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REVIEW NOTES IN PHYSICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Luzviminda A. Lescano

MECHANICS
I

VECTORS AND SCALARS

Vector quantities are quantities having direction as well as magnitude.


Scalar quantities are quantities having magnitude only.
Vector Addition
Resultant is the vector sum of two or more vectors.
Graphical method of vector addition:
Vectors are drawn to a scale and the resultant vector is
measured directly using instruments such as ruler/meter stick and protractor.
Parallelogram method ( tail to tail ). This method is exclusively used when there are only two
vectors that are given. The vectors are drawn with a common tail and a parallelogram is formed
using these given vectors as its two sides. The resultant is the diagonal of the parallelogram.
Example 1: Determine your resultant displacement if you walked 15 m to the east and 10 m 60 o
north of east.
Ans. 22 m 23o N of E
Polygon method ( tail to tip). This method can be used to determine the resultant of two or more
given vectors. The given vectors are drawn consecutively from the tip of the arrowhead of the
preceding vector. The resultant is drawn and measured from the tail of the first to the tip of the
arrowhead of the last given vector.
Example 2:
Determine the resultant displacement of a car that goes 50 km east, 30 km
south, 20 km west and 10 km north. Ans. 36 km, 34 o S of E
Analytical method of vector addition
Method of trigonometry. This method is exclusively used when there are two given vectors
whose resultant is to be solved mathematically by Pythagorean method or by Cosine and Sine
Law
Example 3:
Two forces, 80 N and 100 N acting at an angle of 60 o with each other, pull an
object. What single force would replace the two forces?
Ans.156.20 N, 34o from the 80-N force
Component method.
This method can be used when there are two or more given vectors
whose resultant is to be computed through the use of their components.
Example 4:
Four coplanar forces act on a body at a point. Compute for their single
equivalent force. Given: 80 N east , 100 N 45 o N of E , 110 N 30o N of W
and
160 N 20o S of W.
Ans. 118.51 N, 36.8o N of W
II
STATICS - study of the forces on a body in equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium is (a) it is at rest (called static equilibrium) or (b) it is moving with constant
velocity (called translational equilibrium)
Newtons first law or law of Inertia states that every object continuous in its state of rest or
motion at constant speed along a straight line unless a net force compels it to change that state.
Inertia natural tendency of an object to remain at rest or in motion at constant speed along a
straight line.
Mass is a measure of an objects inertia.
First condition for equilibrium requires that
Fx = 0 , Fy = 0
Weight of an object (W) force with which gravity pulls downward upon it.
Tension in a string ( T ) force with which the string pulls upon the object to which it is attached
Friction ( f ) tangential force on a surface that opposes the sliding on the surface across an
adjacent surface; is parallel to the surface and opposite in direction to its motion .

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Normal force ( N ) on a surface resting ( or sliding ) on a second surface is the perpendicular


component of the force exerted by the supporting surface on the surface being supported.
f = N
where: = coefficient of friction
s = coefficient of static friction ( if motion impends)
k = coefficient of kinetic or sliding friction ( if motion exists )
Example 5:

As shown in the figure, the tension in the horizontal cord is 30 N. What is the
weight W the object? Ans. 25.2 N
40o
50o

W
Example 6:

The block shown slides with constant speed under the action of the force shown.
What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor?
Ans. 0.34
20 N
55o

50 N
Example 7:

The block shown slides at constant speed down the incline. What is the
coefficient of sliding friction between the block and the plane? Ans.0.84
60 N

Example 8:

40o
The block in the figure just begins to slide up the incline when the pushing force
shown is increased to 70 N. What is the value of the coefficient of static

friction?
Ans. 0.165
70 N

N
60

40o

Torque or moment due to a force about an axis is a measure of the effectiveness of the force in
producing rotation about an axis ; defined as the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. This perpendicular distance is
called the lever arm or moment arm.
Second condition of equilibrium
About any arbitrary axis:
M=0
Example 9:

A uniform beam AB weighs 200 N and holds a 450 N weight as shown. Find the
magnitudes of the forces exerted on the beam by the two supports at its

ends.
Ans. 212 N , 438 N
A

B
0.5 m

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0.25 m

0.25 m

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F1
200 N

F2
450 N

Example 10:

A ladder leans against a smooth wall as shown. (By a smooth wall, we mean
that the ladder exerts on the ladder only a force that is perpendicular to
the wall.
There is no friction.) The ladder weighs 200 N and its center of
gravity is 0.4 L
from the base, where L is the ladders length. Determine the
horizontal
component H and the vertical component V of the force
exerted by the ground on
the ladder and the force P exerted by the wall on the
ladder.
Ans. P=67 N , H=67 N , V = 200 N

50o

H
A

V
KINEMATICS part of mechanics that deals with the study of the description of motion .

III

Motion continuous change of position


Translational motion objects moving without rotating
Rectilinear motion motion along a straight line
Distance separation between two objects
Position (x) how far an object is to some reference point
Displacement (x) vector drawn from the initial to the final point.
Average Speed - ratio of the distance traveled to the time it takes to travel this distance.
Average Velocity (v) ratio of the displacement to the elapsed time.
x
V=
t
Instantaneous velocity velocity at any instant of time.
Example 11: A runner makes one lap around a 200 m track in a time of 25 s. What were the
runners average speed and average velocity? Ans. 8 m/s , zero

Average acceleration ratio of the change in velocity to the time taken to make this change.
v
a=
t
Instantaneous acceleration (a) acceleration at any instant of time.
Uniform motion velocity is constant
Uniformly accelerated motion acceleration is constant
Kinematics equations: v = vo + a t
v2 = vo2 + 2a x

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x = vo t + a t2
A train starts from rest at a station and accelerates at a rate of 2 m/s 2 for 10 sec.
It then runs at constant speed for 30 sec, decelerates at 4 m/s 2 until it
the next station. Find the total distance covered.

Example 12:
stops at
Ans. 750 m

Free fall motion one-dimensional motion along the vertical where the moving object is just
acted upon by the force of gravity; example of motion with nearly constant acceleration.
v = vo - g t
v2 = vo2 - 2g y
y = vo t - g t 2
Example 13 : An antiaircraft shell is fired vertically upward with an initial velocity of 500 m/s.
Compute a) the maximum height it can reach, b) the time taken to reach that
height, c) the instantaneous velocity at the end of 60 s. d) When will its
height be
10 km ? Ans. 12.8 km , 51 s , - 88 m/s , 27 s and 75 s.
Galileo Galilei father of modern science; claimed that all objects, light or heavy, fall with the
same acceleration, at least in the absence of air.

Projectile motion two-dimensional motion ; combination of a horizontal motion with constant


velocity and a vertical motion with constant acceleration.

Case 1

A body projected at an angle


Highest point
vy=0
v=vx=vox

vy

voy

vx=vox

vo

vx=vox

vy
H

vy

vox
x

vx
v

R
o

Where:
vo

=
=

vox
voy
v
vx
v y

x
y
H
R

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

If vo and o are given:

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angle of projection
initial velocity of projection or muzzle velocity if
the projectile is shot from a gun
horizontal component of the initial velocity
vertical component of the initial velocity
resultant velocity at any time t
horizontal component of v
vertical component of v
direction of v
horizontal displacement at any time t
vertical displacement at any time t
maximum height reached or the maximum value of y
range or maximum value of x
vox
voy

=
=

vo cos o
vo sin o
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Velocity at any time t:


vx
vy

=
=

vox
voy g t

vx2 + vy2

Tan-1

since velocity is constant


since acceleration is constant

vy
vx

Position at any time t:


x
y

=
=

vox t
voy t g t2

since velocity is constant

Time to reach the highest point ( th) :


voy
th
=
g
Maximum height reached ( H ):
voy2
H

2g
Time to return to its original level or time of flight ( t ):
t

2 th

Range ( R ) :

2 vox voy
g

Case 2

Body Projected horizontally


o=0 ; voy = 0

vox
x = vo t
vx = vo

y = - gt2
vy = - g t

vx

vy

x
An object projected horizontally will reach the ground at the same time as an object dropped
vertically. This is because the vertical motion are the same in both cases.
Example 14: A player kicks a football at an angle of 37 o with the horizontal and with an initial
speed of 48 ft/s. A second player standing at a distance of 100 ft from
the first in
the direction of the kick starts running to meet the ball at the
instant it is kicked.
How fast (assumed constant) must he run in order to
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catch the ball before it hits


the ground? Ans. 17 ft/s
Example 15: A projectile is fired with a horizontal velocity of 330 m/s from the top of a cliff 80
m high. (a) How long will it take to strike the level ground at the base of
the cliff?
b) How far from the foot of the cliff will it strike? c) With what
velocity will it
strike? Ans. 4.04 s , 1330 m , 332 m/s 6.9 o below the
horizontal.

IV

Galileo predicted that an object projected horizontally will reach the ground in the same time as
an object dropped vertically.
DYNAMICS part of mechanics that deals with force and why objects move as they do.

Newtons second law ( law of acceleration) states that the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
F = ma
Example 16:

Example 17:
and that
system and the
36.75 N

Example 18:
The
acceleration of
Example 19:
angle is 30o,
joining two

m1

A horizontal force of 20 N drags a 4-kg block across a level floor. If the coefficient
of friction is 0.20, a) what acceleration is produced? b) How far will the body
travel in 10 sec? c) What will be its velocity at the end of 10 sec?
Ans. 3.04 m/s2 , 152 m , 30.4 m/s
An Atwood machine consists of a single pulley with masses suspended on each
side (see figure below ). Assume that the mass on the right side is 5 kg
the mass on the left side is 3 kg. Find the acceleration of the
tension in the cord.
Ans. 2.45 m/s2 ,

A block of mass 5 kg resting on a horizontal surface is connected by a cord


passing over a light frictionless pulley to a hanging block of mass 5 kg.
coefficient of friction is 0.5. Find the tension in the cord and the
each block. Ans. 2.45 m/s2 , 36.75 N
Consider the masses m1 = 20 kg and m2 = 18 kg in the system represented by
the figure below. If the coefficient of friction is 0.1 and the inclination
find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the cord
masses.

m2

30o

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Newtons third law ( law of interaction ) states that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

Uniform circular motion motion of an object along the circumference of a circle at constant
speed.
Frequency (f) number of complete revolutions per unit time
Period (T) time for one complete revolutions; reciprocal of f
The velocity of a point object moving in a circle is always tangent to the path at that point
(tangential velocity).
2r
v=
T
v= 2rf

where: r = radius of the circular path

Components of Acceleration
The acceleration of a particle moving in a curved path can also be resolved into rectangular components.
tangential axis
aT
center of circular path
radial
axis

aR

Where:

aT =
aR =

tangential acceleration; arises from the change in the


magnitude of the velocity
radial or normal acceleration or centripetal acceleration; arises
change in the direction of the body

from

the

v2
aR

Direction of aR is inward along the radius


r
toward the center of the circle
The force that provides this acceleration is called centripetal force.
m v2
F =
r
Note: For uniform circular motion (speed is constant) , there is no tangential component of acceleration.
Banking of Curves
When an automobile is driven around a sharp turn on a perfectly level road, friction between the tires and
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the road provides the centripetal force.


If this centripetal force is not adequate, the car may slide off the road. As the car increases its speed, the
force of static friction required to hold it increases. Finally, the car attains a speed so great that the
centripetal force F equals the maximum force of static friction.
v =

s g R

where: v = maximum speed recommended by the road sign or the safe speed
for traveling around the curved road

To eliminate the friction force, the road can be banked. In this case the horizontal component of N
provides the necessary centripetal force.
v2
Tan =

where = banking angle


Rg

Example 20:

Find the required banking angle for a curve of radius 300 m if the curve is to be
negotiated at a speed of 80 km/h without the need of a friction force.

Ans.

9.5o
The Conical Pendulum
A conical pendulum consists of a mass m revolving in a horizontal circle with constant speed v at the end
of a cord length L.

Ty
h

Tx

W=mg
The horizontal component of the tension T provides the centripetal force.
Tx = F
m v2
T sin =
R

(eqn 3)

Fy = 0
Ty = m g
T cos = m g

(eqn 4)

Dividing equation 3 by equation 4:


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v2
Tan =
Rg
What is the linear speed of a conical pendulum if L = 20 cm and = 60 o? What is the
frequency of revolution?
Ans. 1.71 m/s , 1.58

Example 21:
rev/s

Motion in a Vertical Circle

Case in which the motion is circular , but it is not uniform because the speed increases on the
way down and decreases on the way up.
Example: an object whirled in a vertical circle by means of a string.
Because the magnitude of the velocity is changing, there must also be a tangential
acceleration.

v1

At the highest point:


m v12

mg
T1

T1 + mg =
R
At the lowest point;

mv22
T2 mg =

T2

v2

mg
The critical situation at the top of the path occurs when the tension drops to zero. At this instant, the
centripetal force is provided only by the weight mg.
m v1 2
mg =
R
v1 =

gR

where: v1 = critical velocity or minimum speed at the top necessary to maintain circular motion
Example 22: In the figure above, assume that a 2 kg ball has a velocity of 5 m/s when it rounds the top
of a circle whose radius is 80 cm. (a) What is the tension in the cord at that instant? (b) What is the
minimum speed at the top necessary to maintain circular motion?
Ans. 42.9 N , 2.8 m/s
Example 23: A small body of mass m=0.10 kg swings in a vertical circle at the end of a cord of length
1.0 m. If its speed is 2.0 m/s when the cord makes an angle 30o with the vertical, find the radial and
tangential components of its acceleration at this instant , the magnitude of the resultant acceleration and
the tension T in the cord.
Ans. 4.0 m/s2, 4.9 m/s2,
2
6.33 m/s , 1.25 N

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Gravitation
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional
to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

Where:
F = gravitational force
m = mass of particle/body
r = distance between particles/body
G = gravitational constant
= 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 / kg2

F
r
G m1 m2
F=
r2
Variation in g

Consider an object on the surface of the earth


Let:
m = mass of object
M = mass of earth = 6 x 1024 kg
R = radius of earth = 6400 kg
F = W = weight of object mg

object

earth

GM
g =
R2
Consider an object at a distance ,d, above the surface of the earth
GM

object

g=
( d + R )2

d
r

eart
h

Note: The above equations can also be used to determine the value of g on other bodies like the moon
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and other planets.


Example 24: How far above the surface of the earth will a persons weight be reduced to one-half its
value at the surface?
Ans.
2640 km
Example 25: A person weighing 760 N on the surface of the earth moves to Saturn. (a) What is the
persons mass on Saturn? (b) Calculate the persons weight on Saturn?
Radius of Saturn = 60,000 km , Mass of Saturn = 5.71 x 10 26 kg
Ans. 77.55 kg , 849.17 N

Satellite in Circular Orbit


GM
v

=
r

There is only one speed v that a satellite can have if it is to remain in an orbit of fixed radius r . If the
speed changes, then so does the radius of orbit.
Example 26: A person with a mass of 100 kg is riding in a space station that is moving in a circular
orbit 900 km above the surface of the earth. (a) What is the speed of the space station? (b) What is the
weight of the occupant? Ans. 7400 m/s , 751 N
VI

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work Done by a Constant Force


Work is a scalar quantity equal to the product of the magnitudes of the displacement and the component
of the force in the direction of the displacement.
F

d
Work

= (force component)( displacement)

= Fx d

= ( F cos ) d

If Fx = F ( that is, when a weight is lifted vertically or when a horizontal force drags an object along the
floor ) then:
W = Fd
When the applied force is perpendicular to the displacement ( example the force of gravity acting on the
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block above ), the work will be zero, since Fx = 0.


Units of Work: Newtonmeters ( N m ) or Joule ( J ), dyne-cm or erg , footlb ( ft-lb ).
1 J = 0.7376 ft lb = 107 dyn cm
Resultant Work ( W )

Work of a particular force is positive if the force component is in the same direction as the
displacement. Example work done by a crane lifting a load
Negative work is done by force component that opposes the actual displacement. Example the
work that is performed by a frictional force.

If several forces act on a body in motion, the resultant work ( total work or net work) is the algebraic sum
of the works of the individual forces. This will also be equal to the work of the resultant force. The
accomplishment of net work requires the existence of a resultant force.
Resultant Work = work of resultant force
Example 27: A push of 80 N moves a 5 kg block up a 30 o inclined plane. The coefficient of kinetic
friction is 0.25, and the length of the plane is 20 m. (a) Compute the work done by each force acting on
the block. (b) Show that the net work done by these forces is the same as the work of the resultant force.
Work done by a Variable Force
In many cases, the work is done by a force that varies in magnitude or direction during the displacement
of the body on which it acts. Examples: When a spring is stretched slowly, the force required to stretch it
increases steadily as the spring elongates; when a body is projected vertically upward, the gravitational
force exerted on it by the earth decreases inversely with the square of its distance from earths center
Consider the work done in stretching a spring
W = k x2
where: k=force constant or stiffness of the spring
If the spring is to be stretched from an initial elongation x 1 to a final elongation x2 , the work done is
W = k x 2 2 k x1 2
Energy
In mechanics, we are concerned with two kinds of energy;

Kinetic Energy K: Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. Examples: a moving car,
a moving bullet, a rotating wheel all have the ability to do work because of their motion.

Potential Energy P:
Energy possessed by a system by a virtue of position or condition.
Examples; a lifted object, a compressed spring, a stretched rubber band offer the potential for
work, provided a force is activated.

Kinetic Energy
K = m v2
The units of energy is the same as the units of work.
Gravitational Potential Energy energy possessed by a system consisting of a body held at some
vertical distance above a reference axis
P (grav.) = mgy

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Conservation of Mechanical Energy:


In the absence of air resistance or other dissipative force, the sum of the potential and kinetic
energies is a constant, provided that no energy is added to the system.
Example 28: A diver of mass m drops from a board 10.0 m above the water surface.
a.
Use the conservation of mechanical energy to find his speed 5.0 m above the water surface.
Ans. 9.9 m/s
b.
Find the speed of the divers just before he strikes the water.
Ans.
14 m/s
Elastic Potential Energy energy possessed by a system consisting of an elastic material which is
stretched or compressed.
P (elastic) = kx2

Conservative and Dissipative Forces


If the gravitational force act alone on the object, the total mechanical energy is constant or conserved,
and therefore the gravitational force is called a conservative force.
If an elastic force acts alone on the object, the sum of the kinetic and elastic potential energies is
conserved, and therefore the elastic force is also a conservative force.
When the friction force acts alone on the object, the total mechanical energy is not conserved. The friction
force is therefore called a nonconservative force or a dissipative force. The mechanical energy of a body
is conserved only when no dissipative forces act on it.
Power

Rate at which work is done by a working agent


work
Power =

W
=

Time t
Supposing a constant force F is exerted on a body while the body undergoes a displacement d in the
direction of the force, the work done is Fd and the power is
P=Fv
Units of Power: SI unit is the joule per second ( J/s), which is renamed the watt ( W )
In USCS units: foot-pound per second ( ft-lb /s )
Other units:
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W ;
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 W = 550 ft-lb/s
Example 29: A loaded elevator has a total mass of 2800 kg and its lifted to a height of 200 m in a time
of 45 s. Express the average power in SI unit and in USCS units. Ans. 122 kW , 164 hp

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