Types of Ethical Violations: Violating Disclosure agreements,Misrepresenting results, Breaking

participant confidentiality, Deceiving people, using invoicing irregularities, Avoiding legal

liability.Components of IC:Identify researchers,Describe survey topic,Describe target sample,Identify
sponsor,Describe purpose of research,Promise anonymity and confidentiality,Give good-faith
estimate of required time commitment,State participation is voluntary,State item-non response is
acceptable,Ask for permission Effective Codes of Ethics: Regulate,Protect,Enforceable,Specify
Behavior.

A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous

events, objects, conditions, or situations. A construct is a definition specifically invented to represent
an abstract phenomena for a given research project. A conceptual scheme is the interrelationship
between concepts and constructs.An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific
measurement and testing criteria.A variable is used as a synonym for the construct being studied. A
proposition is a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false.A
hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing.A theory is a set of systematically
interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict
phenomena. A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system

Moderating variables are variables that are believed to have a significant contributory or contingent
effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship. Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as
a moderating variable depends on the hypothesis. Extraneous Variables(Independent variables that
are not related to purpose of study but may affect the dependent variable are extraneous or
confounding variables) Extraneous variables are variables that could conceivably affect a given
relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables or assumed or excluded
from the study. If an extraneous variable might confound the study, the extraneous variable may be
introduced as a control variable to help interpret the relationship between variables. An intervening
variable (IVV) is a factor that affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or
manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV. (A
Mediating variable (IVV) comes to stage when the independent variable influences the dependent
variable indirectly)

Structure of the research proposal: Title,Executive Summary,Problem statement,Research

Objectives,Literature Review,Importance and Benefits of the Study,Research Design,Data
Analysis,Nature & form of Results,Qualification of Researchers,Budget,Schedule,Facilities & Special
Resources,Project Management,Bibliography,Appendix

Types of Variables: For the purposes of data entry and analysis, we assign numerical values to a
variable based on that variables properties. Dichotomous variables have only two values that reflect
the absence or presence of a property. Variables also take on values representing added categories
such as demographic variables. All such variables are said to be discrete since only certain values are
possible. Continuous variables take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. A
strong hypothesis should fulfill three conditions: Adequate for its purpose,Testable, Better than its
rivals.

Clarifying the Research Question,Proposing Research,Designing the Research Project, Data Collection
and Preparation(Data may be characterized by their Abstractness, (data is metaphorical than
real)Verifiability,Elusiveness, and ClosenessTo the phenomenon.), Data Analysis and Interpretation,
(Reducing data to manageable size,Developing summaries,Looking for patterns,Applying statistical
techniques) Reporting the Results. The executive summary consists of a synopsis of the problem,
findings, and recommendations.The overview of research explains the background, exploratory
findings from secondary data, the research design and procedures, and the conclusions.The
implementation strategies section expands on recommendations.A technical appendix contains all the
materials necessary to replicate the project.

S.R Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain.Argument allows us
to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning. There are two types of argument:
deduction and induction.Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily
follow from the premises given. Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or
more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Reliability = dependability; consistency; repeatability
(Repeated use of the measure with identical subjects yields identical and consistent results. It is
improved by:Clear conceptualization,Precise measurement,Multiple indicators,Pilot-testing) Validity =
accuracy; truthfulness; the degree of match between the construct or the way it is conceptualized or
defined(Specifically, measurement validity Measures are valid for a single purposeThree types of
validity:Faceas judged by others or by logic,Contentcaptures the entire ,meaning of the
experience,Criterionagrees with a validates, reliable external source:Concurrent, agrees with a
preexisting measure Predictive, agrees with a future behavior or outcome)

LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

NOMINAL

ORDINAL

INTERVAL

RATIO

EXAMPLES

Names of activities,
locations, gender

Ranks, preferences

Attitude scales,

Length of stay,
income, age

PROPERTIES

Identity
(equivalence)

Identity, magnitude
(relativity)

Identity, magnitude,
equal intervals

Identity, magnitude,
equal intervals, true
zero

MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Count (frequency)

Rank order

Rank order, add,

subtract, average

Rank order, add,

subtract, average,
multiply, divide

TYPE OF DATA

Nominal

Ranks

Scale

Scores

TYPES OF COMPARISONS

A is not equal/equal
to B

A is less
than/greater than

A is three units
more/less than B

A is twice as
large/small as B