Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

Block Diagram Reduction (LO1.3)

Question 1.
+

+
-

G1(s)

G2(s)

G3(s)

+
+

H1(s)

G4(s)

H2(s)

G1G2

+
-

G3 + G4

H1

H2

G1 G2
1G1 G 2 H 1

+
-

H2

G3 + G4

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

G 1 G2(G 3+G 4)
1G1 G2 H 1

H2

G1 G2(G3+G 4 )
1G1 G 2 H 1+G1 G 2 ( G 3+G 4 ) H 2

1(S)

TF= 2(S) =

G1 G2( G3+G 4 )
1G1 G 2 H 1+G1 G 2 ( G 3+G 4 ) H 2

Question 2.
d 1(s )

0(s)
1 (s)

G1(s)

G2(s)

H1(s)

H2(s)

d 2(s )
Utilising superposition:
2

2(S)

.1(S)

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

The block diagram above has 3 inputs and 1 output. To solve the diagram each
input, with the exception of one will equal zero, thus allowing the new circuit to be
reduced.

Inputs

d 1 and

d 2 = 0

0
G1 G 2
=
1 1+G 1G 2 H 1 H 2
Inputs

and

d 2 = 0

0
G2
=
d 1 1G1 G 2 H 1 H 2
Inputs

and

d 1 = 0

0
H 1 G1 G2
=
d 2 1+G 1G 2 H 1 H 2
Now using Laplaces linear relationship each output can be summed together, getting
the total transfer function ( 1 (s) ),
1 (s)=

G 1G 20(s)
G 2d 1(s)
H 1G 1 G2d 2(s)
+
+
1+G 1G 2 H 1 H 2 1G1 G 2 H 1 H 2 1+G 1G 2 H 1 H 2
1 (s)=

G 1G 20(s) G 2d 1(s)
1+ G1 G2 H 1 H 2

H 1G 1G 2d 2 (s)
1G 1G 2 H 1 H 2

Question 3. (LO 1.4)

Different control methods are appropriate to different types of system. The overall
control strategy can be based on analogue or digital techniques (or a mixture).
Instrument systems in modern aircraft display a vast array of information. All this
information comes from various sources and sensors. Sensors deliver an array of
information in many formats, some of which may need converting.
3.1 Digital to analogue converters:
Digital control involves the use of signals and quantities that vary in discrete steps.
Values that fall between two adjacent steps must take one or other value, as
intermediate values are disallowed.
A basic digital to analogue (DAC) has a number of digital inputs, often 8, 10, 12 or 16
and a single analogue output.

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

3.2 Analogue to Digital Converters:

Analogue control involves the use of signals and quantities that are continuously
variable. Within analogue control systems, signals are represented by voltages and
currents that can take any value between two set limits.
The signals required for the operation of electronically-controlled systems utilised in
most aircraft today begin as an analogue input, in the first instance. Analogue inputs
by their nature are continuously changing in value. Some examples of analogue
inputs are, engine operating pressure and temperatures, fuel quantity, heading
change and in an automated flying control system (AFCS), they relate to altitude,
airspeed, and attitude changes of the aircraft.
A basic analogue to digital converter (ADC) has a single input and a number of
digital outputs. Various ADCs are available with uses in different applications,
including multi-channel ADCs with up to 16 analogue inputs.

The accuracy of such devices is quite high, but for modern aircraft systems which
require a greater capacity for data processing, and a faster means of transferring any
corresponding output signals, they are limited in their application. These
requirements are essential for the operation of the modern aircraft. In order for data
signal requirements to be met the signals corresponding to input data are converted
from their changing, or analogue format into a discrete digital coded format.

4. Investigate and analyse an energy flow control system as follows:

4

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

4.1 Draw and appropriately label the general block diagram of an open-loop transfer
system, giving two suitable aircraft examples.

Input
Transducer

Amplifier

Load

LL

Figure 1. Open Loop System

In figure 1 the open loop system shown has no position feedback. This type of
system is totally unsuitable as a precision control system. This type of arrangement
could however be suitable for other systems such as, cabin pressure control. The
motor may be part of an open-loop system for operating a butterfly valve that may
regulate outflow from the aircraft cabin, maintaining pressure at different altitudes.
Another example of an open loop system can be found within an aircraft's cooling
system.
4.2. Draw and appropriately label the general block diagram of a closed-loop transfer
system, giving two suitable aircraft examples.

Velocity Feedback

Input
Transducer

TG

Amplifier

Position Feedback

Load

LL

Output
Transducer

Figure 2. Closed Loop System

The closed system as shown in figure 2 has both velocity and positional feedback
capabilities. The load will continue to be driven by the error signal until the
demanded position is reached. Therefore demonstrating that the closed loop system
is suitable for an aircraft's auto pilot system. The flow volume of used air to be
discharged from an aircraft cabin can also be controlled by a closed-loop system.
4.3. Describe the relative advantages and disadvantages of each of these control
systems.
The most obvious disadvantage of the open loop system is that it lacks the feedback
signals of the closed loop system. Therefore any corrections required would have to
be made manually, inputted by the operator so requiring monitoring and potentially
constant adjustment. This alone can be draw back as even the most experienced of
5

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

operators can make mistakes and without feedback, there is no guarantee that the
control inputs applied to the process will actually have the desired effect. The
principal drawback of an open-loop control is loss of accuracy. Although the lack of a
feedback controller and feedback signal can have its advantages if used on a
suitable system. There are many applications where experienced operators can
make manual corrections faster than a feedback controller can. Using knowledge of
the process' past behaviours, operators can manipulate process inputs now to
achieve the desired output values later. A feedback controller, on the other hand,
must wait until the effects of its latest efforts are measurable before it decides on the
next appropriate control action. Predictable processes with long time constants or
excessive dead time are particularly suited for open-loop manual control.
The biggest/principle advantage of the closed loop system is the feedback
controller/signal. The feedback can for example keep an aircraft on a steady heading
when used within an autopilot system. Every feedback controller has a different
strategy for accomplishing its particular target, but all use some variation on the
closed-loop control algorithm. This algorithm is measure a process variable, decide
if its value is acceptable, apply a corrective effort as necessary, and repeat the whole
operation infinitely. If an error occurs, then:
Error = reference value measured value signal.
However, feedback controllers must operate in the open-loop mode on occasion
should a sensor fail to generate the feedback signal or an operator may take over
the feedback operation to manipulate the controller's output manually. Problems as
mentioned above may then occur with these manual inputs.
4.4. Choose one of your examples of a closed-loop control system and give an indepth analysis as to the function of:
4.4.1. The individual elements.
The example I shall concentrate on is the closed loop system of the Autopilot
system, with the load as the tail rudder. (ref figure 2 closed loop system).
Input transducer: Input Transducers convert a quantity to an electrical signal
(voltage) or to resistance (which can be converted to voltage). Input transducers are
also called sensors.
Error detector: (auto pilot computer) Shown in the system diagram as a x within a
circle, the error detector works by comparing the demand and feedback signals. The
two signals are added together algebraically and the resultant output is used to drive
the motor. In practice the error detection is achieved through a summing junction and
op-amp.
Amplifier: The amplifier is used to amplify the weak electrical signal it receives from
the error detector. Amplification is done by using gain within the component. Gain is
generally calculated by the ratio or the output power to the input power and is
measured in decibels (dB).

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

Tacho Generator (TG): The TG is an electromechanical device which produces a

signal proportional to the speed off rotation. The TG connects to the motor via the
shaft and its role within the system is to prevent a problem called hunting. This is
best explained using an example, the load moves to its demanded position however
it cannot stop exactly at the correct position due to inertia. The load therefore
overshoots causing an error signal so the motor sends the load back the other way, it
again overshoots and the load will fluctuate around the demand position.
Output transducer: This device is connected to the systems motor via a shaft and
provides the error detector with position feedback signals.
Motor: The Motor in this arrangement is connected to a servomechanism which is in
turn connected to the load. The Motor provides the required force to move the
servomechanism which it turn moves the load.
Servomechanism: Used typically to move control surfaces, radar antennae are
used extensively in autopilot and auto-stabiliser systems. In short Servos are used to
move a mechanical load to a desired position with a high degree of accuracy and
using a small control signal. Servos can be implemented in various forms including:
Electrical
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Electro-hydraulic
4.4.2. The system as a whole.
For this lets consider the example of a pilot who has activated a single-axis
autopilot:
The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.
1. However, even in the smoothest air, a wing will eventually dip.
2. Position sensors on the wing detect this deflection and send a signal to the
autopilot computer.
3. The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the wings
are no longer level.
4. The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control the aircraft's
ailerons. The signal is a very specific command telling the servo to make a precise
adjustment.
5. Each servo has a small electric motor fitted with a lip clutch that, through a bridle
cable, grips the aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control surfaces move
accordingly.
6. As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back toward
level.
7. The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on the
wing detects that the wings are once again level.
8. The servos cease to apply pressure on the aileron cables.
7

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

This loop, shown above in the block diagram, works continuously, many times a
second, much more quickly and smoothly than a human pilot could. Two- and threeaxis autopilots obey the same principles, employing multiple processors that control
multiple surfaces. Some aircraft have auto thrust computers to also control engine
thrust.
Autopilot and auto thrust systems can work together to perform very complex
manoeuvres and also alleviating the fatigue placed on pilots.
5. Explain the operation of an aircraft remote position control system.
Autothrottle System.
An autothrottle system is of the computer controlled electro-mechanical type
designed to control the thrust of an aircrafts engines within specific engine design
parameters, the throttle position of each engine is controlled to maintain a specific
value of thrust, in terms of either rotational speed (N1) or engine pressure ratio
(EPR) or, a target speed. Typically, these systems can operate over the full flight
regime from take-off to shut down. It is designed to work primarily in conjunction with
the AFCS to help maintain an aircrafts speed and vertical path, and also a flight
management computer system (FMCS). When an AFCS mode is controlling
airspeed the autothrottle system controls engine thrust to a specific value. When an
AFCS mode is maintaining a vertical path, the autothrottle system maintains
airspeed trough thrust control.
Operating Modes.
The autothrottle system operation is primarily controlled through the mode control
panel (MCP) of the AFCS and the indications of the requisite selections necessary
for arming the system, and operating it in the relevant modes, are presented on the
MCP and on other annunciators. There are basically two modes, take-off and speed
control mode.
Take-off Mode.
As the name suggests, this mode is initiated prior to take off by engaging the FMCS;
the computer which provides the engine rotational speed (N1) limits for each flight
profile, and also an N1 target speed. On activation of this system engagement is
made with servo-actuators which control the throttle position. The Servo-actuators
then advance the thrust levers at a particular rate to the predicted position to obtain
N1 values before a take-off. The advance rate of throttles is 15/s, and the N1 values
are obtained before 60knots. If the speed is exceeded an independent speed
detector circuit interrupts the operation. This causes the system to enter a hold state
and is indicated to the pilot.
The speed detector circuit is also interlocked with microswitches on the main landing
gear shock struts, so that in the event of it failing to perform the hold function, the
microswitches will do so as a result of the aircraft lifting off. The microswitches
circuits also activate timers which will reinstate the control system after a specified lift
time. During this time the aircraft will have climbed to a specific radio altitude. In the
event of an engine failure an additional interlock circuit will be activated. This is
8

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

controlled by altitude. For example, if 400ft is not achieved in the specified time then
it will not allow the throttle servo-actuator to take back control until the required
altitude is obtained. At this stage the systems are armed to control N1 speeds during
the remainder of the climb.
Speed Control Mode
This mode is selected via the MCP of the AFCS. Or it can be automatically selected
by the AFCS when not in speed mode. If vertical navigation (V NAV) is in operation,
then the speed target is provided by the flight management computer and is referred
to as FMC SPD. The autothrottle system is switched to this mode automatically
when a predetermined altitude is reached under V NAV. Airspeed/Mach feedback
signals are provided by the ADC. The autothrottle system limits the airspeed to max
and min safe values independent of the target airspeed values and it also limits the
angle of attack or alpha angle. Minimum airspeed and maximum alpha angle are
computed from signals produced by the flap position and the alpha angle sensors.
When the aircraft begins to descend under V NAV control, the autothrottle system
retards the thrust levers to idle, and this is displayed to the pilot (RETARD). The
retard rate is normally 2/s, this may however be stopped by interrupting the
movement of the thrust levers or allowing them to contact with the idle stops. When
the AFCS captures the glide slope beam, the V NAV mode is disengaged and the
autothrottle system switches to MCP SPD mode.
During the landing flare manoeuvre, the retard rate of thrust reduction is adjusted so
that throttle angle is reduced to idle in 6s. Retard normally occurs at 27ft of radio
altitude. If it is not initiated by radio altitude, it can also occur 1.5s after an automatic
flare. Once the aircraft has landed and the undercarriage shock strut microswitches
are made, the thrust levers are moved aft at 8/s to remove any residual
displacement above the idle position. The autothrottle system is automatically
disengaged after 2s.
Below is a diagram of a typical FMS.

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

6. Describe typical causes of control overshoot and hunting in aircraft system

operation.
The stability of a control system is determined to a large extent by its response to a
suddenly applied signal, or transient. If such a signal causes the system to
overcorrect itself, a phenomenon called hunting may occur in which the system first
overcorrects itself in one direction and then overcorrects itself in the opposite
direction. In an ideal world, responses from control systems would respond and stop
in an ideal response time. Generally, though because of external factors acting on
aircraft this rarely happens. Also because of systems working on a feedback loop
then they require a small amount of overshoot for the input to be recognised. But
because hunting is undesirable, measures are usually taken to correct it.
7. Investigate various damping methods used in aircraft control systems to
control overshoot and hunting, eg. Coulomb and viscous friction damping,
electrical damping and velocity feedback damping.
The most common corrective measure is the addition of damping somewhere in the
system. Damping slows down the system response and avoids excessive
overshoots or overcorrections. Damping can be in the form of electrical resistance in
an electronic circuit, the application of a brake in a mechanical circuit, or forcing oil
through a small orifice as in shock-absorber damping.
Coulomb damping absorbs energy with friction, which converts that kinetic energy
into thermal energy or heat. The Coulomb friction law is associated with two aspects.
Static and kinetic frictions occur in a vibrating system undergoing Coulomb
damping. Static friction occurs when the two objects are stationary or undergoing no
relative motion. For static friction, the friction force F exerted between the surfaces
having no relative motion cannot exceed a value that is proportional to the product of
the normal force N and the coefficient of static friction s.

Kinetic friction occurs when the two objects are undergoing relative motion and they
are sliding against each other. The friction force F exerted between the moving
surfaces is equal to a value that is proportional to the product of the normal force N
and the coefficient of kinetic friction k.

In both of these cases, the frictional force always opposes the direction of motion of
the object. The normal force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the object
and equal to the weight of the object sliding.

10

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

8. Using representative examples from an aircraft automatic flight control

system (autopilot, auto throttle, auto land) and/or engine control unit,
investigate:
8.1. Proportional and integrative control
A good example method for a derivative/integrative and proportional/integrative
control method is the PID controller. P -Proportional, I - Integral, D - Derivative.
These terms describe three basic mathematical functions applied to the error signal,
V error = Vset - Vsensor. This error represents the difference between where you
want to go (Vset), and where you're actually at (Vsensor). The controller performs
the PID mathematical functions on the error and applies their sum to a process
(motor, heater, etc.). I'll explain the three components (proportional, integral, and
derivative) of a PID controller next.
Proportional
All three components of the PID algorithm are driven by the difference between the
process value (i.e. the current speed) and the reference point (i.e. the target speed.)
We will call this difference error) for one particular time step:
en
For that same time step, we call the process value:
yn
and the reference point:
rn
Therefore:
e n=r n y n
The output value is:
un
The proportional component simply calculates the output value, based on the error
term by multiplying it by a constant term, so we get:
un=k p en
For simple situations, this all by itself can be a very effective control algorithm.
Typically this works best when you know that when both the error and output value =
0. For example, imagine a simple wing leveller in an aircraft. The process value is
going to be bank angle, the reference point is going to be zero (zero bank angle
means the wings are level). Assume a well-trimmed aircraft with neutral stability so
that when the ailerons are zero there is no change in bank. A proportional only
control would set the aileron deflection inversely proportional to the bank angle. As
the bank angle gets closer to zero, the aileron deflection gets closer to zero.

11

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

Something as simple as this (a formula with one multiply operation) can be an

amazingly effective and stable controller.
Integral
Even in the case of a simple wing leveler, you encounter situations where the aircraft
isn't perfectly trim and zero aileron deflection does not always equal zero roll motion.
In an aircraft such as a Cessna 172, the amount of aileron deflection needed to keep
the wing level can vary with speed. In these cases, a proportional only controller will
stabilize out quickly, but will stabilize to the wrong value. We need a way to drive the
error in the proportional only controller to zero.
Enter the Integral component of the PID algorithm. Integral refers to the area under a
curve. If you have a function, the integral of that function produces a second function
which tells you the area under curve of the first function. At each time step we know:
en
Which is the difference between the process value and the reference point. If we
multiply this distance times:
dt
(The time step) we get an area which approximates the error under the curve just for
this time step. If we add these areas up over time, we get a very reasonable
approximation of the area under the curve. Essentially what this does is that the
longer time passes with us not at our target value, the larger the sum of the error
becomes over time. If we use this sum to push our output value (i.e. our accelerator
position) then the longer we don't quite hit our target speed, the further the system
pushes the accelerator pedal. Over time, the integral component compensates for
the error in the proportional component and the system stabilizes out at the desired
speed
Derivative
The derivative of a function implies the rate of change of the function output. If you
know the function, you can take the derivative of that function to produce a second
function. For any point in time, the derivative function will tell you the rate of change
(or slope) of the first function. Conceptually, this makes sense in the context of a
controller. How quickly we are closing on our target value (i.e. the rate of change
from each time step to the next) is an important piece of information that can help us
build a more stable system that more quickly achieves the target value. For an
Aircraft's cruise control, we are measuring velocity at each time step. The rate of
change of velocity is defined as acceleration.
8.2. analogue/digital hybrid control
Hybrid Systems are systems that have both analogue and digital components.
Devices called samplers are used to convert analogue signals into digital signals,
and Devices called re-constructors are used to convert digital signals into analogue

12

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

signals. Because of the use of samplers, hybrid systems are frequently called
sampled-data systems.
Hybrid systems are generally understood as reactive systems that intermix discrete
and continuous components. The discrete part of the system makes the decision for
the whole system to switch to another set of control rules if conditions are
favourable. The continuous part as a result works according to the new rules. As to
make the above idea more concrete, let us discuss the case of an aircraft control
system. An autopilot system may have climbing, descending and level flight modes,
in which different control laws are used. The logic decision-making unit chooses the
mode automatically (the pilot can override this). There are a lot more examples such
as computers, manufacturing production and power stations which are designed to
select, control and supervise the behaviour of the continuous components. Also the
potential applications for hybrid systems are vast, as most of today's control systems
use computers, and even consumer electronics use software to control physical
processes.
A good system which demonstrates The integration of analogue and digital systems
is the automatic landing system of an aircraft. In order to achieve a safe landing an
aircraft has to be controlled so that it wheels make contact with ground safely. This
should be within a paved surface of the runway, within fairly narrow longitudinal
limits. The speed of touch-down should be reduced on the approach, preventing
stall. Finally, the wings are required to be level, and the aircraft yawed to bring its
longitudinal axis parallel to the runway.
Control of the aircraft is needed about all three axes simultaneously, as well as the
control of the airspeed through engine power management. This is why the landing
phase of a flight is the most demanding part of flying. Added to this is the large
percentage of accidents that occur during this phase. Accident rate statistics figure
largely in the development of automated landing systems. In the UK a minimum
reliability figure is applied at a value of 1 in 107 . This means that a system should
not cause a fatal accident more often than one in ten million landings.
The control function during the approach and landing is required on a highly
repetitive basis, and although it is controlling numerous parameters it is only required
for a relatively short period of time.

8.3. system response to control methods.

Autopilot systems control the attitude, heading, navigation and speed for the aircraft
as a way of alleviating the workload of the pilot. The ability of the system is derived
from control circuits that monitor the current status of the system, the history of the
system and the proposed future changes to the system. This process follows a
mathematical algorithm. We have previously described this type of system above,
and as we know this known as a PID system.

13

Unit 82

Aircraft System Principles and Applications

Craig Jones

On aircraft many systems are controlled by PID controllers, enabling autonomous

action. System though will respond to inputs from many factors. Computers will
adjust systems depending on feedback it receives.
In a helicopter autorotation system, it senses the blade droop and will automatically
speed up or reduce the speed of the blades as required. This can be the result of
many changes, air density, wind, weight and speed. The control system will sense
the changes in these variables and adjust the rotation as required. For a pilot to do
this for a length of time would prove tiring and cause undue fatigue.
That system used in the helicopter is very similar to a conventional fixed wing
aircraft. Systems have to make adjustments for changes in airflow and turbulence to
name just a few. In a fast jet aircraft fine control movements would be continuously
required to maintain height etc. You also have to take in to account the changes in
CofG if dropping ordinance. These sort of adjustments at high speed would mean
huge amounts of concentration, causing massive fatigue.
The control systems of a modern aircraft react continuously to inputs from various
sources as mentioned. A deflection in a flying control must be corrected if needed by
a system. Modern systems reduce fatigue and improve flight safety.

14