Ice

This article is about water ice. For the broader concept of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque
of ices as used in the planetary sciences, see volatiles. bluish-white color.
For other uses, see Ice (disambiguation).
In the Solar System, ice is abundant and occurs naturally
from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far as away the
Oort cloud objects. Beyond the Solar System, it occurs
as interstellar ice. It is abundant on Earth's surface particularly in the polar regions and above the snow line[1]
and, as a common form of precipitation and deposition,
plays a key role in Earths water cycle and climate. It falls
as snowakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice
spikes.
Ice molecules can exhibit up to sixteen dierent phases
(packing geometries) that depend on temperature and
pressure. When water is cooled rapidly (quenching), up
to three dierent types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature.
When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs
below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena. Virtually all the ice on Earths surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted
as ice Ih (spoken as ice one h) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice Ic. The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below
0C (273.15K, 32F) at standard atmospheric pressure.
It may also be deposited directly by water vapor, as happens in the formation of frost. The transition from ice to
water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is
sublimation.

Frozen water in the form of an ordinary household ice cube. The

white zone in the center is the result of tiny air bubbles.

Ice is used in a variety of ways, including cooling, winter

sports and ice sculpture.

1 Characteristics
As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with
an ordered structure, ice is considered a mineral. It
possesses a regular crystalline structure based on the
molecule of water, which consists of a single oxygen atom
covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, or HOH.
However, many of the physical properties of water and
ice are controlled by the formation of hydrogen bonds
between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it
is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the
structure of both water and ice.

Snowakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902. Snow is ice that grows from

water vapor in Earths atmosphere, which is why it usually displays crystal shapes.

An unusual property of ice frozen at atmospheric pressure is that the solid is approximately 8.3% less dense
Ice is water frozen into a solid state. Depending on the than liquid water. The density of ice is 0.9167 g/cm3 at
presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles 0 C,[4] whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm at
1

CHARACTERISTICS

the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of

energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the heat of fusion.

The three-dimensional crystal structure of H2 O ice Ih (c) is composed of bases of H2 O ice molecules (b) located on lattice points
within the two-dimensional hexagonal space lattice (a). The values for the HOH angle and OH distance have come from
Physics of Ice[2] with uncertainties of 1.5 and 0.005 , respectively. The black box in (c) is the unit cell dened by Bernal
and Fowler.[3]

As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the

spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an
oxygenhydrogen (OH) bond stretch. Compared with
water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener
tint than for liquid water. Since absorption is cumulative, the color eect intensies with increasing thickness
or if internal reections cause the light to take a longer
path through the ice.[10]
Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing
impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather
than the ice itself. For instance, icebergs containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear
brown, grey or green.[10]

the same temperature. Liquid water is densest, essentially

1.00 g/cm, at 4 C and becomes less dense as the water
molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals[5] of ice 1.1
as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen
bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid.
Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm at 180 C (93
K).[6]

Slipperiness

When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9%

for freshwater).[7] The eect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of
freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to
building foundations and roadways from frost heaving. It
is also a common cause of the ooding of houses when
water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water
when it freezes.
The result of this process is that ice (in its most common
form) oats on liquid water, which is an important feature
in Earths biosphere. It has been argued that without this
property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some
cases permanently, from the bottom up,[8] resulting in a
loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh
and sea water. Suciently thin ice sheets allow light to
pass through while protecting the underside from shortterm weather extremes such as wind chill. This creates
a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies.
When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-lled
channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide
food for animals such as krill and specialised sh like the
bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as
emperor penguins and minke whales.[9]

Frozen waterfall in southeast New York

Ice was originally thought to be slippery due to the pressure of an object coming into contact with the ice, melting a thin layer of the ice and allowing the object to glide
across the surface.[11] For example, the blade of an ice
skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a
thin layer, providing lubrication between the ice and the
blade. This explanation, called pressure melting, originated in the 19th century. It, however, did not account
for skating on ice temperatures lower than 4.0 C, which
is often skated upon.
Another, equally old explanation, is that ice is slippery because ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond
with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus
are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These
molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by
any object. However, the signicance of this hypothesis
is disputed by experiments showing a high coecient of
friction for ice using atomic force microscopy.[12]

When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would

take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant
at 0 C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temper- In the 20th century, a further explanation, called friction
ature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that heating, was proposed, whereby friction of the material

2.2

Ice on land and structures

is the cause of the ice layer melting. However, this the- "polynyas" or "leads" or requires the use of a special ship
ory does not suciently explain why ice is slippery when called an "icebreaker".
standing still even at below-zero temperatures.[11]
More recently, a comprehensive theory of ice friction,
2.2
which takes into account all the above-mentioned friction mechanisms, has been presented.[13] This model allows quantitative estimation of the friction coecient of
ice against various materials as a function of temperature
and sliding speed. In typical conditions related to winter
sports and tires of a vehicle on ice, melting of a thin ice
layer due to the frictional heating is the primary reason
for the slipperiness.

Ice on land and structures

Natural formation

Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rain

Ice on land ranges from the largest type called an "ice

sheet" to smaller ice caps and ice elds to glaciers and ice
streams to the snow line and snow elds.
Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic
stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water
table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the
frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water
table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a
Feather ice on the plateau near Alta, Norway. The crystals form stratied ice deposit, often several meters thick.
at temperatures below 30 C (i.e. 22 F).

The term that collectively describes all of the parts of

the Earths surface where water is in frozen form is
the cryosphere. Ice is an important component of the
global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle.
Glaciers and snowpacks are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or
melt. Snowmelt is an important source of seasonal fresh
water. The World Meteorological Organization denes
several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, inuence and so on.[14] Clathrate hydrates are forms of
ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal
lattice.

2.1

Ice on the oceans

Main article: Sea ice

Freezing rain is a type of winter storm called an ice

storm where rain falls and then freezes producing a glaze
of ice. Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in
appearance, or stalagmite-like forms as water drips and
re-freezes.
The term ice dam has three meanings (others discussed
below). On structures, an ice dam is the buildup of ice on
a sloped roof which stops melt water from draining properly and can cause damage from water leaks in buildings.

2.3 Ice on rivers and streams

Ice which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform
and stable than ice which forms on calm water. Ice jams
(sometimes called ice dams), when broken chunks of
ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams
can cause ooding, damage structures in or near the river,
and damage vessels on the river. Ice jams can cause some
hydropower industrial facilities to completely shut down.
An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier
which may produce a proglacial lake. Heavy ice ows in
rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an
icebreaker to keep navigation possible.

Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of drift ice oating in the water, fast ice xed to a shoreline or anchor ice
if attached to the sea bottom. Ice which calves (breaks
o) from an ice shelf or glacier may become an ice berg.
Sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to
form pressure ridges up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall. Navi- Ice discs are circular formations of ice surrounded by wagation through areas of sea ice occurs in openings called ter in a river.

2 NATURAL FORMATION
2.5.1 Rime ice
Rime is a type of ice formed on cold objects when drops
of water crystallize on them. This can be observed in
foggy weather, when the temperature drops during the
night. Soft rime contains a high proportion of trapped
air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and
giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice.
Hard rime is comparatively dense.

2.5.2 Ice pellets

A small frozen rivulet

Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in

areas with less calm conditions.

2.4

See also: Ice pellets

Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small,

Ice on lakes

Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer

spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on
lakes is generally four types: Primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate.[15][16] Primary ice forms rst.
Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction
parallel to the direction of the heat ow. Superimposed
ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water
which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow.
Shelf ice' occurs when oating pieces of ice are driven by An accumulation of ice pellets
the wind piling up on the windward shore.
Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that develops in translucent balls of ice. This form of precipitation is
columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake.
also referred to as sleet by the United States National
Weather Service.[17] (In Commonwealth English sleet
refers to a mixture of rain and snow). Ice pellets are usually smaller than hailstones.[18] They often bounce when
2.5 Ice in the air
they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a
solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR
code for ice pellets is PL.[19]

Ice formation on vehicle windshield

Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 and 3,000 metres (4,900 and 9,800
ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above
and below it. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowakes falling through the warm layer. As
they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the subfreezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the
precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing
rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature prole showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely
to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold
season,[20] but can occasionally be found behind a passing
cold front.

2.5
2.5.3

Ice in the air

Hail

5
Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.[29]

See also: Hail

Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds 2.5.4 Snowakes
Main article: Snowake
Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter

when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with

condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storms
updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud.
The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back
into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[21] Within METAR
code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of
at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for smaller.[19]
Stones just larger than golf ball-sized are one of the most
frequently reported hail sizes.[22] Hailstones can grow to
15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms
(1.1 lb).[23] In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone.
The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the
liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.[24] The
hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger
with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy
to be supported by the storms updraft, it falls from the
cloud.[25]
Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly
those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content,
great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a
good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 C
(32 F).[21] Hail-producing clouds are often identiable
by their green coloration.[26][27] The growth rate is maximized at about 13 C (9 F), and becomes vanishingly
small much below 30 C (22 F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most
common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes,
as hail formation is considerably more likely when the
freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400
m).[28] Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms
over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing
level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to
grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the
tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms
than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the
tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth.

Snowake viewed in an optical microscope

(about 10 m in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able

to remain liquid at temperatures lower than 18 C (255
K; 0 F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet
need to get together by chance to form an arrangement
similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes
around this nucleus. Experiments show that this homogeneous nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at
temperatures lower than 35 C (238 K; 31 F).[30] In
warmer clouds an aerosol particle or ice nucleus must
be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a
nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efcient ice nuclei is poor what we do know is they are
very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on
which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be eective,[31] although to what extent
is unclear. Articial nuclei are used in cloud seeding.[32]
The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor
onto the ice surfaces.

2.5.5 Diamond dust

See also: Diamond dust
So-called diamond dust, also known as ice needles
or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching 40
C (40 F) due to air with slightly higher moisture
from aloft mixing with colder, surface based air.[33] The
METAR identier for diamond dust within international
hourly weather reports is IC.[19]

Production

PRODUCTION

3.1 Ice harvesting

Main article: Ice cutting
Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. In

Harvesting ice on Lake St. Clair in Michigan, c. 1905

B&W lm of 1919 ice harvest at Pocono Manor in the Pocono

Mountains

Ice-harvesting exhibit at Maine State Museum in Augusta, Maine

Once harvested, ice was transported in wagons, such as this one,

restored in 1965 and displayed at the Cole Land Transportation
Museum in Bangor, Maine.

400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered

the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in
the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters
from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in
specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators, called
yakhchal (meaning ice storage). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m) that had thick walls (at
least two meters at the base) made of a special mortar
called srooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime,
goat hair, and ash in specic proportions, and which was
known to be resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was
thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space
often had access to a qanat, and often contained a system
of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days. The
ice was used to chill treats for royalty.
An ice manufacturing plant in East Midnapore, India

There were thriving industries in 16th/17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the Thames Estuary
Ice is now mechanically produced on a large scale, but be- were ooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts
fore refrigeration was developed ice was harvested from and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as
natural sources for human use.
a provision to an icehouse often located in large country

4.1

Sports

houses, and widely used to keep sh fresh when caught in

distant waters. This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had seen the same activity in China. Ice was
imported into England from Norway on a considerable
scale as early as 1823.[34]
In the United States, the rst cargo of ice was sent from
New York City to Charleston, South Carolina in 1799,[34]
and by the rst half of the 19th century, ice harvesting
had become big business. Frederic Tudor, who became
known as the Ice King, worked on developing better
insulation products for the long distance shipment of ice,
especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice
trade.
Ice sailing on the nin Small Lake
Trieste sent ice to Egypt, Corfu, and Zante; Switzerland
sent it to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied
4.1 Sports
from Bavarian lakes.[34] The Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton for
Ice also plays a central role in winter recreation and in
air conditioning.
many sports such as ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey,
Ice houses were used to store ice formed in the winter, bandy, ice shing, ice climbing, curling, broomball and
to make ice available all year long, and early refrigerators sled racing on bobsled, luge and skeleton. Many of the
were known as iceboxes, because they had a block of ice dierent sports played on ice get international attention
in them. In many cities, it was not unusual to have a regu- every four years during the Winter Olympic Games.
lar ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of
A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to ice yachting. The
articial refrigeration technology has since made delivery
human quest for excitement has even led to ice racing,
of ice obsolete.
where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlIce is still harvested for ice and snow sculpture events. For ling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt
example, a swing saw is used to get ice for the Harbin track racing). The sport has even been modied for ice
International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival each year rinks.
from the frozen surface of the Songhua River.[35]

4.2 Other uses

3.2

Commercial production

Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing,
concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged
ice.[36] Most commercial icemakers produce three basic
types of fragmentary ice: ake, tubular and plate, using
a variety of techniques.[36] Large batch ice makers can
produce up to 75 tons of ice per day.[37]

Ice cubes or crushed ice can be used to cool drinks.

As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink
near 0 C (32 F).
Ice can be used to reduce swelling (by decreasing
blood ow) and pain by pressing it against an area
of the body.[39]

Ice production is a large business; in 2002, there were 426

commercial ice-making companies in the United States,
with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000.[38]
For small-scale ice production, many modern home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in icemaker,
which will typically make ice cubes or crushed ice. Standalone icemaker units that make ice cubes are often called
ice machines.

Uses

Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations.

Antarctica

McMurdo Station,

ICE AND TRANSPORTATION

Engineers used the formidable strength of pack ice

when they constructed Antarcticas rst oating ice
pier in 1973.[40] Such ice piers are used during cargo
operations to load and ooad ships. Fleet operations
personnel make the oating pier during the winter.
They build upon naturally-occurring frozen seawater
in McMurdo Sound until the dock reaches a depth
of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers have a lifespan of
three to ve years.
Structures and ice sculptures are built out of large
chunks of ice or by spraying water[41] The structures
are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles), and not practical for long-term habitation. Ice
hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers near McMurdo Station, February
Igloos are another example of a temporary structure, 2002
made primarily from snow.
In cold climates, roads are regularly prepared on
oating ice of lakes and archipelago areas. Temporarily, even a railroad has been built on ice.[41]
During World War II, Project Habbakuk was an
Allied programme which investigated the use of
pykrete (wood bers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to
torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed
by ice. A small-scale prototype was built,[42] but the
need for such a vessel in the war was removed prior
to building it in full-scale.
Ice can be used to start a re by carving it into a lens
which will focus sunlight onto kindling. A re will
eventually start.[43]
Ice has even been used as the material for a variety
of musical instruments, for example by percussionist Warning sign about ice formation on Qubec roads
Terje Isungset.[44]
Ice was once used to cool refrigerators in the 19th
century, which is reected in the name iceboxes.
Ice can be used as part of an air conditioning system.

Ice and transportation

Ice can also be an obstacle; for harbors near the poles,

being ice-free is an important advantage; ideally, all year
long. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland) and Vard (Norway). Harbors
which are not ice-free are opened up using icebreakers.
Ice forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard. Black
ice is very dicult to see, because it lacks the expected
frosty surface. Whenever there is freezing rain or snow
which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is
common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles.
Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up.
Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and

clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long

and laborious process.
Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice
crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This
usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after
being driven for a while, but can happen while driving, if
the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the
drivers breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is
troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often
open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in
order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common
for cars to have rear-window defrosters to solve the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is
one reason why many colder regions require double-pane
windows for insulation.
When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for
extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on
lakes and other bodies of water, although places with
owing water require much colder temperatures. The ice

9
can become thick enough to drive onto with automobiles the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. For
and trucks. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at this reason, aircraft reciprocating engines with carbureleast 30 cm (one foot).
tors are provided with carburetor air intake heaters. The
For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. Spray and increasing use of fuel injectionwhich does not require
freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the super- carburetorshas made carb icing less of an issue for
structure of a vessel sucient to make it unstable, and to reciprocating engines.
require it to be hacked o or melted with steam hoses.
And icebergs large masses of ice oating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have
been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most
famous probably being the Titanic.

Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but recent evidence indicates that they can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by internal icing in certain types of atmospheric
conditions much more easily than previously believed.
In most cases, the engines can be quickly restarted and
ights are not endangered, but research continues to determine the exact conditions which produce this type of
icing, and nd the best methods to prevent, or reverse it,
in ight.

6 Phases
Ice IV redirects here. For the high speed train, see ICE
4.
Ice X redirects here. For other uses, see Icex (disambiguation).
Ice may be any one of the 17 known solid crystalline

Ice formation on window glass of high altitude ying airplane

For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an

aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of dierent
temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely aect the ying qualities
of the aircraft. During the rst non-stop ight across the
Atlantic, the British aviators Captain John Alcock and
Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown encountered such icing conditions Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto
the wing several times to remove ice which was covering
the engine air intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they
were ying.

Pressure dependence of ice melting.

phases of water, or in an amorphous solid state at various

densities.

Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at higher

temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the
molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds
in water make it dierent: For some pressures higher than
1 atm (0.10 MPa), water freezes at a temperature below
0 C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting
is thought to contribute to the
A particular icing vulnerability associated with recipro- of ice under high pressures
[45]
movement
of
glaciers.
cating internal combustion engines is the carburetor. As
air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist at the triple
local air pressure is lowered, which causes adiabatic cool- point, which is exactly 273.16 K (0.01 C) at a presing. So, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carbure- sure of 611.657 Pa.[46][47] The Kelvin is in fact dened as
tor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block 1/273.16 of the dierence between this triple point and

10

REFERENCES

absolute zero).[48] Unlike most other solids, ice is dicult 7 Other ices
to superheat. In an experiment, ice at 3 C was superheated to about 17 C for about 250 picoseconds.[49]
Main article: Volatiles
Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures,
ice can form in sixteen separate known phases. With The solid phases of several other volatile substances are
care all these phases except ice X can be recovered also referred to as ices; generally a volatile is classed as
at ambient pressure and low temperature in metastable an ice if its melting point lies above around 100 K. The
form.[50][51] The types are dierentiated by their crys- best known example is dry ice, the solid form of carbon
talline structure, proton ordering and density. There are dioxide.
also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both
fully hydrogen-disordered; these are IV and XII. Ice XII A magnetic analogue of ice is also realized in some inwas discovered in 1996. In 2006, XIII and XIV were sulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic modiscovered.[52] Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen- ments mimic the position of protons in water ice and
ordered forms of ices I , V, and XII respectively. In 2009, obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler
ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and 143 ice rules arising from the geometrical frustration of the
C.[53] At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to be- proton conguration in water ice. These materials are
come a metal; this has been variously estimated to occur called spin ice.
at 1.55 TPa[54] or 5.62 TPa.[55]
As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous ice (ASW) of varying densities. Water in the interstellar medium is dominated by
amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form
of water in the universe. Low-density ASW (LDA), also
known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for noctilucent clouds on earth and is usually formed
by deposition of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions. High density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice I or LDA at GPa pressures. Veryhigh density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to
160K under 12 GPa pressures.

8 See also

In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice (the predominant

form found on Earth) is extremely rare. Amorphous ice
is more common; however, hexagonal crystalline ice can
be formed via volcanic action.[56]

Ice jacking

Density of ice versus water

Ice age
Iceberg
Ice climbing
Ice famine
Ice hockey

Ice road
Ice sheet
Ice skating

0K
1 TPa

50 K

100 K

1 GPa

Pressure

250 K

Temperature
300 K
350 K

450 K

500 K

550 K

600 K

650 K
10 Mbar

1 Mbar

VII
II

XV
IX

400 K

XI (hexagonal)
X

VIII

100 MPa

10 MPa

200 K

100 K, 62 GPa

100 GPa

10 GPa

150 K

218 K, 620 MPa

248.85 K, 344.3 MPa
238.5 K, 212.9 MPa

Solid

100 kbar

278 K, 2.1 GPa

355.00 K, 2.216 GPa

VI

272.99 K, 632.4 MPa

256.164 K, 350.1 MPa
251.165 K, 209.9 MPa

III

10 kbar

Critical point

Liquid

Sea ice

1 kbar

100 bar

9 References

10 bar

XI

Ic

Ih

(ortho- Freezing point at 1 atm

273.15 K, 101.325 kPa
rhombic)

1 bar

Boiling point at 1 atm

373.15 K, 101.325 kPa

100 mbar

10 kPa

10 mbar

1 kPa

Solid/Liquid/Vapour triple point

273.16 K, 611.657 Pa
100 Pa

1 mbar

Vapour

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University Press, 1999, ISBN 9780198518945

100 bar

10 Pa

1 Pa

Pumpable ice technology

647 K, 22.064 MPa

1 MPa

100 kPa

Jumble ice

-250 C -200 C -150 C -100 C

-50 C

0 C

50 C

100 C

150 C

200 C

250 C

300 C

350 C

10 bar

Log-lin pressure-temperature phase diagram of water. The

Roman numerals correspond to some ice phases listed below.

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0-8493-0486-5.

11

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12

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10

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10 External links

[53] Sanders, Laurua (11 September 2009). A Very Special

Snowball. Science News. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
[54] Militzer, B. and Wilson, H. F. (2010). New Phases
of Water Ice Predicted at Megabar Pressures
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Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105s5701M.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.195701.
PMID
21231184.

The National Snow and Ice Data Center, based in

the United States
The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants
Webmineral listing for Ice
MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice
The physics of ice

13
The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams
'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and water of hydration
Electromechanical properties of ice
Estimating the maximum thickness of an ice layer
Sandias Z machine creates ice in nanoseconds
Amazing ice at Lac Leman
The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice

14

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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11.2

Images

15

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and Anonymous: 1053

11.2

Images

File:AirplaneWindowIce.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/AirplaneWindowIce.jpg License: CC BY

3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Etan Tal
File:Amateur_film_ice_harvest_pocono_manor_1919.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Amateur_
film_ice_harvest_pocono_manor_1919.ogv License: Public Domain Contributors: This le is from the Prelinger Archives,
which released it explicitly into the public domain, using the Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication. Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sze Sze SOO
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Feather_ice_1,_Alta_plateau,_Norway.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Feather_ice_1%2C_
Alta_plateau%2C_Norway.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Craig Thom, South Africa. With permission. JMK 22:42, 18 November 2007 (UTC)
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Frozen_Wappinger_Creek.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Juliancolton
File:Frozen_rivulet_in_Pennsylvania.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Frozen_rivulet_in_
Pennsylvania.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: King jakob c 2
File:Granizo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Granizo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nssl0001.htm (visited 2009-02-12; former: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nssl/nssl0001.htm) Original
artist: nssl0001, National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) Collection
File:Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Ice_Harvesting_on_Lake_St_Clair_Michigan_circa_1905--photograph_
courtesy_Detroit_Publishing_Company.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Ice_Ih_Crystal_Lattice.png License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbuckingham42
File:Ice_cube_Air_entrapment.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Ice_cube_Air_entrapment.JPG
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lusilier
File:Ice_formation_on_vehicle_windshield.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ice_formation_on_
vehicle_windshield.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sb2s3

16

11

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Ice_harvesting_exhibit,_Maine_State_Museum,_Augusta_IMG_1989.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/c/ca/Ice_harvesting_exhibit%2C_Maine_State_Museum%2C_Augusta_IMG_1989.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn
File:Ice_mill.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Ice_mill.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: SupernovaExplosion
File:Ice_on_deciduous_tree.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Ice_on_deciduous_tree.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sb2s3
File:Ice_surfing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Ice_surfing.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Ice_wagon,_Bangor,_ME_IMG_2547.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Ice_wagon%2C_
Bangor%2C_ME_IMG_2547.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn
File:IcebreakerNasa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/IcebreakerNasa.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Melting_curve_of_water.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Melting_curve_of_water.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Qubec_D-320.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Qu%C3%A9bec_D-320.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.mtqsignalisation.mtq.gouv.qc.
ca'>Rpertoire des dispositifs de signalisation routire du Qubec</a> Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg' class='image'><img alt='Logo du le ministre des
Transports du Qubec.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_
des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg/150px-Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg.png'
width='150'
height='35'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_
des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg/225px-Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%
A9bec.svg/300px-Logo_du_le_minist%C3%A8re_des_Transports_du_Qu%C3%A9bec.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1893' data-leheight='443' /></a>
File:Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Sleet_on_the_ground.jpg License: CC
BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Sleet Original artist: mike epp
File:Snowflake_-_Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Snowflake_-_
Microphotograph_by_artgeek.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: snowake 20090115_0730 Original artist: Michael from U.S.A.
File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Plate XIX of Studies among the Snow Crystals ... " by Wilson Bentley, The Snowake Man. From
Annual Summary of the Monthly Weather Review for 1902. Original artist: Wilson Bentley
File:USNS_Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/USNS_
Southern_Cross_at_the_ice_pier_in_1983.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Fishdecoy at en.wikipedia
File:Water_droplet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Water_droplet.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:Wiktionary-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

11.3

Content license

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