Ma 408

Foundations of Euclidean
Geometry
Supplementary Notes to
Elementary Geometry
from an Advanced Standpoint
E. E. Mose

Chandler 1

NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Course:
Ma 408, Foundations of Euclidean Geometry
Textbook:
Elementary Geometry from an Advanced Viewpoint, E. E. Moise, 3rd Edition
Instructor:
Richard Chandler
Office:
Harrelson 224
Office Hours: 1:00 - 2:30 TTh (other times by prior arrangement, or take your chances)
Chapter Topic and Comments

Lessons (30)

The Algebra of Real Numbers

Touched on in Ma 225, students should be able to handle this reasonably well

Incidence Geometry in Planes and Space

Easy but important material

Distance and Congruence

3.1 - 3.2 basic in Ma 225; 3.4 - 3.5 are difficult

Separation in Planes and Space

4.2 - 4.3 important; Th 4.2.6 has many misprints; Th 4.3.3 is very important

Angular Measure

Congruences between Triangles

Geometric Inequalities

Three Geometries
Different Models for Geometry

10

Absolute Plane Geometry

Geometry without the parallel postulate

11

The Parallel Postulate and Parallel Projection

Th 11.4.1 difficult but important

12

Similarities between Triangles

BASIC!!

13

Polygonal Regions and their Areas

16

Circles and Arcs

FUNDAMENTAL!!

19

Constructions with Compass and Straight Edge

Review and Tests

HEART
of the

COURSE

Chandler 2

Course Policies and Philosophy

Geometry has been studied for more than 2000 years. That in itself should tell you the importance that our culture
attaches to it. It is an ideal vehicle for learning abstract (axiomatic) mathematics. A thorough understanding is
necessary for anyone planning to teach at the secondary level. Many of you will find Ma 408 to be the most challenging
course you will encounter at NCSU. It is imperative that you spend sufficient time on it to understand and master the
material. I realize that one of the most arduous tasks of all is to try understand difficult mathematics; at the same time, it
is one of the most rewarding. To put in a solid 2-3 continuous hours at one time is probably not the best way to study this
material. I would suggest the following strategy: as soon after class as you possibly can, devote an hour or so to the
material discussed in class. After that, and before the next class meeting, go over portions of the material again, several
times if necessary, and for shorter periods of time (30 - 45 minutes, perhaps). You will be surprised at what your
unconscious will accomplish between those periods of conscious study. For this method to work you must not skimp on
either part. Above all, do not accept not understanding the material of this course.
Final letter grades will be assigned using the following method: Homework will be sporadically assigned, collected,
and graded. The homework grade will be worth 100 points. Two hourly exams, each worth 100 points and a final exam
worth 200 points will be given. These will be open book, open notes. No grades will be dropped. However, to at least
partially offset the effects of a bad grade, extra-credit problems will be assigned from time-to-time. Generally, these will
be worth 5 points each and will be due one week from the day they are given. They will typically be spur-of-the-moment,
off-the-top-of-my-head problems. An A will require approximately 450 points (90% of 500), a B: 400 points, C: 350
points, etc. If your homework and exams total 435 points and you have 15 points of extra-credit, this would qualify you
for an A in the course. I will not assign grades (except possibly an A+ to an especially deserving student).
It is acceptable (and perhaps, desirable) for you to study together. This would naturally include the discussion of
homework. It is not acceptable to copy anothers work. Extra-credit problems are not to be discussed with anyone
except me. This prohibition is absolute and covers all aspects of these problems (That extra-credit problem about
equilateral triangles sure was easy. is a sample of perhaps innocuous but forbidden discussion).
I have been dissatisfied with student behavior in this course recently and want to take this opportunity to tell you what
I expect of you in the classroom. You should get to class on time (2:35 TTh) and not leave before I dismiss class. You
should not cut class. You should not carry on conversations (even whispered) in class. Your homework should be turned
in when it is due. You should ask questions whenever you dont understand something. In return, I will do my best get to
class on time and dismiss class on time. I will not cut class. I will answer your questions and will not make you feel like
an idiot for asking them.
While I realize that for many of you, your high school course was an unpleasant experience, I hope to change your
mind about geometry. Of the many courses I have taught in the more than 30 years I have been at NCSU, I believe that
I like Ma 408 the best. You will be able to see my enthusiasm for geometry this semester; I hope to instill some of it in
you. The very best accolade I ever received on the Instructor Evaluation Form was from a 408 student several years
ago: Before I took this class I hated geometry. Now I cant wait to get out and teach it.

Chandler 3

Some Challenging Extra-Credit Problems

The following extra-credit problems are worth 10 points apiece and may be turned any time up to the last day of
class. Be warned: These are very difficult problems. Do not spend time on them unless you can afford it. As with
all extra-credit problems, the only person you may discuss them with is me. Note: This is a geometry course.
These problems are meant to be worked using geometric methods as much as possible. Analytic geometry and
trigonometry, while not forbidden, are to be avoided if possible, and you will receive only half-credit (5 points) if you
use them successfully.
1.

In ABC, m(BAC) = 80, m(ACB) = 20, and CD AB

What is m(CBD)?

2.

Point E is inside square ABCD with BE = 5, CE = 1, and

DE = 3. What is m(DEC)?

5
3

D
3.

A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle. One side is a

diameter of the circle and the other sides have lengths of 3,

4, and 5. What is the diameter of the circle?

4.

In an isosceles triangle ABC, m(B) = m(C) = 40.

AB is extended past B to D so that AD = BC. What is

m(BCD)?
B

5.

An interior point in an equilateral triangle is located at distances of 5, 7, and

8 from the three vertices. What is the (common) length of the sides?

7
8
5

Chandler 4

Geometric Models
A mathematical theory begins with a (usually small) set of undefined terms (so as to avoid circular definitions),
states some ground rules (axioms) limiting their behavior, generates new objects through definitions, and then
develops new relationships (theorems) using standard deduction methods from logic. The set of axioms must be
chosen very carefully so as to meet several criteria:
It should be as small as possible, but large enough that an interesting theory can be developed.
It should be independent. That is, it should be impossible to prove an axiom as a theorem dependent on other

axioms.
It should be consistent, that is, free of internal contradictions: it must be impossible to deduce that both a

statement and its negation are true.

The geometric theory that is presented in your text represents almost 2500 years of development. It is only one
of many modern geometries, however, since other authors use slightly different axiom sets or develop slightly
different theorems, etc. It is called Euclidean geometry because it is an attempt to develop the geometry espoused
in Euclid's Elements using contemporary standards of rigor. The set of undefined terms is small: set and point. lines
and planes are defined as sets of points subject to limitation by the axioms which follow. This course will
concentrate on plane geometry (intuitively, the set of points all lie in a plane); the axioms and theorems regarding
planes and their interactions will, for the most part, be ignored. The axiom system will be introduced slowly, one
axiom at a time, so that you will be able to see how the theorems that are developed depend on the axioms. For
example, the Exterior Angle Theorem needs the axioms through SAS but does not require the Parallel Postulate.
A model for a mathematical theory is a concrete, usually well-understood object, together with an identification
within that object of the undefined terms of the theory. Thus, in the list below of several geometric models, we will
specify eachs set of points and tell what a line is. The purpose in introducing several models is to see that the
axiom set is independent: if Axioms 1, 2, 3 hold and Axiom 4 does not hold for Model A it follows that Axiom 4 is
independent of Axioms 1, 2, 3. (If Axiom 4 could be deduced from 1, 2, 3 then it would have to be true in any model
in which Axioms 1, 2, 3 held.) As the text develops we will try to determine which models satisfy which axioms.

Three Point Geometry.

The set of points consists of any set of 3 distinct objects, e.g., S3 = {a,b,c}. The set of lines consists of all
doubleton subsets: L3 = {{a,b},{a,c},{b,c}}.
Euclidean Plane.

The set of points consists of all ordered pairs of real numbers: SE = {(x,y) : x IR and y IR}. A line is any set
of the form {(x,y) : Ax + By + C = 0} where A, B, C IR and not both A and B are zero. Thus LE = {{(x,y) : Ax + By +
C = 0} : A, B, C IR and A2 + B2 > 0}. As the axiom system becomes more extensive, the notion of distance will be
introduced. The Euclidean Plane uses the ordinary Euclidean distance function:

d E (( x, y ),(u, v )) == ( x u ) 2 + ( y v ) 2 .
Taxicab Plane.

ST = SE and LT = LE above. The distance function is different: d T (( x , y ),(u, v )) = x u + y v .

Moulton Plane.

SM = SE . A Moulton line is a modified Euclidean line. Vertical

Euclidean lines are Moulton lines. Non-vertical lines may always
be written in the slope-intercept form {(x,y) : y = mx + b} for slope
m and y-intercept b. If m 0 then the Euclidean line is again a
Moulton line. For m > 0 we bend the Euclidean line to get a
Moulton Line:

{(x,y) : y = mx + b and x 0} {(x,y) : y = mx + b and x > 0}. It

turns out that each pair of points in SM lies on a unique Moulton
line. To determine the distance dM between a pair of points we
measure the arc length of the Moulton line segment between the
two points using dE. More on this later.

Three Moulton Lines

Poincar HalfPlane.

SP = {(x,y) : x,y IR and y > 0}, the upper half of SE. Lines
are of two types: (i) for any constant k, kL = {(x,y) : x = k and y > 0}
(a standard vertical half-line in the Euclidean model) or (ii) for any
constants c and r, r> 0, cLr = {(x,y) : (x-c)2 + y2 = r2 and y > 0} (the
upper half of a standard circle in the Euclidean model, centered on
the x-axis). LP = {kL : k IR} {cLr : c, r IR and r > 0}.
Once again, it turns out that each pair of points in SP lies on a
unique line in LP. The distance function is of necessity rather
complicated. Points approaching the missing y-axis act as if they
are going to infinity. The natural logarithm function will provide
the requisite lengthening. More on this later.

r
(c,0)

Two Poincar Lines

Chandler 5

Chandler 6

3.3 Distance Functions.

Earlier, we observed that various of our models needed distance functions. At that time we indicated that dE

was the ordinary Euclidean distance function and dT((x,y),(u,v)) = |xu| + |yv| is the metric for the Taxicab Plane (in
more advanced books this is usually called the L1 metric). In this section we give dM and dP, the metrics for the
Moulton and Poincar planes. Because the ruler for a line must match up with the distance function, the easiest way
is to define the distance between two points to be the length of the segment having the two points as ends (when
each pair of points form the ends of a unique segment). Thus:
dM ((x,y),(u,v)):

Name the points (x,y) and (u,v) so that x u. We have three cases:
i) x = u. Then the points lie on the same vertical line. dM((x,y),(u,v)) = |y-v|, the same as dE.
ii) (0 x < u) or (x < u 0) or (x < 0 < u and y v). In these cases the Moulton and Euclidean segments
determined by the points are the same. So are the distances: dM((x,y),(u,v)) = dE((x,y),(u,v)) = (xu)2 + (yv)2.
iii) x < 0 < u and y < v. Now the Moulton segment between (x,y) and (u,v) is bent at the y-axis and dM reflects
this. If (0,b) is the y-intercept of the Moulton line determined by (x,y) and (u,v) then dM((x,y),(u,v)) = x2 + (yb)2
+ u2 + (bv)2 = dE((x,y),(0,b)) + dE((0,b),(u,v)).
We see that the only difficulty in finding dM in this last case is in determining b, the y-intercept of the Moulton line
through (x,y) and (u,v). This is pretty easy. If we let m denote the slope of the line between (x,y) and (0,b) then we
have the following two equations in the unknowns m and b:
yb
x0 = m and
vb
m
=
u0
2
which are easily solved (we are given (x,y) and (u,v)).
dP((x,y),(u,v)):

This is much more difficult. The ruler axiom says that lines in geometry must act just like the real number line as
far as distance and betweeness are concerned. Two distinct points lie on a unique line. We have two different
types of line to consider:

y
v

( i) If (x,y) and (u,v) lie on a line of the form kL then x = u = k and dP((x,y),(u,v)) = ln .

x -c + r

y
(ii) If (x,y) and (u,v) lie on a line of type cLr then x u and dP((x,y),(u,v)) = ln
.
u -c + r

v
In the second case, the problem is to determine c and k, given (x,y) and (u,v) when x u. As in the similar
situation with the Moulton line, it is a matter of solving two equations in the two unknowns c, r. We know that (x,y)
and (u,v) are both of (Euclidean) distance r from (c,0). Thus:
(xc)2 + y2 = r2 and
(uc)2 + v2 = r2. Again, these are easily solved.

Chandler 7

3.3 Standard Rulers.

Recall that a ruler for a line is any bijection between that line and the real number line which preserves distance
(such a function is usually called an isometry). We give so-called standard rulers for the lines in our models. These
rulers map the midpoint of the line to 0. Of course, the idea of the midpoint of a line is meaningless; we use an
intuitive notion: for non-vertical lines in all but the Poincar plane the midpoint is that point with x coordinate 0. The
midpoint of cLr is (c,r). Thus:
Model

Euclidean Plane

Type of Line

La = {(x,y) : x = a}
Lm,b = {(x,y) : y = mx + b}

Taxicab Plane

La = {(x,y) : x = a}
Lm,b = {(x,y) : y = mx + b}

Moulton Plane*

Poincar Plane

Lm,b = {(x,y) : y = mx + b, x < 0}

{(x,y) : y = mx+b, x 0}

aL

= {(x,y) : x = a and y > 0}

cLr

= {(x,y) : (xc)2 + y2 = r2 and y > 0}

Standard Ruler

f(x,y) = y
f(x,y) = ( 1 + m 2) x
f(x,y) = y
f(x,y) = (1 + |m |) x

2
1 + m x if x 0

f(x, y) =
2
1 + m x if x > 0

f(x,y) = ln(y)
xc+r
f(x,y) = ln
y

* For those lines in the Moulton plane which are identical with Euclidean lines, the standard rulers are the same.

Chandler 8

Supplementary Problems Chapter 3

1.

Prove that A-B-C-D implies D-C-B-A.

2.

Suppose A-B-C. Prove:

3.
4.

a) BC AC

c) BC AC

b) AC = AB BC

d) AB AC

AB BA =

? Justify your answer.

Justify the steps in the first part of the following proof of problem 2, page 67 of Moise and then
complete the argument:
Statement

1. There is f:AB IR such that f(A) = 0 and

f(B) > 0.

Reason
1.

2. If Q AB then QAB.

2.

3. f(Q) < f(A) < f(B)

3.

4. Q {P : f(P) 0}.

4.

5. {P : f(P) 0} AB

5.

Now, complete the argument by showing that AB {P : f(P) 0}.

5.

Determine the Euclidean, Taxicab, Moulton, and Poincar distances between the following pairs of
points:
a) (1,2), (1,5)

6.

b) (1,2), (2,1)

c) (1,2), (2,4)

Determine the Euclidean (= Taxicab), Moulton, and Poincar lines determined by the pairs of points
in problem 5.

7.

Determine standard rulers for the lines in problem 6. Note that even though the lines are the same
in the Euclidean and Taxicab planes, the distance functions are different. Thus their rulers will be
different.

Chandler 9

Supplementary Problems Chapter 4.

1.

Given ABC and a line L. Prove that L Interior(ABC).

Hint: Suppose L Int(ABC). First show that A, B, C are not all on the same side of L.

2.

Suppose ABCD is a quadrilateral and AC BD = {E}. Fill in the details below proving that
ABCD is convex.
Statement

1. A and E are on the same side of CD .

Reason
1.

2.

3.

4.

2. B and E are on the same side of DC .

3. A and B are on the same side of CD .
4. C and D are on the same side of AB .

5.
5. ABCD is convex
3.

Suppose a line L lies in the plane of ABC and L Int(ABC) . Prove that L is not contained in
Int(ABC).

4.

More generally, extend 4.3, Theorem 4: Suppose a line L lies in the plane of ABC and L
Int(ABC) . Prove that L intersects at least two sides of ABC.

Chandler 10

Trial Examination I.
1.

Theorem. AB =AB BA
Proof.
Statement

1. Let P AB Then P-A-B or A-P-B or

A-B-P or P = A or P = B.

2.

Reason
1.

2. If P-A-B then P BA .

2.

3. If A-P-B or A-B-P then P AB .

3.

4. If P AB BA then P AB .

4.

H2

Suppose E is a plane, L is a line in E, and H1 and H2 are

the half-planes of L as in PS-1. Suppose A H1 and B

B

L. Do one of the following (indicate which).

i)

If A-B-C then C H2.

ii) If A-D-B then D H1.

3.

D
H1

Theorem. Suppose L is a line in a plane E, C is a convex

subset of E, and L C = . Then all the points of C lie on

one side of L.

4.

Theorem. In ABC suppose A-D-B, A-E-C, and D-X-E.

Prove:

a) X is on the B side of AC .
b) X is on the A side of BC .

X
D

Chandler 11

Supplementary Problems Chapters 6, 7.

1.

Suppose C Int(BAD), D Int(CAE), and BAD

CAE. Prove that BAC DAE.

C
D

2.

Suppose A-B-C-D, AB = CD, BE = CE, where E is not on

the line through A, B, C, D. Prove AE = DE.

A
3.

Suppose, as in the figure, that AD and CB intersect at E. If

D
C

ABD CDB and BAD DCB, prove ABE

CDE.

E
D

B
4.

If all intersections occur as in the figure and ABE DCF

then HD = IA

B
E

C
G

F
I

H
5.

Using the same figure as in problem 4 above but not assuming that ABE DCF prove that

BEI > ADH.

6.

In ABC suppose A-E-B, C-D-B, AD = CE, and DAC

ECA. Prove that BE = BD

E
B
D
C

Chandler 12
7.

Prove that the base angles of an isosceles triangle are acute. (The base angles of an isosceles
triangle are the two that are congruent. Acute means less than a right angle.

8.

Suppose D Int(ABC). Show that

i)

ADC > ABC. Hint: extend BD .

ii) AD + DC < AB + BC. Hint: Extend CD .

D
A

9.

InABC, if A is obtuse (greater than a right angle) then B and C are acute.

10.

If ABC and DEF are right triangles with right angles at A and D, B E, and
BC = EF. Prove that ABC DEF.

11.

In ABC, if C is a right angle and B-D-C, then BDA is obtuse.

12.

Suppose that for ABC and DEF we have B E, A and D are both acute or both obtuse,

BC = EF, and AC = DF. Prove that ABC DEF. Hint: Draw perpendiculars from C to AB and

from F to DE and use congruence of resulting triangles. Be sure to consider all possible cases.

13.

Prove that there is no SSA congruence theorem for triangles.

14.

Criticize: ABCD is a rectangle (a convex quadrilateral with

C
F

4 right angles), EX and GX are perpendicular bisectors of

DF and AB as shown in the figure, and AD = BF. Then

DAG FBG.
A

Statement
1. AGX BGX
2. DEX FEX
3. AXD BXF
4. GAX GBX
5. DAG FBG

Reason
1. SAS
2. SAS
3. SSS
4. CPCTC
5. Angle subtraction