
Transmitting the message more effectively
Adding variety and emphasis to the presentation
Finally, todays audiences tend to be visually oriented and have come to expect
visuals with presentations. In many cases, they tend to be less accepting of talks
presented without some sort of visual enhancement.
When choosing a training aid, the following should be considered:
Course objectives. If there are specific points to be highlighted, a
transparency or word slide may be appropriate. Sometimes a picture is
essential and most effective in conveying the idea. For example, if discussing
types of pesticide application equipment or types of pests common to stored
grains it may be best to support the message with pictures/photos.
The physical setting. Room size, seating arrangement, and lighting in the
presentation site are major considerations in selecting visual aids. It is
important to assure visibility of the aids by all training participants.
Availability of materials to make the aid and to support its use, e.g. electricity
supply, chalk, pens.
Nature of the audience. The audiences familiarity with the topic can help
determine the types of aids needed. For a presentation on diseases of
vegetables to a group of homeowners with limited knowledge about
gardening, it might be appropriate to have live plant specimens and slides.
For a presentation to commercial vegetable farmers with good knowledge of
plant diseases, slides might be the best way to illustrate the points.
Experience of the trainer and comfort with using the selected aid. It is
important that trainers practice using the selected aids before the actual
presentation so that the aid does not draw attention away from the main focus
of the presentation. Proficiency in using an audio-visual aid cannot be learned
from a book, it comes only with practice.
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Care needs to be taken to ensure that training aids are used as aids and do not
take over the training session. Carefully planned and properly used training aids
can improve the audiences perception of the speaker as they demonstrate skill
as a trainer. They serve to maintain the audiences interest and strengthen the
message. Unsuitable aids or ones that are not properly used can at best distract
or mislead the audience.
Some aids are more suited to a particular objective than others. For example, if
accurate detail is needed, a photograph, slides or a drawing may work well. If, on
the other hand, the objective is to highlight the structure of a talk or the main
points and conclusions of a discussion, a blackboard or overhead transparency
may be more suitable.
The following table describes some of the most commonly used training aids and
provides some considerations for preparing and using them.
Effective Training Aids
Charts and Posters
Flipcharts
Overhead transparencies
Useful for highlighting the main points of a

presentation and to show complex processes,
diagrams, pictures, etc.
In the training room can be placed on the wall
for reference throughout the training and can be
easily transported to the field
In certain circumstances can convey a
message faster and more clearly than words.
Are particularly useful where the trainees may
be illiterate since messages may be conveyed
visually
Also useful to show a detailed drawing that the
trainees will need to examine closely
Can be prepared in advance or developed
during the training session
May include words, pictures or both words and
pictures
Must have a well-functioning support stand and
good pens that will produce clear lettering
visible to the audience.
Like charts/posters, they can be displayed as a
reference for later training sessions and can be
easily transported
Works better with a small audience
Perhaps the most commonly used training aid
Can be prepared by hand using different
colored pens or generated by a computer
Pictures/diagrams/text can be photocopied onto
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Color Photographs/Slides
Blackboards/Whiteboards
a transparency
With care in the location of the projector and
the size of the lettering on the transparency,
can be visible to a large group.
Often are prepared in advance and therefore
serve as notes to the trainer.
Transparencies can be easily inserted or
deleted to adapt a presentation to the needs of
a particular group
Does not work well if too much information is
put on a transparency so that lettering is too
small to be read easily
Trainers must ensure that the projector is
available and properly functioning and that
there is a reliable supply of electricity
Practicing prior to the actual presentation will
help trainer to know where to stand and how to
change transparencies
Strengthen the message by showing
illustrations, for example a field of crops,
equipment, etc.
Photographs have the advantage of showing
real life situations and therefore making the
topic very practical for the trainees.
Photographs can be passed among the group
or projected on to the wall as slides. Slides
require reliable equipment, an electricity supply
and the room must be darkened
Widely available and easily adaptable
Useful for writing down the main points of a
talk, for sketching simple drawings and
diagrams and noting the main points raised in a
discussion
Whiteboards require special water-soluble
erasable pens. In general, whiteboards are
easier to use than blackboards since the pens
flow smoothly over the surface and the colors
are clearer to read than chalk on a blackboard
A disadvantage of these techniques is that the
speaker has their back to the audience while
writing on the board
Res-62
Videos
Computer Slides
May be used to supplement and add a real life

dimension to a training session
Should be kept short approximately 10 minute
is considered a good length
Trainer should introduce the content and state
its relevance to the overall training session.
Trainees may be asked to watch for certain
issues that will be discussed at the end of the
video
Often introduce a welcome break when trainees
have taken in a lot of new information. Can also
summarize the main points of the session
Enable trainer and trainees to enter a different
environment while in the training room - for
example a video may allow a visual tour of a
facility that is far away from the training site
Require laptop computer or other equipment to
run slide show. Unless audience is small
enough to view the presentation from the
computer screen, an LCD projector or other
projection device is needed
Hard copy print-outs can be made and used as
lecture notes and/or handouts
Speedy production schedule and greater
consistency of output
With practice, easy to change and/or reorganize presentation at the last minute
Res-63
PART VIII
Glossary of Terms
Agricultural worker any person that undertakes cultivation, packing, and/or
harvesting of fresh fruits and vegetables.
Biosolids sludge and other residue deposits obtained from residual water
treatment plants and from treatment applied to urban and industrial wastes
(food industries and other types of industry).
Chemigation - the application of chemicals through irrigation systems.
Chemicals applied in this method include pesticides and fertilizers
(sometimes called fertigation).
Cleaning the removal of all foreign material (such as soil, organic matter) from
objects. Cleaning is normally accomplished with water, mechanical action,
and detergents or enzymatic products. Failure to remove foreign matter
(such as soil) from an object before disinfection or sterilization is likely to
render the process ineffective.
Composting a managed process in which organic materials, including animal
manure and other wastes, are digested aerobically or anaerobically by
microbial action.
Contaminant any biological or chemical agent, foreign matter, or other
substances not intentionally added to that when found on or in produce
can cause human illness or injury.
Critical Control Point a point, step or procedure at which control can be
applied and food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced.
Cultivation any agriculture action or practice used by growers to allow and
improve the growing conditions of fresh fruits and vegetables grown in the
field or in protected facilities (hydroponic systems or greenhouses).
Deterioration for produce, deterioration can be used interchangeably with
spoilage. When applied to non-food products such as packaging
materials, deterioration is a physical or chemical change in the material
that may adversely affect the safety of the product.
Disinfection the reduction, by means of chemical agents and/or physical
methods, of the number of microorganisms in the environment, to a level
that does not compromise food safety or suitability. The effectiveness of
disinfection is affected by a number of factors, each of which may nullify or
limit the efficiency of the process. Some of the factors that have been
shown to affect disinfection effectiveness are the previous cleaning of the
Res-64
object, the organic load on the object, the type and level of microbial
contamination, the concentration of and exposure time to the disinfectant,
the physical configuration of the object (e.g., crevices), and the
temperature and pH of the disinfection process.
Farm any premise or establishment in which fresh fruits and/or vegetables are
grown and harvested and the surroundings under the control of the same
management.
Field packing - packing produce directly from the field into market containers for
commercial distribution and sale.
Foodborne disease the occurrence of illness resulting from the ingestion of
food, gastrointestinal tract symptoms are the most common clinical
manifestations of foodborne illnesses. Foodborne illnesses can be caused
by microorganisms and their toxins, marine organisms and their toxins,
fungi and their related toxins, and chemical contaminants.
Food hygiene all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and
suitability of food at all stages of the food chain.
Food quality the composite of those characteristics that differentiate individual
units of a product and have significance in determining the degree of
acceptability by the buyer.
Food safety the practical certainty that injury or damage will not result from a
food or ingredient used in a reasonable and customary manner and
quantity.
Food safety assurance program - preventive program for ensuring safety of
food products.
Fresh fruit and vegetables fresh produce that is likely to be sold to
consumers in an unprocessed or minimally processed (i.e. raw) form.
Fresh produce may be intact, such as strawberries, whole carrots,
radishes, and fresh market tomatoes or cut during harvesting, such as
harvesting, such as celery, broccoli, and cauliflower.
Fruit and vegetable operation - the whole process of fruit and vegetable
production from farm to table. Its unit operations generally include
production, post-harvest operations, packaging, transportation and
storage. Large fruit and vegetable operations generally are vertically
integrated and all unit operations are interconnected. In smaller or
medium-size operations the controls are generally demanded as supplier
specifications and handled as stipulations for doing business.
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Good agricultural practices The basic environmental and operational

conditions necessary for the production of safe, wholesome fruits and
vegetables.
Good management practices general practices to reduce microbial food
safety hazards. The term may include both good agricultural practices
used in growing, harvesting, sorting, packing, and storage operations and
good manufacturing practices used in sorting, packing, storage, and
transportation operations.
Grower the person responsible for the management of the primary production
of fruits and vegetables.
HACCP a system that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards that are
significant for food safety.
Handwashing a vigorous, brief rubbing together of all surfaces of lathered
hands, followed by rinsing under a stream of water. Handwashing with
plain soaps or detergents (in bar, granule, leaflet, or liquid form) suspends
microorganisms and allows them to be rinsed off; this process is often
referred to as mechanical removal of microorganisms. Handwashing with
antimicrobial-containing products kills or inhibits the growth of
microorganisms; this process is often referred to as chemical removal of
microorganisms.
Hazard a biological, chemical, or physical agent in, or condition of, food with
the potential to cause an adverse health effect.
Manure - feces, urine, other excrement, and bedding produced by livestock that
has not been composted.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) - product safety information sheets
prepared by manufacturers and marketers. An MSDS lists the ingredients
in a hazardous product, its manufacturer, its hazards to safety and health,
and precautions to follow when using it. These sheets can be obtained by
requesting them from the manufacturer. Some stores, such as hardware
stores, may have material safety data sheets on hand for products they
sell.
Microorganisms include yeasts, molds, bacteria, protozoa, helminths (worms)
and viruses. Occasionally, the term microbe or microbial is used
instead of the term microorganisms.
Microbial hazard occurrence of a microorganism that has the potential to
cause illness or injury.
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Pathogen a microorganism capable of causing disease or injury.

Pest any animal or insect of public health importance including, but not limited
to, birds, rodents, cockroaches, flies, and larvae, that may carry
pathogens that can contaminate food.
Primary production those steps involved in the growing and harvesting of
fresh fruits and vegetables such as planting, irrigation, application of
fertilizers, application of agricultural chemicals, etc.
Risk an estimate of the likelihood of occurrence of a hazard
Sanitize to treat clean produce by a process that is effective in destroying or
substantially reducing the numbers of microorganisms of public health
concern, as well as undesirable microorganisms, without adversely
affecting the quality of the product or the safety of the consumer.
Sanitize (food contact surfaces) adequately treat clean food contact surfaces
by a process that is effective in destroying or substantially reducing the
numbers of microorganisms of public health concern, as well as other
undesirable microorganisms, without adversely affecting the quality of the
involved product or its safety for the consumer. It means the application of
cumulative heat or chemicals on cleaned food contact surfaces that, when
evaluated for efficacy, is sufficient to reduce populations of representative
microorganisms by 5 log or 99.999%.
Spoilage a process whereby food quality and/or food safety is rendered
unacceptable through microbial or chemical reaction.
Traceback - a method used to determine the source(s) and distribution of
food(s) implicated in a foodborne disease outbreak and to identify
potential points where contamination could have occurred
Unit operations: Individual steps during the production and distribution of fruit
and vegetables.
Water definitions
Agricultural water water used in the growing environment (for example,
field, vineyard, or orchard) for agronomic reasons. It includes water used
for irrigation, transpiration control (cooling), frost protection, or as a carrier
for fertilizers and pesticides. Typical sources of agricultural water include
flowing surface waters from rivers, streams, irrigation ditches, open
canals, impoundments (such as ponds, reserviors, and lakes), wells, and
municipal supplies.
Clean water water that does not compromise food safety in the
circumstances of its use.
Potable water water that meets the quality standards of drinking water.
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PART IX
Where to Find Additional Information
Guidance, Regulations, and Standards of the U.S. Government
Guidance for Industry: Guide to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards
for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center
for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, October 1996.
Copies available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and French from:
Food Safety Initiative Staff, HFS-32
200 C Street S.W.
Washington, DC 20204
(Tel) 202-260-8920
(Internet) http://www.fda.gov
Copies of Federal regulations in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) may

be purchased from the U.S. Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202)
512-1800. The CFR is also available at branches of the U.S. Government
Printing Office Bookstores. Information on location of regional branches is
available on the WWW at the following address: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/obreg.html Sections of the CFR can be viewed and printed from the WWW at the
following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html.
Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR 100-169 and 21 CFR 170-199
Sections of Title 21, such as 21 CFR 110.10 can be viewed and printed from the
WWW at the following address: http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/.
You may purchase 21 CFR 100-169 or 21 CFR 170-199 from the U.S.
Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512-1800.
OSHA Standards
OSHA General Industry standards, Title 29 CFR 1910, and OSHA Agricultural
Industry standards, Title 29 CFR 1928, may be purchased through a U.S.
Government Printing Office or by telephone at (202) 512-1800. 29 CFR 1910.141
and 29 CFR 1928.110 may be viewed and printed from the WWW at:
http://www.osha-slc.gov/OshStd_toc/OSHA_Std_toc.html.
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EPA Regulations
EPA regulations may be obtained by contacting:
U.S. EPA/NCEPI
P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419.
Telephone: 1-800-490-9198
FAX (513) 489-8695.
You must give the EPA catalog number for the publication.
Electronic versions of additional EPA documents, such as criteria and supporting
documents, are available at http://www.epa.gov.
Additional Helpful Information from the U.S. Government:

USDA/FDA Foodborne Illness Education Information Center
http://nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodborne/foodborn.htm
U.S. EPA. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria, EPA Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, EPA 832-B-92-005, January 1986.
USDA. List of Proprietary Substances and Nonfood Compounds Authorized for
Use Under USDA Inspection and Grading Programs.
U.S. EPA. Domestic Septage Regulatory Guidance, A Guide to the EPA 503
Rule. EPA, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, 832-B-92-005,
September 1993.
Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Growers Guide Good Agricultural Practices
for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Good Agricultural Practices Program, Cornell
University. Prepared under CSREES/USDA and USFDA, Agreement Number 9941560-0821.
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service program "Qualified Through Verification for
Fresh Cut Produce" is available from: Branch Chief, Processed Products Branch,
Fruit and Vegetable Programs, Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA, P.O. Box
96456, Rm. 0726, South Building, Washington, DC, 20090-6456. (202) 7204693.
USAID is an independent federal government agency that receives overall
foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of State. The agency works in six
principal areas crucial to achieving both sustainable development and advancing
U.S. foreign policy objectives: Economic growth and agricultural development;
Population, health and nutrition; Environment; Democracy and governance;
Education and training, and; Humanitarian assistance. More information is
available at http://www.usaid.gov
Res-69
The National Agricultural Library (NAL), part of the Agricultural Research Service
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is one of four National Libraries in the
United States. NAL is a major international source for agriculture and related
information. The Web site (http://www.nalusda.gov) provides access to NAL's
many resources and a gateway to its associated institutions.
Codex Alimentarius Commission FAO/WHO

The Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) initiated work on a Code of
Hygienic Practice for the Primary Production, Harvesting, and Packaging of
Fresh Produce. A proposed draft code is currently being reviewed.
For information on this draft code of practice and other activities of the Codex
Alimentarius Commission, please contact the Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO
Food Standards Programme at:
Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy
Tel: 3906 52251
Telefax: 3906 52253152
Telex: 610181FAO1
E-mail (Internet): CODEX@FAO.ORG
Codex meeting agendas, reports and standards can be accessed from FAOs
web page: http://www.codexalimentarius.net/
World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization
dealing with the rules of trade between nations. The goal is to help producers of
goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. Information
on WTO and its activities may be obtained via the internet at: http://www.wto.org
Res-70
Food and Agriculture Organization

This Manual was prepared in collaboration with the Food Quality and Standards
Service of Food and Nutrition Division (ESN) of FAO. More information on the
work of the Division on food quality and safety matters, including fresh fruit and
vegetable production is available on the ESN homepage
(http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/ESN/nutri.htm)
In addition, a number of related publications on water quality, extension training,
food quality and safety can be obtained by contacting FAO through its web site:
http://www.fao.org or by requesting a publication catalog from:
U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization
Viale de
lle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome, Italy
Tel: 39 06 5705-4608
Fax: 39 06 5705 3360
E-mail (INTERNET): publications-sales@fao.org
Production Half the Battle: A Training Manual in Fresh Produce Marketing for
the Eastern Caribbean. Written by Stephen Harris, FAO Bridegtown, Barbados,
December 1988 A practical training manual developed for the Eastern Caribbean
as part of a FAO/INPhO project. Available electronically at:
http://www.fao.org/inpho/vlibrary/x0014e/X0014E00.htm
The Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest Management Service (AGSI) is one of four
services of the Agricultural Support Systems Division at FAO. The work of AGSI
focuses on post production issues, promotes value-added transformation
technologies and covers a broad spectrum of activities which include advising
governments. Publications of AGSI can be accessed through their homepage at
http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/Agsi/AGSI.HTM
FAOSTAT is an on-line and multilingual databases currently containing over 1
million time-series records covering international statistics in the following areas:
Production
Trade
Food Balance
Sheets
Fertilizer and
Pesticides
Land Use and
Irrigation
Res-71
Forest Products
Fishery Products
Population
Agricultural Machinery
Food Aid Shipments
Databases can be accessed online at http://apps.fao.org/

World Health Organization
Related publications and a publication catalog can be obtained from WHO:
World Health Organization
Distribution and Sales Service
1211 Geneva 27
Switzerland
http://www.who.org
A key reference available from WHOs is Surface Decontamination of Fruits and
Vegetables Eaten Raw: A Review Food Safety Unit, World Health Organization.
WHO/FSF/FOS/98. Written by Larry R. Beuchat, Ph.D. Article is available via the
internet at http://www.who.int/fsf/fos982~1.pdf
Res-72
Trade Organizations
Fresh produce associations based in the United States offer food quality and
safety publications. Contact the organization directly for lists of available
resources.
International Fresh-Cut Produce
Association
1600 Duke Street
Suite 440
Alexandria, VA 22314
Tel: 703 299-6282
http://www.fresh-cuts.org
Fresh Produce Association for the

Americas
30 E. Hudgins
P.O. Box 848
Nogales, AZ 85628
Tel: 520-287-2707
Fax: 520-287-2948
Produce Marketing Association

P.O. Box 6036
Newark, DE 19714
Tel; 302 738-7100
http://www.pma.com
United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable

Association
727 North Washington Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
Tel: 703 836-3410
Fax: 703 836-7745
http://www.uffva.org
Western Growers Association

17620 Fitch Street
Irvine, CA 92614
Tel: 714 863-1000
Res-73
Acknowledgments

redistributed, in whole or in part, without alteration and without prior written permission,
for nonprofit administrative or educational purposes provided all copies contain the
following statement: 2002 University of Maryland. This work is reproduced and
distributed with the permission of the University of Maryland. No other use is permitted
without the express prior written permission of the University of Maryland. For
permission, contact JIFSAN, University of Maryland, Symons Hall, College Park, MD
20742
Acknowledgments
This manual was prepared by the Institute of Food Science and Engineering
(IFSE), University of Arkansas for the Joint Institute of Food Safety and Applied
Nutrition (JIFSAN)/University of Maryland, Dr. David Lineback, Director.
IFSE staff involved with this project included:
Justin Morris, Distinguished Professor
Director
Institute of Food Science and Engineering
Pat Dexter, Director
FAO Center for Food Safety and Nutrition
Pamela Brady, Ph.D.
Adjunct Professor, Department of Food Science
Bob Bates, Ph.D.
Visiting Professor, IFSE
on sabbatical from University of Florida
Alfredo Gonzales, Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Food Science, Retired
Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D.
Department of Food Science
Technical Reviewers
Frances Pabrua
Fresh Express
Trevor Suslow, Ph.D.
University of California Davis
Jes_s Pablo Velazco, Ph.D.
Monterrey Institute of Technology
Larry Beuchat. Ph.D.
University of Georgia
Ples Spradley
Cooperative Extension Service
University of Arkansas
Miguel ngel Martinez Tellez,

Ph.D.
CIAD (Center for Research on Food
and Development), Sonora, Mexico
Alex Castillo, Ph.D.
University of Guadalajara
Guadalajara, Mexico
George W. Wardlow, Ph.D.
University of Arkansas
Robert Gravani, Ph.D.
Cornell University
FAO Advisory Team

Maria deLourdes Costarrica
Senior Officer
Food Quality and Standards Service
Food and Nutrition Division
Enrique Arias
Agricultural Officer
Horticultural Crops Group
Plant Protection and Production
Division
Catherine Bessy
Food Control Officer
Food and Nutrition division
Rosa Rolle
Agricultural Industries Officer
Agro-Industries and Post-Harvest
Management Service
Annamaria Bruno
Food and Nutrition Officer
Subregional Office for the
Pacific Islands (SAPA)
Fernando Chanduvi
Technical Officer
Land and Water Development
Division
Lydda Gaviria
Communication for Development
Education and Extension Officer
FAO Regional Office for Latin
America and the Carribean
Mary Kenny
Nutrition Officer (Quality Assurance)
Food and Nutrition Division
Academic Teaching Team Members

Chris Walsh, Ph.D., Coordinator
Department of Natural Resource Sciences and Landscape Architecture
University of Maryland
Jim Rushing, Ph.D.
Department of Horticulture
Clemson University
Juan Silva, Ph.D.
Department of Food Science and Technology
Mississippi State University
FDA/CFSAN Contributors and Teaching Team Members
The following staff from the U.S. Food and Drug Administrations Center for Food
Safety and Applied Nutrition provided technical review during manual
development and/or instruction during training sessions, which pilot tested the
manual:
Sherri McGarry, M.S.
Microbiologist
Office of Field Programs
Andreas Keller, Ph.D.

Microbiologist
Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and
Beverages
Nega Beru, Ph.D.

Director, Division of Plant Product
Safety
Beverages
John Sanders, Jr. D.V.M.
General Health Scientist /
Epidemiologist
Office of Field Programs
Marion Allen
Inspection/Compliance Coordinator
Food Safety Staff
Daniel Trachewsky, Ph.D.

Associate Director for Education and
Outreach
Joint Institute for Food Safety and
Applied Nutrition
Michelle Smith, Ph.D.
Interdisciplinary Scientist
Beverages
Arthur Miller, Ph.D.
Senior Scientist
Office of Science
Mark Walderhaug, Ph.D.

Microbiologist
Beverages
Mary Ayling
Inspection/Compliance Lead
Food Safety Staff
Camille Brewer, M.S. R.D.
International Food Safety Activities
Coordinator
Food Safety Staff
Joyce Saltsman, Ph.D.
Food Technologist
Beverages
Marjorie Davidson, Ph.D.
National Food Safety Education
Officer
Food Safety Staff
Translation to Spanish
English to Spanish translation by TranslateXpress.Com, Inc.
Technical review of Spanish translation by Adriana Dinamarca Rushing

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Improving the Safety and Quality of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables: A Training Manual for Trainers

IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY

Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced

IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND QUALITY

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING FOR IMPROVING THE SAFETY AND

SECTION II. GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

SECTION IV. FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Table 1 Pathogens Associated with Fresh Fruits and Vegetables .Res-2

Table 2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Associated with

Good agricultural practices (GAPs)

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) for handling and packing

Quality and phytosanitary issues for fresh produce

Safety hazards and quality attributes of fresh produce

Developing an effective training course

IPM Integrated Pest Management

Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and

Prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

Microorganisms are small organisms that can only be observed through a

Many microorganisms are beneficial to humans. Some are involved in the

Other bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, pathogenic Escherichia coli and

In order to reproduce bacteria require adequate nutrients and appropriate

Bacteria reproduce through a mechanism referred to as binary fission. During

In 7 hours one bacteria cell can

(2) Positive Growth Phase

Knowledge of the population growth process provides insight into opportunities

Norwalk virus and Norwalk-like virus

Rotaviruses, astroviruses, enteroviruses (polioviruses, echoviruses and

Allergens (e.g. weeds)

Toxic elements and compounds

Data collected by the WHO Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment

Cuts, infection, choking; may

Field sources, pallets,

Choking, broken teeth

Choking, cuts, infection; may

Choking, cuts, broken teeth;

The relative importance of these hazards can be determined by studying disease

Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

2,751 outbreaks of foodborne disease (two or more cases of a similar illness

Despite efforts to decrease the occurrence of these diseases, it is estimated that

Health Effects of Foodborne Disease

Costs of Foodborne Disease

Although the difficulty in identifying the actual number of cases of foodborne

* GDP = Gross Domestic Product

Prepared by: Pamela Brady, Ph.D., IFSE, University of Arkansas

consumer confidence in a product or in a countrys ability to produce safe product

Although the number of foodborne illness outbreaks associated with fresh

Liang, A.P. 2000. The epidemiology of produce-related outbreaks in the United

Copyright 2002 University of Maryland. This work may be reproduced and

Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

Section prepared by: Carmen Hernandez-Brenes, Ph.D., ITESM-Campus Monterrey, Mexico

Water Resources and Irrigation Practices

Such microorganisms are associated with gastrointestinal diseases that, in severe

Product growth stage

Identify the primary and secondary sources of water, and be conscious of

Irrigation methods commonly used include (Solomon, 1988; ERS, 2001):

Microbiological testing is used to track safety, not for daily monitoring

Microbiological determinations are time consuming so are used to track safety

of cleaning programs for tanks, wells, or when contamination from a specific

Total and fecal coliform bacteria

To test if the water being used in agricultural production is contaminated with

Every three months during the season

Keep records from the municipality/district water

Water Sample Collection