Cast iron

For cookware, see Cast-iron cookware.

buildings.
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon

1 Production
Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with
substantial quantities of scrap iron, scrap steel, limestone,
carbon (coke) and taking various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt
out of the molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon,
which must be replaced. Depending on the application,
carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levA cast iron pan.
els, which may be anywhere from 23.5% and 13%, respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt becontent greater than 2%.[1] The alloy constituents aect
fore the nal form is produced by casting.
its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through; grey Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furcast iron has graphite akes which deect a passing crack nace known as a cupola, but more often melted in electric
and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces. After melting
is complete, the molten iron is poured into a holding furCarbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elenace or ladle.
ments, with the amount ranging from 2.14 wt% and 1
3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less carbon content
are known as steel. While this technically makes these
base alloys ternary FeCSi alloys, the principle of cast 2 Types
iron solidication is understood from the binary iron
carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions of most 2.1 Alloying elements
cast irons are around the eutectic point of the ironcarbon
system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 C (2,100 to 2,190 F),
which is about 300 C (572 F) lower than the melting
point of pure iron.
Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast
irons. With its relatively low melting point, good uidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become
an engineering material with a wide range of applications
and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry
parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder
blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant
to destruction and weakening by oxidation (rust).
The earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century
BCE, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is
now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient
China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture.[2] During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the
Reformation.[3] The rst cast iron bridge was built during
the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, and is known as The
Iron Bridge. Cast iron is also used in the construction of

Iron-cementite meta-stable diagram.

Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is
the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out
1

2
of solution. Instead the carbon forms graphite which results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength,
and decreases density. Sulfur, when present, forms iron
sulde, which prevents the formation of graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes
molten cast iron viscous, which causes short run defects.
To counter the eects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulde instead of iron
sulde. The manganese sulde is lighter than the melt so it
tends to oat out of the melt and into the slag. The amount
of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 sulfur
content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese
is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases
hardness and chilling, except in grey iron, where up to
1% of manganese increases strength and density.[4]
Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it renes the pearlite and graphite structure, improves toughness, and evens out hardness dierences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in small
amounts to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce
chill, and because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel
is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin can
be added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium. Copper is
added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of 0.5
2.5%, to decrease chill, rene graphite, and increase uidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.31% to
increase chill and rene the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with nickel, copper,
and chromium to form high strength irons. Titanium is
added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases
uidity. 0.150.5% vanadium is added to cast iron to
stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.10.3% zirconium helps to
form graphite, deoxidize, and increase uidity.[4]

TYPES

2.3 White cast iron

White cast iron displays white fractured surfaces due to
the presence of cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the
metastable phase cementite, Fe3 C, rather than graphite.
The cementite which precipitates from the melt forms
as relatively large particles, usually in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where cementite precipitates
might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the ferrite matrix). Rather,
they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply
by virtue of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can
be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they
oer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the material, white cast
iron could reasonably be classied as a cermet. White
iron is too brittle for use in many structural components,
but with good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it nds use in such applications as the
wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps, shell
liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding
mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a
backhoe's digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon
martensitic steel is more common for this application).

It is dicult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify

the melt as white cast iron all the way through. However,
rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell of white cast
iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form
In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a
of 0.0020.01%, to increase how much silicon can be chilled casting, has the benets of a hard surface and a
added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in the pro- somewhat tougher interior.
duction of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings
eect of bismuth.[4]
(for example, a 10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e.,
a high cooling rate is not required, as well as providing
impressive abrasion resistance. These high-chromium alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of
2.2 Grey cast iron
chromium carbides. The main form of these carbides are
the eutectic or primary M7 C3 carbides, where M repMain article: Grey iron
resents iron or chromium and can vary depending on the
alloys composition. The eutectic carbides form as bunGrey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstruc- dles of hollow hexagonal rods and grow perpendicular to
ture, which causes fractures of the material to have a grey the hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these carbides
appearance. It is the most commonly used cast iron and are within the range of 1500-1800HV[6]
the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most
cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.54.0% carbon, 13% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast
2.4 Malleable cast iron
iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than
steel, but its compressive strength is comparable to lowand medium-carbon steel. These mechanical properties Main article: Malleable iron
are controlled by the size and morphology of the graphite
akes present in the microstructure and can be charac- Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then
terised according to the guidelines given by the ASTM.[5] heat treated at about 900 C (1,650 F). Graphite sepa-

3
rates out much more slowly in this case, so that surface
tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles rather
than akes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are
relatively short and far from one another, and have a lower
cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon.
They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to akes,
which alleviates the stress concentration problems faced
by grey cast iron. In general, the properties of malleable
cast iron are more like those of mild steel. There is a limit
to how large a part can be cast in malleable iron, since it
is made from white cast iron.

2.5

Ductile cast iron

Cast iron drain, waste and vent piping

Main article: Ductile cast iron

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron.
Tiny amounts of magnesium or cerium added to these
alloys slow down the growth of graphite precipitates by
bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with
careful control of other elements and timing, this allows
the carbon to separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidies. The properties are similar to malleable
iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.

2.6

Table of comparative qualities of cast

irons

Cast iron plate on grand piano

BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is

now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. This is
based on an analysis of the artifacts microstructures.[2]
Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitMain article: History of ferrous metallurgy
The earliest cast iron artifacts date to the 5th century able for purposes where a sharp edge or exibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century
BC and poured into moulds to make ploughshares and
pots as well as weapons and pagodas.[8] Although steel
was more desirable, cast iron was cheaper and thus was
more commonly used for implements in ancient China,
while wrought iron or steel was used for weapons.[2]

History

Cast iron artifact dated from 5th century BC found in Jiangsu,

China.

In the west, where it did not become available until

the 15th century, its earliest uses included cannon and
shot. Henry VIII initiated the casting of cannon in England. Soon, English iron workers using blast furnaces
developed the technique of producing cast iron cannons,
which, while heavier than the prevailing bronze cannons,
were much cheaper and enabled England to arm her navy
better. The technology of cast iron was transferred from
China. Al-Qazvini in the 13th century and other travellers subsequently noted an iron industry in the Alburz
Mountains to the south of the Caspian Sea. This is
close to the silk route, so that the use of technology derived from China is conceivable.[9] The ironmasters of
the Weald continued producing cast irons until the 1760s
and armament was one of the main uses of irons after the
Restoration.

HISTORY

Cast iron pots were made at many English blast furnaces

at the time. In 1707, Abraham Darby patented a method
of making pots (and kettles) thinner and hence cheaper
than his rivals could. This meant that his Coalbrookdale
furnaces became dominant as suppliers of pots, an activity in which they were joined in the 1720s and 1730s by
a small number of other coke-red blast furnaces.

Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways, until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879 cast serious doubt on the use of the material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay
Bridge had been cast integral with the columns and they
failed in the early stages of the accident. In addition, the
bolt holes were also cast and not drilled, so that all the tenThe development of the steam engine by Thomas New- sion from the tie bars was placed on a corner, rather than
being spread over the length of the hole. The replacement
comen provided further market for cast iron, since cast
iron was considerably cheaper than the brass of which the bridge was built in wrought iron and steel.
engine cylinders were originally made. John Wilkinson Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating
was a great exponent of cast iron, who, amongst other in the Norwood Junction rail accident of 1891. Thouthings, cast the cylinders for many of James Watt's im- sands of cast iron rail underbridges were eventually reproved steam engines until the establishment of the Soho placed by steel equivalents.
Foundry in 1795.
Original Tay Bridge from the north

3.1

Cast-iron bridges

See also: The Iron Bridge

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north

Iron Bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale,
England

The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in

The Eglinton Tournament Bridge, North Ayrshire,
the late 1770s, when Abraham Darby III built the Iron
Scotland, built from cast iron
Bridge, although short beams had already been used, such
as in the blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. Other inventions followed, including one patented by Thomas Paine.
3.2 Buildings
Cast iron bridges became commonplace as the Industrial
Revolution gathered pace. Thomas Telford adopted the
Main article: Cast-iron architecture
material for his bridge upstream at Buildwas, and then
for a canal trough aqueduct at Longdon-on-Tern on the
Cast iron columns enabled architects to build tall buildShrewsbury Canal.
ings without the enormously thick walls required to conIt was followed by the Chirk Aqueduct and the
struct masonry buildings of any height. Such exibilPontcysyllte Aqueduct, both of which remain in use folity allowed tall buildings to have large windows. In urlowing the recent restorations. Cast iron beam bridges
ban centres like SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New
were used widely by the early railways, such as the Water
York City, manufacturing buildings and early department
Street Bridge at the Manchester terminus of the Liverpool
stores were built with cast iron columns to allow daylight
and Manchester Railway. Problems arose when a new
to enter. Slender cast iron columns could also support
bridge carrying the Chester and Holyhead Railway across
the weight that would otherwise require thick masonry
the River Dee in Chester collapsed in May 1847, less than
columns or piers, opening up oor spaces in factories, and
a year after it was opened. The Dee bridge disaster was
sight lines in churches and auditoriums. The historic Iron
caused by excessive loading at the centre of the beam by a
Building in Watervliet, New York, is a cast iron building.
passing train, and many similar bridges had to be demolished and rebuilt, often in wrought iron. The bridge had
been erroneously designed, being trussed with wrought 3.3 Textile mills
iron straps, which were wrongly thought to reinforce the
structure. The centres of the beams were put into bend- Another important use was in textile mills. The air in
ing, with the lower edge in tension, where cast iron, like the mills contained ammable bres from the cotton,
masonry, is very weak.
hemp, or wool being spun. As a result, textile mills had
The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction
was by using arches, so that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very strong
in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds of
iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in
tension, and also tough resistant to fracturing. The relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural
purposes, may be thought of as analogous to the relationship between wood and stone.

an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was

to build them completely of non-combustible materials,
and it was found convenient to provide the building with
an iron frame, largely of cast iron, replacing ammable
wood. The rst such building was at Ditherington in
Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Many other warehouses were
built using cast iron columns and beams, although faulty
designs, awed beams or overloading sometimes caused
building collapses and structural failures.

5
During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also
widely used for frame and other xed parts of machinery,
including spinning and later weaving machines in textile
mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns
had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery.

[5] Committee, A04.

Test Method for Evaluating
the Microstructure of Graphite in Iron Castings.
doi:10.1520/a0247-10.

[7] Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) Standard

Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, Elsevier, 2006

See also

[6] Zeytin, Havva. Eect of Boron and Heat Treatment on

Mechanical Properties of White Cast Iron for Mining Application. Journal of Iron and Steel Research, International 18 (11): 3139.

[8] Donald B. Wagner (May 2008). Science and Civilisation

in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology,
Part 11, Ferrous Metallurgy. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 159169. ISBN 978-0-521-87566-0.
[9] Donald B. Wagner (continuing from Joseph Needham),
Science and Civilisation in China: 5. Chemistry and Chemical Technology: part 11 Ferrous Metallurgy (Cambridge
University Press 2008), 34951.

6 Further reading
Cast-iron wae iron, an example of cast-iron cookware

Cast-iron architecture
Cast-iron cookware
Ironwork artisan metalwork: for architectural elements, garden features, and ornamental objects.
Ironworks a place where iron is worked (including
historical sites)
Meehanite
Sand casting
Steel
Wrought iron

References

[1] Campbell, F.C. (2008). Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
p. 453. ISBN 978-0-87170-867-0.
[2] Donald B. Wagner (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient
China. BRILL. pp. 335340. ISBN 978-90-04-09632-5.
[3] Keith Krause (August 1995). Arms and the State: Patterns
of Military Production and Trade. Cambridge University
Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-521-55866-2.
[4] Gillespie, LaRoux K. (1988). Troubleshooting manufacturing processes (4th ed.). SME. p. 4-4. ISBN 978-087263-326-1.

Harold T. Angus, Cast Iron : Physical and Engineering Properties, Butterworths, London (1976) ISBN
0408706880
John Gloag and Derek Bridgwater, A History of
Cast Iron in Architecture, Allen and Unwin, London
(1948)
Peter R Lewis, Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of
1879, Tempus (2004) ISBN 0-7524-3160-9
Peter R Lewis, Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephensons Nemesis of 1847, Tempus (2007) ISBN 9780-7524-4266-2
George Laird, Richard Gundlach and Klaus Rhrig,
Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron Handbook, ASM International (2000) ISBN 0-87433-224-9

7 External links
Cast Iron In China and Europe
Metallurgy of Cast Irons, Cambridge University
Paper on the Tay bridge disaster
Spanish cast-iron bridges

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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