Safety

requirements
 Do not wear loose garments in the workshop.
 One must know how to start electrical equipment and how to stop it.
 Before working on electrical system, the main switch and specific switch for the particular
system must be known.
 Electrical connecting cable should not be left loose, it may cause failure of supply or shorting.
 Ensure the cable condition, its connecting points, should be correct and properly connected.
 In dc circuit positive and negative points must be marked and proper connection is given.
 Ensure for security of mounting of the equipment and suitable cables, etc.
 Check for visual defect of any component before energising it.
 Ensure that after utilising the electrical circuit, the main switch must be put off, if not
required.
 First aid box must be available.
 All electrical tools must be maintained in a fit and safe condition.
 The handless hammers, files and screw drivers should be of approved length and made of
hard wood.
 Each tools should be used only for the work it is intended for. Electrical tools fitted with
insulating handles serve as a main protective measure for working on live parts with voltages
up to 1000 Volts.
 Tools must be inspected for fitness once in a six months. The handles of the above tools must
be smooth and be made from a tough and moisture resistance insulating material free from
cracks.
 In case of electric shock, rush the victim to the nearest available doctor.
 All cables in an electrical installation are to be of highly insulated preferably of vulcanised
rubber insulated type. It should be taped and braided or protected with tough and braided
rubber compound.
 Joints are to be as few as possible and must be mechanically and electrically sound.
 All single pole switches must be fitted in the live wire only.
 Careful attention must be given to plugs, sockets and lamp holders.
 Plug pins should be kept clean and free from oxidation.

Earthing is of vital importance for safety from electrical shock. It provides protection of
connecting to earth the parts of electrical equipment which normally operates without any
potential. It does this through an earthing system or electrodes are buried or directly driven in
contact with the soil. The earthing system or electrodes are needed to ensure intimate electrical
contact with the soil. Earthing safe all metallic parts of electrical equipment (frames) and
enclosure of electrical machines, switch-gear operating mechanism, switch board frame works,
metal cable sheets, which must not operate at an electrical potential but which can become
alive because of a failure in the insulation. 3-pin plugs and sockets with proper pins connected
to earth are only to be used in the workshop. Isolate the branch of wiring by pulling out CB/ Fuse
and switches before commencing working on the branch. In case of electrical fire do not use
water to extinguish the fire. Isolate the wire and use Halon/ CTC fire extinguisher.

Electron
theory
Matter is anything that occupies space. It is universally accepted that matter is composed of
molecules, which in turn are composed of atoms. The smallest particle into which any compound
can be divided and still retains its identity is called a molecule. An atom is the smallest possible
particle of an element. An element is a single substance that cannot be separated into different
substances except by nuclear disintegration. There are more than 100 elements some of which
are radio active. Some of the common elements are iron, O2, H2, Al, Cu, Pb, Gold, Silver and so
on. The smallest division of any of these elements will still have the properties of that element.
A compound is a chemical combination of two or more different elements, and the smallest
possible particle of a compound is a molecule. An atom consists of infinitesimal particles of
energy known as electrons, protons and neutrons. All matter consists of two or more of these
basic components. The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has one electron and one
proton. Oxygen has eight protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons. The protons and neutrons from
the nucleus of the atom. Protons have positive charges and the electrons negative charges.
When the charges of the nuleus is equal to the combined charges of the electrons, athe atom is
neutral. But if the atom has the shortage of electrons, it will be positively charged, called

1
negative ion. The protons remain in the atom, only the electrons are removed or added to an
atom.

These tiny elementry particles of matter are similar to tiny solar systems with a nucleus
consisting of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons. Negatively charged electrons
circle the nucleus and are held to it by a strong arrractive force. The centrifugal force of the
spinning electron exactly balances this force of attraction, and the atom is considered
balanced.The protons and the neutrons provide the weight of the atom and its positive charge.
The negative electrical charges of the electrons exactly balance the positive charges of the
protons, but the mass of the proton is 1847 times that of electron. Since they have the same
charge, the electron has to be much larger. The diameter of an electron is about 1800 times
that of a proton. For example, a Copper atom has 29 electrons, but only one on its outer shell,
movement of this electron is called current flow. The electrons move around the nucleus in
round or elliptical paths formins an imagenary shell. When an atom has more than 2 electrons it
must have more than one shell or orbit, since the first shell can accommodate only 2 electrons.
The no. of shells in an atom depends upon total no. of electrons surrounding the nucleus.
Certain elements, like metal are known a sconductors because give up or receive electrons
easily. The electrons that move from one a atom to another are called free electrons. Free
electrons randomly drift through the atoms of any conductor. But when these free electrons
move in the same direction due to a potential difference a current flow is created. The
outermost orbit is known as valence orbit, and the electtons belonging to this orbit are known as
valence electrons. The fewer valence electrons in an atom, the easier it will accept extra
electrons. Atom with fewer than half of theit valence electrons tend to easily accept (carry) the
moving electrons of an electric current flow. Such materials are called conductors. Materials
with more than half of their valence electrons are called insulators. Insulators will not easily
accept extra electrons. Materials with exactly half of their valence electrons are semiconductors.
2 best conductors are gold and silver, their valence orbit is nearly empty (one each). But 2
insulators, neon and helium, they have full volume orbits. Common conductors are Cu and Al,
common insulators are air, plastic fibre glass, rubber. Common semiconductors are germanium
and silicon (4 valence electrons each), Less than 4 valence electrons-conductors, more than 4
valence electrons-insulators.

Static electricity-The study of the behavior of static electricity is called electrostatics. The
word static means stationary or at rest, and the electric charges that are at rest are called static
electricity. A material with atoms containing equal nos. of electrons and protons is electrically
neutral. If the no. of electrons should increase or decrease, the material is left with a static
charge. An excess of electrons creates a negatively charged body. This excess or deficiency of
electrons can be used by the friction between the two dissimilar substances or by contact bya
neutral body and charged body. If friction produces the static charge, the nature of the charge is
determined by the types of substances. Following chart is known as electric series and the list is
so arranged that each substance is positive in rotation to anyone that follow it, when the two are
in contact. (Fur, Flannel, Ivory, Crystals, Glass, Cotton, Silk, Eather, The body, Wood, Metals,
Sealing wax, Resins, Gutta percha, Gun cotton). If for example, a glass rod is rubbed with fur,
the rod becomes negatively charged, but if it rubbed with silk, it becomes positively charged.
The force that is created between two charged bodies is called the electrostatic force.The
electrostatic charge between those two charged bodies is inversely propotional to square of the
distance between those two bodies. That is, as the distance becomes twice as large between
the bodies, the electrostatic force is one fourth as great. As well as across certain types of
automobile seat covers with our clothing being of synthetic materials, as we slide across the
seats, we assume a charge d ifferent from that the seat. Both the seats and our clothes are poor
conductors & there will be little tendency for these charges to neutralize until we reach for the
door handle, then we get a good zap as the electrons flow between the handle and our hand.
Static charges on a/c control surfaces have been a source of radio noise for years and various
steps have been adopted this interferences. A conductive bonding braid is attached between all
movable control surfaces and the main portion of the a/c structure. Static charge from the air
passing over the surface will not have to build up enough to bridge the gap through the more
poorly conductive hinges, but will neutralize through the braids. Another method of neutralizing
static electricity is the lightning which occurs in electrical storms. The motion of air creates
charged conditions among the clouds. These charges build up into values of thousands of volts
and eventually become so strong they jump from cloud to cloud or between the cloud and
ground. A larger or smoother surface of the aircraft, more electrons will be stored for a given
pressure. It is for this reason that static electricity into the air before it can build up enough
quantity to cause radio interferance. The sharp points of the dischargers concentrate the
electrical stress enough to discharge the surface at a relatively low voltage.

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By friction-In this method, electrons in an insulator can be separated by the work of rubbing to
produce opposite charges that remain in the dielectric. Examples of how static electricity can be
generated include combing the hair, walking across a carpeted room or sliding two pieces of
plastic across each other. An electrostatic discharge (ESD) occurs when one of the charged
objects comes into contact with another dissimilarly charged object. The electrostatic discharge
is in the form of a spark. The current from the discharge lasts for only a very short time but can
be very large.

From chemical energy-Wet or dry cells and batteries are the applications. Here a chemical
reaction produces opposite charges on two dissimilar metals, which serve as the negative and
positive terminals.

Electromagnetism-Electricity and magnetism are closely related. Any moving charge has an
associated magnetic field, also, any changing magnetic field can produce current. A motor is an
example of how current can react with a magnetic field to produce motion, a generator
produces voltage by means of a conductor rotating in a magnetic field.

Photo electricity-Some materials are photoelectric, that is, they can emit electrons when light
strikes the surface. The element Caesium is often used as a source of photoelectrons. Also,
photovoltaic cells or solar cells use silicon to generate output voltage from the light input. In
another effect, the resistance of the element Selenium changes with light. When this is
combined with a fixed voltage source, wide variations between dark current and light current
can be produced. Such characteristics are the basis of many photo- electric devices, including
television camera tubes, photoelectric cells, and phototransistors.

Thermal emission-Some materials when heated can "boil off" electrons from the surface. Then
these emitted electrons can be controlled to provide useful applications of electric current. The
emitting electrode is called a cathode, an anode is used to collect the emitted electrons.

Emf & Potential difference-Electro motive force or potential of a body is the work done in
joules to bring a unit electric charge from infinity to the body. If an excess of electrons with a
negative charge exist at one end of a conductor and a deficiency of electrons with a positive
charge at the other, an electrostatic field exists between the two charges. Electrons are repelled
from the negatively charged point and are attracted by the positively charged point. The flow of
electrons (Charge on an electron= 1.6 x 10-19C, 1 Coulomb= 6.28 x 1018 electrons) from a
negative point to a positive point is called an electric current, this current flows because of a
difference in electric pressure between the two points. The force that causes the movement of
electron from a point of excess electrons to a point deficient in electron is the potential
difference or the electromotive force. The unit of measurement of e.m.f or potential difference is
the volt.

Current-An electric current is the result of the movement of electrons through a conductor.
Since, a negatively changed body has an excess of electrons and a positively charged body a
deficiency of electrons thus the electrons flow will be form the negatively charged body to the
positively charged body when the two are connected by a conductor. It can be therefore said
that electricity flows from negative to positive. Since current is the movement of charge, the
unit for stating the amount of current is defined as the rate of flow of charge. When the charge
moves at the rate of 6.25x1018 electrons flowing past a given point per second, the value of
current is one ampere, this is the same as one coulomb of charge per second.

The electric charges that are at rest set up static electricity. Static electricity can be produced
by contact, friction or induction. As an example of the friction method, a glass rod rubbed with
fur becomes negatively charged, but if rubbed with silk, becomes positively charged. Some
material that build up static electricity easily are silk, hard rubber and glass. The force created
between two charged bodies is called the electrostatic force. This force can be attractive or
repulsive, depending on the object’s charge. Like charges repel each other, unlike charges
attract each other. Charge on a hollow sphere, which is made of conducting material, shows the
inner surface is neural. This phenomenon is used to safeguard operating personnel of the large
Van de Graff generators used for atom-smashing. The safest area for the operators is inside the
large sphere, where millions of volts are being generated. Static interference in the aircraft
communication systems and the static charge created by the aircraft’s movement through the
air are examples of problems created by static electricity. Parts of the aircraft must be bonded
or joined together to provide a low-resistance or easy path for static discharge, and radio parts
must be shielded. Static charges must be considered in the refuelling of the aircraft to prevent

3
possible igniting of the fuel, and provision must be made to ground the aircraft structure, either
by static-conducting tires or by a grounding wire.

Resistance-The property of a conductor of electricity that limits or restricts the flow of electric
current. Resistance may also be termed as electrical friction because it affects the movement of
electricity in a manner similar to the effect of friction on mechanical objects. The unit to
measure resistance is the Ohm. The reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance and is a
measurement of the ease with which the current will flow through a substance. The unit
conductance is Mho or Siemens.

Fuse & Current limiter-A fuse is a strip of metal that will melt when current in excess of its
carefully determined capacity flows through it. The fuse is installed in the circuit so that all the
current in the circuit passes trough it. In most fuses, the strip of metal is made of an alloy of tin
and bismuth. Other fuses are made of copper and are called current limiters, these are used
primarily to sectionalise an aircraft circuit. A fuse melts and breaks the circuit when the current
exceeds the rated capacity of the fuse, but a current limiter will stand a considerable overload
for a short period of time. Since the fuse is intended to protect the circuit, it is quite important
that its capacity match the needs of the circuit in which it is used. When a fuse is replaced, the
applicable manufacturer's instructions should be consulted to be sure a fuse of the correct type
and capacity is installed. Fuses are installed in two type fuse holders in aircraft. "Plug-in holders"
are used for small type and low capacity fuses. "Clip" type holders are used for heavy high
capacity fuses and current limiters.

Circuit breaker-A circuit breaker is designed to break the circuit and stop the current flow
when the current exceeds a predetermined value. It is commonly used in place of a fuse and
may sometimes eliminate the need for a switch. A circuit breaker differs from a fuse in that it
"trips" to break the circuit and it may be reset, while a fuse melts and must be replaced. There
are several types of circuit breakers in use in aircraft systems. One is a magnetic type. When
excessive current flows in the circuit, it makes an electromagnet strong enough to move a small
armature which trips the breaker. Another type is the thermal overload switch or breaker. This
consists of a bimetallic strip which, when it becomes overheated from excessive current, bends
away from a catch on the switch lever and permits the switch to trip open. Most circuit breakers
must be reset by hand. When the circuit breaker is reset, if the overload condition still exists,
the circuit breaker will trip again to prevent damage to the circuit.

Thermal protector-A thermal protector or switch is used to protect a motor. It is designed to

open the circuit automatically whenever the temperature of the motor becomes
excessively high. It has two positions open and closed. The most common use for a
thermal switch is to keep a motor from overheating. If a malfunction in the motor
causes it to overheat. the thermal switch will break the circuit intermittently. The
thermal switch contains a bimetallic disk or strip, which bends and breaks the circuit
when it is heated. This occurs because one of the metals expands more than the other
when they are subjected to the same temperature. When the strip or disk cools the
metals contract and the strip returns to its original position and closes the circuit.

Relays-Relays, or relay switches, are used for remote control of circuits carrying heavy
currents. A relay is connected in the circuit between the unit controlled and the nearest source
of power (or power bus bar) so that the cables carrying heavy current will be as short as
possible. A relay switch consists of a coil, or solenoid, an iron core, and both fixed and movable
contacts. A small wire connects one of the coil terminals (which is insulated from the housing) to
the source of power through a control switch usually located in the cockpit. The other coil
terminal is usually grounded to the housing. When the control switch is closed, an
electromagnetic field is set up around the coil. In one type of relay switch, an iron core is fixed
firmly in place inside the coil. When the control switch is closed, the core is magnetized and
pulls a soft iron armature towards it, closing the main contacts. The contacts are spring-loaded
to the open position. When the control switch is turned off, the magnetic field collapses and the
spring opens the contacts. In another type of relay switch, part of the core is movable. A spring
holds the movable part a short distance away from the fixed part. When the coil is energised,
the magnetic field tries to pull the movable part of the coil. This pull overcomes the spring
tension. As the core moves inward, it brings the movable contacts, which are attached to but
insulated from it, down against the stationary contacts. This completes the main circuit. When
the control switch is turned off, the magnetic filed collapses and the spring returns the movable
core to its initial position, opening the main contacts. Relays vary in constructional details
according to their intended use. When selecting a relay to be installed in a circuit, make sure it
is designed for the job it is intended to do. Some relay switches are made to operate
4
continuously, while others are designed to operate only intermittently. The starter-relay switch
is made to operate intermittently and would overheat if used continuously. The battery-relay
switch can be operated continuously because its coil has a fairly high resistance which prevents
overheating. In a circuit carrying a large current, the more quickly the circuit is opened the less
it will arc at the relay and the less the switch contacts will be burned. Relays used in circuits
with large motors have strong return springs to open the circuit quickly. Most of the relays used
in a.c circuitry of an aircraft are energised by d.c. current.

Solenoid-A coil of wire conductor with more than one turn is generally called a solenoid. An
ideal solenoid, however, has a length much greater than its diameter. Like a single loop,
the solenoid concentrates the magnetic field inside the coil and provides opposite
magnetic poles at the ends. These effects are multiplied, however, by the number of
turns as the magnetic field lines aid each other in the same direction inside the coil.
Outside the coil, the field corresponds to a bar magnet with north and south poles at
opposite ends.

Thermocouples-When two metals having different work functions are placed together, a
voltage is generated at the junction which is nearly proportional to the temperature. The
junction is called a thermocouple. This principal is used to convert heat energy to electrical
energy at the junction of two conductors The e.m.f produced is proportional to the temperature
and hence to the r.m.s. value of the current. Therefore the scale of a permanent magnet moving
coil instrument can be calibrated to read this current. The thermocouple type of instruments can
be used for both d.c & a.c applications. The most attractive feature of thermocouple instruments
is that they can be used for measurements of current and voltage even at very high
frequencies.

Switches-Switches control the current flow in most aircraft electrical circuits. A switch is used
to start, to stop or to change the direction of the current flow in the circuit. The switch
in each circuit must be able to carry the normal current of the circuit and must be
insulated heavily enough for the voltage of the circuit. Knife switches are seldom used
on aircraft. They are included here to simplify the operation of the toggle switch. Toggle
switches operate much the same as knife switches, but their moving parts are
enclosed. They are used in aircraft circuits more than any other kind of switch. Toggle
switches, as well as some other type of switches are designated by the number of
poles, throws and positions they have. A pole of a switch is its movable blade or
contactor. The number of poles is equal to the number of circuits or paths for current
flow that can be completed through the switch at any one time. The throw of a switch
indicates the number of circuits, or paths for current, that it is possible to complete
through the switch with each pole or contactor. The number of positions a switch has is
the number of places at which the operating device (toggle, plunger etc.) will come to
rest and at the same time open or close one or more circuits.

A toggle switch that is spring-loaded to the OFF position and must be held in the ON position to
complete the circuit is a momentarily contact two-position switch. One that will come to rest of
two positions, opening the circuit in one position and closing it in another, is a two-position
switch. A toggle switch that will come to rest at any one of the three positions is a three-position
switch. A switch that stays open, except when held in the closed position, is a normally open
switch (usually identified as NO). One that stays closed, except when it is held in the open
position is a normally closed switch (NC). Both kinds are spring-loaded to their normal position
and will return to that position as soon as they are released. When it is possible to complete only
one circuit through a switch, the switch is a single-pole-single-throw (SPST) switch. A single-pole
switch through which two circuits can be completed (not at the same time) is a single-pole-
double-throw (SPDT) switch.

Single Pole Single Single Pole Double Single Pole Single Single Pole Double
Throw Knife Switch Throw Knife Switch Throw Toggle Switch Throw Toggle Switch

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A switch with two contactors, or poles, each of which completes only one circuit, is a double-
pole-single-throw (DPST) switch. A double-pole switch that can complete circuits, one circuit at a
time through each is a double-pole-double-throw (DPDT) switch.

Double Pole Single Double Pole Double Single Pole Single Double Pole Double
Throw Knife Switch Throw Knife Switch Throw Toggle Switch Throw Toggle Switch
A switch must be capable to carry a greater load than the nominal running load of the circuit in
which it is installed. Accordingly, derating factors are applied in determining the capacity of a
switch for a particular installation. The derating factor is a multiplier which is used to establish
the capacity a switch should have in order to control a particular type of circuit without damage.

Nominal system voltage Type of load Derating factor

24 Lamp 8
24 Inductive 4
24 Resistive 2
24 Motor 3
12 Lamp 5
12 Inductive 2
12 Resistive 1
12 Motor 2

Push-button switches-Push-button switches have one stationary contact and one movable
contact. The movable contact is attached to the push button. The push button is either an
insulator itself or is insulated from the contact. The switch is spring-loaded and designed for
momentary contact.

Micro-switches- A micro-switch will open or close a circuit with a very small movement of the
tripping device. These are usually push-button switches. They are used primarily as limit
switches to provide automatic controls of landing gear, actuator motors, and the like. When the
operating plunger is pressed in, the spring and the movable contact are pushed, opening the
contacts and the circuit.

Rotary selector switch-A rotary selector switch takes the place of several switches. When the
knob of the switch is rotated, the switch opens one circuit and closes another. Ignition switches
and voltmeter selector switches are typical examples of this kind of switch.

Rotary Selector Switch

Switches should always be installed in panels so the lever will be moved up or forward to turn
the circuit on. For switches which operate movable parts of the aircraft, the switch should be
installed so the switch lever is moved in the same direction that the aircraft part will be moved.
The landing gear switch should be installed so the switch lever will be moved down to lower the
landing gear and up to raise the gear. The same principle should apply for using flap operation.

Capacitor & Capacitive reactance- A capacitor, sometimes called a condenser, is a device

that stores electrical energy in the electrostatic fields that exist between two conductors that
are separated by an insulator, or a dielectric. The capacitance is directly proportional to area of
the plates & the dielectric constant & is inversely proportional to the distance between the
plates. The unit of capacitance is Farad. The capacitive reactance is the resistance offered by a
capacitor to alternating current. This is expressed as X c=1/(2πfC), where f is the frequency & C
is the capacitance in Farad. The unit of capacitive reactance is ohm.

6
Inductor & Inductive reactance- Inductance is the ability of a conductor to induce a voltage
into itself when a change in current is applied to the inductor. The inductance of a single straight
wire is usually negligible. However, if the wire is wound into a coil, the inductance value
increases significantly. This is due to the relatively strong magnetic field produced by the
conductor flowing through the coil of wire. It is the increase or decrease of this magnetic field
that produces the coil's inductance. The inductance of a coil is measured in a unit called the
Henry (H). One Henry is the inductance of a coil, when a change of current of one ampere peer
second will induce an e.m.f of one volt. The symbol for inductance is the letter L. The Henry is
too large a unit for most applications, and so a smaller unit called the millihenry is used. The
faster the current changes, the higher the induced voltage because when the flux moves at a
higher speed, it can induce more voltage. Since inductance is a measure of induced voltage, the
amount of inductance has an important effect in any circuit in which the current changes.

The inductance is an additional characteristic of the circuit besides its resistance. The
characteristics of inductance in –

AC circuits-Here the current is continuously changing and producing induced voltage. Lower
frequencies of alternating current require more inductance to produce the same amount of
induced voltage as a higher- frequency current. The current can have any waveform, as long as
the amplitude is changing.

DC circuits-in which the current changes in value-It is not necessary for the current to reverse
direction. One example is a dc circuit being turned on or off. When the direct current is changing
between zero and its steady value, the inductance affects the circuit at the time of switching.
This effect with a sudden change is called the transient response. A steady direct current that
does not change in value is not affected by inductance, however, because there can be no
induced voltage without a change in current. The effect of inductance in an ac circuit is called
inductive reactance, and is measured in ohms because it resists the flow of current in the
circuit.

Inductive reactance is the opposition to current flow created by inductors in an ac circuit. The
inductive reactance in a circuit is proportional to the inductance of the circuit and the frequency
of the alternating current. As the inductance is increased, the induced voltage (which opposes
the applied voltage) is increased, hence the current flow is reduced. Similarly, when the
frequency of the circuit is increased, the rate of current change in the inductance coil is also
increased, hence the induced (opposing) voltage is higher an the inductive reactance is
increased. As inductive reactance increases, current in the circuit is reduced. This is expressed
as XL=2πfL where, XL=inductive reactance in ohms, f = frequency in Hz & L=inductance in
henry.

D.c source of
electricity
Primary cells & Secondary cells-The term “Battery” means an assembly of voltaic primary or
secondary cells. Batteries of secondary cells are also known as storage batteries or
accumulators. In primary as well as secondary cells, the electrical energy is produced from the
chemical energy liberated as a result of the chemical reactions taking place in the cell. In these
reactions ions play an active role. Certain ions tend to react with the electrons from ions to
electrode or vice-versa. As the reaction proceeds by closing the external circuit to which the
battery is connected, the transfer of electrons from one electrode to the other gives rise to an
electric-current flowing in the external circuit. In both types the individual cells consists of a
positive and negative electrode, immersed in an electrically-conducting fluid called the
electrolyte and generally separated by a porous insulating diaphragm, called the separator. The
electrode must be electrically conducting. In dry cells outer metal container may constitute one
of the electrode.

An electric storage battery differs from a primary cell, in that the latter depends for its
functioning upon the consumption of a metallic electrode, usually zinc, by the action of
electrolyte and can not be electrically recharged, whereas a storage battery after being
exhausted by discharge can be brought back to a full state of change by passing a current
through it and this can be repeated number of times. In storage batteries, the energy is actually
stored in chemical-form.

7
The voltaic cell-When two different conducting materials are immersed in an electrolyte, the
chemical action of forming a new solution results in the separation of charges. It is also called a
galvanic cell. The potential difference resulting from the separated charges enables the cell to
function as a source of applied voltage. The voltage across the cell’s terminals forces current to
flow in the circuit.

Current outside the cell-Electrons from the negative terminal of the cell flow through the
external circuit with load resistance and return to the positive terminal. The chemical action in
the cell separates charges continuously to maintain the terminal voltage that produces current
in the circuit. The current tends to neutralize the charges generated in the cell. For this reason,
the process of producing load current is considered discharging of the cell. However, the internal
chemical reaction continues to maintain the separation of charges that produces the output
voltage.

Current inside the cell-The current through the electrolyte is a motion of ion charges. The
current inside the cell flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This action
represents the work being done by the chemical reaction to generate the voltage across the
output terminals. The negative terminal is considered to be the anode of the cell because it
forms positive ions for the electrolyte. The opposite terminal of the cell is its cathode.

Lead-acid battery-In a lead acid battery, the positive electrode is lead peroxide and the
negative electrode is spongy lead. The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid. In these batteries
each cell contains grid shaped lead plates, which are filled with chemically active material. The
negative plate looks grey (spongy lead), the positive plate brown (lead peroxide). Since, the
capacity depends on the size of the plate there are always several plates each combined to one
element by connecting post-straps and feature of terminal post for outside connection. To
prevent any risk of touching of plates being slid in one another, separators are installed, a thin
wooden sheet and a corrugated perforated plastic-sheet. The container and the cell-covers
consist of acid-proof insulating material, hard-rubber or also plastic. The plates rest on ridges in
the bottom. In aircraft batteries, the cell openings are closed with vented screw-in-type caps
which have lead-weights inside them to close the vent when the battery is tipped. This prevents
the electrolyte spilling in unusual flight-attitudes.

Nickel cadmium battery-Nickel Cadmium batteries are made up of individual removable cells.
It consists of positive and negative plates, separators, electrolyte, cell vent and cell-container.
The positive plates are made from a porous plaque on which Nickel Hydroxide has been
deposited. The negative plates are made from similar plaques on which Cadmium Hydroxide is
deposited.

In both cases, the porous plaque is obtained by sintering nickel powder at a high temperature.
After the active positive and negative materials are deposited on the plaque, it is formed and
cut into the proper plate size. A nickel tab is then welded to a corner of each plate and the
plates are assembled with the tabs welded to the proper terminals. A continuous strip of porous
plastic separates the plates from each other. The electrolyte used is 30% by weight of KOH
(Potassium Hydroxide) in distilled water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte remains between
1.240 and 1.300 at room temperature. No appreciable change occurs in the electrolyte during
charge or discharge. As a result, the battery charge can not be determined by a specific gravity
check of the electrolyte. The electrolyte-level should be maintained just above the tops of the
plates.

Operation-When a charging current is applied to a Ni-Cd battery, the negative plates lose
oxygen and begin forming metallic Cd. The active material of the positive-plates, Nickel
Hydroxide, becomes more highly oxidized. This process continues while the charging current is
applied or until all the oxygen is removed from the negative-plates and only Cadmium remains.
Towards the end of the charging cycle, the cells emit gas. This will also occur if the cells are
overcharged. This gas is caused by decomposition of the water in the electrolyte into hydrogen
at the negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. The voltage used during charging, as
well as the temperature, determine when gassing will occur. To completely charge a Ni-Cd
battery, some gassing, however-slightly, must take place, thus, some water will be used. The
chemical action is reversed during discharge. The positive plates slowly give up oxygen, which is
regained by the negative plates. This process results in the conversion of the chemical energy
into electrical energy. During discharge, the plates absorb a quantity of the electrolyte. On
recharge, the level of the electrolyte rises and at full charge, the electrolyte will be at its highest
value. Therefore, water should be added only when the battery is fully charged. One of the
disadvantages of the use of a lightweight lead acid battery for high current requirements is its
8
buildup of internal resistance and subsequent voltage-drop during high-rate discharges. The Ni-
Cd battery has a very low internal resistance and so its voltage remains constant until it is
almost totally discharged. This low resistance will accept high charging currents without
damage. While high charging currents are possible, there are dangers involved. These dangers
begin with a breakdown of the cellophane-like material that separates the plates in the Ni-Cd
cell. This breakdown is usually the result of high temperatures resulting from high rates of
charge. The breakdown of the cell separator creates a short-circuit and current-flow creates
heat, the heat will cause further breakdown of the separator-material and the cycle continues.
This process is known as vicious-cycling or thermal runaway.

Cell imbalance-In Ni-Cd battery the negative plate controls the cell's voltage characteristics.
This, with slightly lower charge efficiency in the positive-plates, results in an imbalance between
the negative and positive plates in each cell. Constant-Voltage-Charging is unable to recognize
this condition, for voltage-wise the battery appears to be fully charged. As long as the battery
stays on a constant-voltage-charger, the imbalance condition will become a little worse each
time the battery is cycled, until the battery's available capacity will be too small to crank
engines or supply emergency power. The cell-imbalance condition is reduced by more
sophisticated techniques, such as pulse charging or terminating the constant-potential-charging,
when the battery is close but below full charge. Then, proceed to complete the charge at a
constant-current rate of approximately 10% of the ampere-hour capacity of the battery. This
technique when compensated for temperature will drive the negative-plates into a controlled
overcharge, which allows the positive plates to be brought to full-charge without generating so
much gas as to damage the gas barrier.

Alkaline cell-A popular type is the manganese-zinc cell which has an alkaline electrolyte. It is
available as either a primary or a secondary cell but the primary type is more common.
Output is the same 1.5 V as a carbon-zinc cell but the alkaline cell lasts much longer.
The electrochemical system consists of a powdered zinc anode and a manganese
dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide, which
is the main difference between the alkaline and Leclanche cells. Hydroxide compounds
are alkaline with negative hydroxyl (OH) ions, whereas an acid electrolyte has positive
hydrogen (H) ions. Voltage output from the alkaline cell is 1.5 V.

The alkaline cell has many applications because of its ability to work with high efficiency with
continuous high discharge rates. Depending on the application, an alkaline cell can provide up
to seven times the service of a Leclanche cell. As examples, in a transistor radio an alkaline cell
will normally have twice the service life of a general-purpose carbon-zinc cell, in toys the
alkaline cell typically provides seven times more service. The outstanding performance of the
alkaline cell is due to its low internal resistance. Its internal resistance is low because of the
dense cathode material, the large surface area of the anode in contact with the electrolyte, and
the high conductivity of the electrolyte. In addition, alkaline cells will perform satisfactorily at
low temperatures.

Zinc chloride cells-This type is actually a modified carbon-zinc cell. However, the electrolyte
contains only zinc chloride. The zinc chloride cell is often referred to as the heavy duty type. It
can normally deliver more current over a longer period of time than the Leclanche cell. Another
difference is that the chemical reaction in the zinc chloride cell consumes water along with the
chemically active materials, so that the cell is nearly dry at the end of its useful life. As a result,
liquid leakage is not a problem.

Cells connected in series & parallel-When cells are connected in series, the total voltage
available across the combination is the sum of all the individual voltages of the cells,
though the current delivery capacity remains the same. When the cells are connected
in parallel, the total voltage across the combination equals the voltage of an individual
cell but the total current delivery capacity is the sum of the currents given out by all the
cells.

Connecting batteries in series increases the total voltage but not the ampere-hour capacity. In
multiengine aeroplanes, where more than one battery is used, the batteries are connected in
parallel, increasing the ampere-hour capacity. The voltage is equal to that of one battery but the
ampere-hour capacity is increased. The total capacity is the sum of the ampere-hour ratings for
the individual batteries.

9
Internal resistance & its effect on a battery -Any source that produces voltage output
continuously is a generator. It may be a cell separating charges by chemical action or a
rotary generator converting motion and magnetism into voltage output, for common
examples. In any case, all generators have internal resistance.

The internal resistance is important when a generator supplies load current because its internal
voltage drop subtracts from the generated e.m.f, resulting in lower voltage across the
output terminals. Physically, the internal resistance may be the resistance of the wire in
a rotary generator or in a chemical cell internal resistance is the resistance of the
electrolyte between electrodes. More generally, the internal resistance is the opposition
to load current inside the generator. Since, any current in the generator must flow
through the internal resistance, internal resistance is in series with the generated
voltage,. It may be of interest to note that, with just one load resistance connected
across a generator, they are in series with each other because the load resistance is in
series with the internal resistance. If there is a short circuit across the generator, its
internal resistance prevents the current from becoming infinitely high. As an, example,
if a 1.5- V cell is temporarily short-circuited, the short-circuit current could be about 15
A. Then the internal resistance equals 1.5 A/15V or 0.1 ohm, for the internal resistance.
These are typical values for a carbon-zinc D-size cell.

Chemical changes during charging & discharge-When a conductor connects the positive
and negative terminals of the battery, electrons flow from the lead to the lead peroxide.
When electrons leave the lead, it leaves behind positive ions which attract the negative
sulphate radicals from the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. This combination forms lead
sulphate on the negative-plate. The electrons arriving at the positive plate drive the
negative oxygen radicals from the lead-peroxide. This oxygen joins up with the
hydrogen in the electrolyte that has lost its sulphate radical and this now becomes
water. The lead that was left on the positive plate attracts sulphate radicals from the
electrolyte and becomes lead sulphate. Now, with lead sulphate on both the positive
and negative plates and with the electrolyte diluted by the water that has formed in it,
the battery is discharged and electrons no longer flow.

Five hour discharge rate-The standard rating used to specify the capacity of a battery is the
five-hour discharge rating. This is the number of ampere-hours of capacity of the battery. When
there is sufficient current-flow to drop the voltage of a fully charged battery to 1.75 volts per cell
at the end of five hours. If a discharged battery is attached to a source of direct current having
the proper voltage and the positive plates of the battery connected to the positive terminal of
the source, electrons will be drawn from the positive plate and forced into the negative plates.
Electrons arriving at the negative plates drive the negative sulphate radicals out of the lead
sulphate back into the electrolyte, where they join with the hydrogen from the water to form
sulphuric acid. When the electrons flowed from the positive plates, they left behind positively
charged lead atoms which attract oxygen from the water in the electrolyte to form lead peroxide
(PbO). Now, when the battery is fully charged, the positive plate has again become lead
peroxide, the negative plate has become lead, and the electrolyte again has a high
concentration of sulphuric acid. All during the charging process, as the electrolyte is being
changed back into sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is released in the form of bubbles. As the
charge is completed, the bubbling increases.

Condition of charge
Specific gravity-The open circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery remains relatively constant, at
about 2.1 volt per cell and so does not indicate the state of charge of the battery. The
electrolyte of a fully charged battery will have a specific gravity of between 1.275 and 1.3 with
an electrolyte temperature of 80º F. A specific gravity reading between 1.300 and 1.275
indicates a high state of change, between 1.275 and 1.240, a medium state of charge and
between 1.240 and 1.200, a low state of charge.

Specific gravity= Weight of the substance/ Weight of an equal volume of water or,
Density of the substance/ Density of water

When the battery is discharged until its specific gravity is down to 1.150, there is not enough
chemical strength in the electrolyte convert the active materials into lead sulphate and the
battery is considered to be discharged.

10
Voltage -The open circuit voltage of a lead-acid battery is 2.10 volt per call when the
electrolyte has a specific gravity of 1.265. The physical size of the cell or the number of plates
has no effect on this voltage. When a load is placed on the battery, the active material begins to
convert into lead sulphate which has a higher resistance than the fully-charged plates. This
increased internal resistance will cause the closed-circuit terminal voltage to drop and when it is
down to about 1.75 volts per cell, the battery is, for all practical purposes, discharged.

Ampere-hour capacity-The capacity of battery is its ability to produce a given amount of

current for a specified time and is expressed in ampere-hours. Theoretically, a 100 Ampere-hour
battery will be able to produce 100 amps for one hour, 50 amps for two hours or 20 amps for
five hours. The amount of active material, the area of the plates and the amount of electrolyte
determine the capacity of a battery.

Lead acid battery charging method-A storage battery may be charged by passing direct-
current through the battery in a direction opposite to that of the discharge current. Because
of the internal resistance in the battery, the voltage of the external charging source must be
greater than the open-circuit voltage e.g. the open circuit voltage of a fully-charged 12-cell
lead-acid battery is approximately 28 volts are required to charge it. This larger voltage is
needed for charging because of the voltage-drop in the battery caused by the internal
resistance. Hence, the charging voltage of a lead acid battery must equal the open-circuit
voltage plus the IR drop within the battery.

Constant current & constant voltage charging-Batteries are charged by either the
constant-voltage or constant-current method. In the constant-voltage method a motor-
generator set with a constant, regulated voltage forces the current through the battery.
In this method, the current at the start of the process is high but tapers off, reaching a
value of approximately 1-ampere when the battery is fully charged. The constant-
voltage method requires less time and supervision than dos the constant-current-
method. In the constant-current method, the current remains almost constant during
the entire charging-process. This method requires a larger time to charge a battery fully
and toward the end of the process, presents the danger of overcharging, if care is not
taken .

In the aircraft, the storage-battery is charged by direct-current from the aircraft-generator-

system. This method of charging is the constant-voltage-method. Since the generator voltage is
held constant by use of voltage regulator. When a storage battery is being charged, it generates
a certain amount of hydrogen and oxygen. Since, this is an explosive mixture, it is important
that steps be taken to prevent ignition of the gas-mixture. The vent caps loosened and left in
place. No open flames, sparks or other source of ignition should be permitted in the vicinity.
Before disconnecting or connecting a battery to the charger, always turn off the power.

Temperature is a vital factor in the operation and life of a Specific Freezing point
storage battery chemical action takes place more rapidly as gravity 0
C 0
F
temperature increases. For this reason, a battery will give 1.300 -70 -90
much better performance in tropical climates. On the other 1.275 -62 -80
hand, a battery will deteriorate faster in a warm climate. In 1.250 -52 -62
cold climates, the state of charge in a storage battery 1.225 -37 -35
should be kept at a max. A fully charged battery will not
1.200 -26 -16
freeze even under most severe weather condition, but a
1.175 -20 -4
discharged battery will freeze very easily. When water is
added to a battery in extremely cold weather, the battery 1.150 -15 5
must be charged at once. If this is not done, the water will 1.125 -10 13
not mix with the acid and will freeze. Operating a storage 1.100 -8 19
battery in cold weather is equivalent to using a battery of
lower capacity.

For example, a fully charged battery at 80º F (26.6 ºC) may be capable of starting an engine
twenty times. At 0º F (17.8ºC), the same battery may start the engine only three times. Low
temperatures greatly increase the time necessary for charging a battery. A battery which could
be recharged in one hour at 80ºF may require approximately five hours of charging, when the
temperature is 0 ºF. These effects on a battery’s capacity are caused by the slow chemical
reactions created by the cold temperatures.

11
Lead-acid battery testing methods-The state of charge of a storage battery depends upon
the condition of its active materials, primarily the plates. However, the state of charge
of a battery is indicated by the density of the electrolyte and is checked by a
hydrometer, an instrument which measures the specific gravity (weight as compared
with water) of liquids. The hydrometer commonly used consists of a small sealed glass
tube weighted at its lower end s0 it will float upright. Within the narrow stem of the
tube is a paper scale with a range of 1.100 to 1.300. When a hydrometer is used, a
quantity of electrolyte sufficient to float the hydrometer is drawn up into the syringe.
The depth to which the hydrometer sinks into the electrolyte is determined by the
density of the electrolyte, and the scale value indicated at the level of the electrolyte is
its specific gravity.

The more dense the electrolyte, the higher the hydrometer will float, therefore, the highest
number on the scale (1.300) is at the lower end of the hydrometer scale. In a new, fully
charged aircraft storage battery, the electrolyte is approximately 30% acid and 70%
water (by volume) and is 1.300 times as heavy as pure water. During discharge, the
electrolyte become less dense and its specific gravity drops below 1.300. A specific
gravity reading between 1.300 and 1.275 indicates a high state of charge, between
1.275 and 1.240, a medium state of charge and between 1.240 and 1.200, a low state
of charge.

Aircraft batteries are generally of small capacity but are Electrolyte Correctio
subject to heavy loads. The values specified for state of temperature n points
charge are therefore rather high. Hydrometer tests are 0
C 0
F
made periodically on all storage batteries installed in 60 140 24
aircraft. An aircraft battery in a low state of charge may 55 130 20
have perhaps 50% charge remaining, but is nevertheless 49 120 16
considered low in the face of heavy demands which would 43 110 12
soon exhaust it. A battery in such a state of charge is 38 100 8
considered in need of immediate recharging. When a
33 90 4
battery is tested using a hydrometer, the temperature of
27 80 0
the electrolyte must be taken into consideration. The
specific gravity readings on the hydrometer will vary from 23 70 -4
the actual specific gravity as the temperature changes. 15 60 -8
No correction is necessary when the temperature is 10 50 -12
between 70°F and 90°F, since the variation is not great 5 40 -16
enough to be considered. When temperatures are greater -2 30 -20
than 90°F or less than 70°F, it is necessary to apply a -7 20 -24
correction factor. Some hydrometers are equipped with a -13 10 -28
correction scale inside the tube. With other hydrometers it -18 0 -32
is necessary to refer to a chart provided by the -23 -10 -36
manufacturer. In both cases, the corrections should be -28 -20 -40
added to, or subtracted from, the reading shown on the -35 -30 -44
hydrometer.

The specific gravity of a cell is reliable only if nothing has been added to the electrolyte except
occasional small amounts of distilled water to replace that lost as a result of normal
evaporation. Hydrometer readings should always be taken before adding distilled water, never
after. This is necessary to allow time for the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte and to
avoid drawing up into the hydrometer syringe a sample which does not represent the true
strength of the solution. Extreme care should be exercised when making the hydrometer test of
a lead acid cell. The electrolyte should be handled carefully, for sulphuric acid will bum clothing
and skin. If the acid does contact the skin the area should be washed thoroughly with water and
then bi-carbonate of soda applied.

Battery installation-Before installing any battery in an aircraft. be sure you know that the
battery is correct for the aircraft, that the voltage and ampere-pour ratings are as specified and
that the battery fits the battery box properly. Some aircraft use two batteries connected in
parallel to provide a reserve of current for starting and for extra-heavy electrical loads. Be sure
that the batteries installed in this type of arrangement are the batteries specified in the aircraft
service manual. Most aircraft use a single-wire electrical system with the negative terminal of
the battery connected to the aircraft structure.

12
NOTE: When installing the battery, connect the "hot" lead first. If you should short-circuit
between the battery and the aircraft with your wrench, you will not cause a spark if the ground
lead has not been connected. When removing a battery, always disconnect the ground lead first
for the same reason.

Be sure that the battery box is properly vented, if a vent is required and that the battery box
drain extends through the aircraft skin. Some batteries are of the manifold type, which do not
require a separate battery box. There is a cover over the cells. and the area above the cells is
vented to the outside of the aircraft structure. The fumes emitted from storage batteries as they
are charged are highly corrosive to the metals of which aircraft are made and they must be
neutralized before they are released into the atmosphere. Many battery installations have vent
sump jars containing absorbent pads moistened with a solution of bicarbonate of soda and
water. No battery installation is complete until you know that the battery will supply enough
current to crank the engine and that the aircraft generating system will keep the battery
charged.
The electrolytes used by nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries are chemically opposite. and
either type of battery can be contaminated by fumes from the charging of the other. For this
reason it is extremely important that separate facilities be used for servicing nickel-cadmium
batteries, completely away from the area used for lead-acid batteries. The alkaline electrolyte
used in nickel-cadmium batteries is corrosive and it can bum your skin or cause severe injury if
it gets into your eyes. Be careful when handling this liquid and if any of it is spilled, neutralize it
with vinegar or boric acid, and flush the area with clean water.

Most nickel-cadmium batteries will get an accumulation of potassium carbonate on top of the
cells. This white powder forms when electrolyte spewed from the battery combines with carbon
dioxide. The amount of this deposit is increased by charging the battery too fast or by the
electrolyte level being too high. If there is an excessive amount of potassium carbonate, check
the voltage regulator and the level of electrolyte in the cells. Scrub all of the deposits off of the
top of the cells with a nylon or other type of nonmeta1ic bristle brush. and dry the battery
thoroughly with a soft flow of compressed air. Check for electrical leakage between the cells and
the steel case by using a milli-ammeter between the positive terminal of the battery and the
case. If there is more than about 100 mlll1amps of leakage. the battery should be disassembled
and thoroughly cleaned. Check all of the hardware in the cell connectors for their condition and
to be sure that there is no trace of corrosion. Dirty contacts or improperly torqued nuts will
cause overheating and burned hardware.

The only way of actually determining the condition of a nickel-cadmium battery is to fully charge
it and then discharge it at a specified rate and measure its ampere-hour capacity. When
charging. use the five-hour rate and charge it until the cell voltage is that specified by the
battery manufacturer. When it is fully charged. and immediately after it is taken off of the
charger. measure the level of the electrolyte. If it is low. adjust it by adding distilled water. If the
level is not checked immediately after the charge is completed. the level will drop. and the
correct level is difficult. if not impossible. to ascertain. When water is added. the amount and
cell location must be recorded on the battery service record. When the battery is fully charged
and the electrolyte adjusted. it must be discharged at a specified rate and its ampere-hour
capacity measured. If the capacity is less than it should be it is an indication that some of the
cells are un- balanced and they must be equalized by a process known as deep-cycling.

To deep-cycle the battery. continue to discharge it at a rate somewhat lower than that used for
the capacity test. When the cell voltage is down to around 0.2 volt per cell. short across each
cell with a shorting strap. Leave the strap across the cells for three to eight hours to be sure that
all of the cells are completely discharged. This process is known as equalization. After
equalization the battery is ready to charge. Nickel-cadmium batteries may be charged using
either the constant-voltage or constant-current methods. The constant-voltage method will
result in a faster charge but the constant-current is most widely used. For either system the
battery manufacturer's service instructions must be followed exactly. Monitor the battery during
charge. and measure individual cell voltages. The manufacturer will specify a maximum
differential between cells during the charging process. If a cell exceeds the specification, it must
be replaced.

D.c circuits
Ohm’s law for d.c circuits - The current in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the
potential-difference and is inversely proportional to the resistance, and 1 volt causes 1 ampere
to flow through a resistance of 1 ohm.

13
Limitations of ohm’s law
Ohm’s law is not applicable under the following conditions -
 For metals which get heated up due to flow of current through them.
 For electrolytes where enormous gases are produced on either electrode.
 For vacuum tube valves.
 For gas filled tubes, in which ions are generated as a result of current flow.
 For arc lamps.
 For semiconductors.
 For appliances such as metal rectifiers and crystal detectors, in which the operation depends
on the direction of current.
Electric power & work- Power is the rate of energy conversion i.e. rate of doing a work. The
unit of power in S.I system is Watt, which is equal to 0.00134 hp. In electrical terms, 1 watt is
the power expended when 1 volt at 1 coulomb per second through a conductor i.e. 1 volt at 1
ampere produces 1 watt of power. When power is lost in an electric circuit in the form of heat, it
is called the I2R loss because the heat produced is a function of a circuit’s current and
resistance, expressed as P = V x I = I2 x R = V2/ R

Energy-Energy is the ability of doing work. The unit of energy or work is Joule and the unit of
electrical energy is Kilowatt hours (kWh) i.e.1 kWh=1 kW x 1 hour=1000 watt hours
=1000x60x60 watt sec.

Series circuits
In a series circuit, all the resistances are in a string & the equivalent resistance is the sum of all
the individual resistances. The current through all the resistances remains the same.

R1 R2 R3 R4

Total resistance RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ohms Total voltage VT = I x R1 + I x R2 + I x R3

VT = I x RT Volts Total current IT = I1 = I2 = I3 amps or, IT = VT / RT

If the resistances are of equal value R, then, RT = n x R ohms, where, n = number of resistances.

Exercise
In the series circuit shown below, calculate the total resistance, the current, the power absorbed
by each resistor, and the total power supplied by the source . The resistances are R 1 = 2 Ohm, R2
= 4 Ohm, R3 = 6 Ohm & R4 = 8 Ohm & the d.c source is of 100 Volts.

R1 R2 R3 R4

Solution
As it is a series circuit,
The total resistance = RT = R1+ R2 + R3 + R4 Ohms = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 Ohms.
The current = VT / RT = 100 / 20 = 5 Amps
Power absorbed by R1 = I2 R1 = 5 2 2 = 50 Watts Power absorbed by R2 = I2 R2 = 5 2
4 = 100
Watts
Power absorbed by R3 = I2 R3 = 5 2 6 = 150 Watts Power absorbed by R4 = I2 R4 = 5 2
8 = 200
Watts

14
Power absorbed = Power absorbed by R1+ Power absorbed by R2 + Power absorbed by R3
+Power absorbed by R4 = 50+100+150+200=500 W. The power supplied by the source= VtxIt =
100 x 5 = 500 Watts

Parallel circuits-In a parallel circuit, all the resistances are in parallel across the supply and
thus the potential difference across each branch is the same, depending on the magnitude of a
branch-resistance, branch-current flows through it. Here, the total current drawn from the
supply is the sum of all the branch currents. R1

R2

R3

Total resistance 1/RT=1/R1 +1/R2+1/R3+…ohms or, RT=1/(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 +….)

ohms
Total voltage VT =V1=V2=V3=…….volts Total current IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + amps

If the resistances are of equal value R, then RT=R/n, where, n = number of resistances.
Exercise
For the circuit shown below, find the total resistance, branch-currents, total current, power
consumed by each resistor. R1 = 2 Ohm

R2 = 4 Ohm
+
R3 = 8 Ohm
Vt = 24 V
-

Solution
Total resistance 1/ RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 = (4+2+1) / 8 = 7/8
So, Total resistance RT = 8/7 ohm

Branch currents–as all the resistors are across the same supply so the potential difference
across them remains the same i.e. 24 Volts.
I1 = Vt / R1 = 24 / 2 = 12 amps I2 = Vt / R2 = 24 / 4 = 6 amps
I3 = Vt / R3 = 24 / 8 = 3 amps Total current=Vt/Rt = 24 /(8/7)=24x7/8
= 21amps
Power consumed by – R1 = I12 x R1 = 12 2 x 2=288W Power consumed by – R2 = I22 x R2 = 6
2
x 4=144W
Power consumed by – R3 = I32 x R3 = 3 2 x 8 = 72W

Series – parallel circuits

In a series-parallel there are sections with resistors are in series with a bank of resistors in
parallel. RT, VT and IT are found by first reducing the parallel circuit to a single resistance, and
then solving the whole as a simple series circuit.
R2
e.g. Req. parallel = (R2.R3 / R2 + R3) Ohm

R1 RT = R1 + Req. parallel
= R1 +( R2.R3/R2+R3)
= (R1R2 + R1R3 + R2R3 ) / R2+R3 Ohm
R3
V1 i.e. IT = VT/RT
= VT.(R2+R3)/(R1R2+R1R3+R2R3) Amps

15
Exercise
For the circuit shown, find The total resistance, Total current, Branch-currents, Power consumed
by each resistor.
Solution
R2
For the parallel resistors, the equivalent
resistor
10ohm
R1 Rp=R2x R3/R2+R3=10 x10/(10+10) = 5 ohms
Rp is in series with R1 so, total resistance
10ohm Rt=10+5= 15ohms
R3 Total current It = Vt / Rt = 30 / 15 = 2 amps.
V1 As the parallel resistors are equal, so the
30V current of 2 A will be divided equally, passing
10ohm
through each of the parallel resistor. So, the
branch current is of 1 A.

Power consumed by R1 = It2 x R1 = 2 2 x

10=40 W Power consumed by R2 = I22 x R2 = 1
2
x 10 = 10 W
Power consumed by R3 = I32 x R3 = 1 2 x 10 =
10 W
Total power consumed = 40 + 10+ 10=60 W

Kirchoff’s current law-The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point in a
circuit must equal zero. Or stated another way, the algebraic sum of the currents into any point
of the circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents out of that point. Otherwise, charge
would accumulate at the point, instead of having a conducting path. An algebraic sum means
combining positive and negative values.

Kirchoff’s voltage law-The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero. In
determining the algebraic signs for voltage terms, in a KVL equation, first mark the polarity of
each voltage. A convenient system then is go around any closed path and consider any voltage
whose negative terminal is reached first as a negative term and any voltage whose positive
terminal is reached first as a positive term. The direction can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. If
you do not come back to the start, then the algebraic sum is the voltage between the start and
finish points.

Exercise
Calculate all the branch currents in the circuit shown below.
R1 R2

12ohm
3.0ohm
R3
V1 I 2 V2
84V 6ohm 21V

Writing the loop equation

84 – VR1 – VR3 = 0 21 – VR2 – VR3 = 0
VR1 = I1R1 = I1 X 12 = 12I1 VR3 = I2R2 = I2 X 3 = 3I2 VR3 = (I1 + I2) X R3 = 6 X (I1 + I2)

The above equations reduce to

3 I1 + I2 = 14 2 I1 + 3 I2 = 7
On solving, I1 = 5 A & I2 = -1 A, the negative sign for I2 means that this current is opposite to the
assumed direction.

16
Wheat stone bridge-A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistance
is the Wheat stone bridge is an instrument for making comparison measurement and
operates on a null-indication principle. Accuracy of 0.1% is quite common with a Wheat
stone bridge as opposed to accuracy accuracies of 3% to 5% with ordinary ohmmeter for
measurement of medium resistance. In this circuit, four resistors are connected in a bridge
pattern, the supply is connected diagonally and a galvanometer is connected across the
other diagonal points. A balance-condition is said to be reached when the current through
the galvanometer becomes zero, for a particular ratio between the resistor’s values, given
by P/Q = R/X, where, X is the unknown resistor. With the values of the three known
resistors, the fourth one can be calculated.

Significance of internal resistance of a supply-Any source that produces voltage output

continuously is a generator. It may be a cell separating charges by chemical action or a
rotary generator converting motion and magnetism into voltage output, for common
examples. In any case, all generators have internal resistance. The internal resistance
is important when a generator supplies load current because its internal voltage drop
subtracts from the generated e.m.f, resulting in lower voltage across the output
terminals.

Physically, the internal resistance may be the resistance of the wire in a rotary generator or in a
chemical cell internal resistance is the resistance of the electrolyte between electrodes. More
generally, the internal resistance is the opposition to load current inside the generator. Since,
any current in the generator must flow through the internal resistance, internal resistance is in
series with the generated voltage,. It may be of interest to note that, with just one load
resistance connected across a generator, they are in series with each other because the load
resistance is in series with the internal resistance. If there is a short circuit across the generator,
its internal resistance prevents the current from becoming infinitely high. As an, example, if a
1.5- V cell is temporarily short-circuited, the short-circuit current could be about 15 A. Then the
internal resistance equals 1.5 A /15 V or 0.1 ohm, for the internal resistance. These are typical
values for a carbon-zinc D-size cell.
Resistor, Capacitor & Inductor
Resistance-The property of a conductor of electricity that limits or restricts the flow of electric
current is called its resistance. Electrical pressure is required to overcome this resistance, which
is the attractive force holding the electrons in their orbit. Resistance may also be termed as
electrical friction because it affects the movement of electricity in a manner similar to the effect
of friction on mechanical objects. The unit to measure resistance is the Ohm (Ω). Expressed
mathematically, R = ρ l / a ohm (Ω). Where, ρ is specific resistance or resistivity of the
material of the conductor, l is the length of the conductor & a is the cross sectional area of the
conductor. Except for wire conductors, specific resistances are usually compared for the
standard size of a 1-cm cube. Then ρ is specified in ohm-cm for the unit cross-sectional area of
1 cm2.

Factors affecting resistance-Among the four major factors affecting the resistance of a
conductor, one of the most important is the type of conductor material. Copper is usually
considered the best available conductor material, since a copper wire of a particular diameter
offers a lower resistance to current flow than an aluminium wire of the same diameter. A second
resistance factor is the length of the conductor. The longer the length of a given size of wire, the
greater the resistance. A third factor affecting the resistance of a conductor in cross-sectional
area or the end surface of a conductor. The last major factor influencing the resistance of a
conductor is temperature. Although some substances, such as carbon, show a decrease in
resistance as the surrounding temperature increases, most material used as conductors
increase in resistance as temperature increases. The resistance of a few alloys, such as
constantan and manganin, change very little as the temperature changes. The amount of
increase in the resistance of 1 Ω sample of a conductor per degree rise in temperature above
0°C, the assumed standard, is called the temperature coefficient of resistance.

Resistor colour code-There is only one colour code for carbon resistors but there are two
systems or methods used to paint this colour code on resistance. One is the Body-End-Dot
System & the other is the End-to-Centre Band System. In each colour code system, three colours
are used to indicate the resistance value in ohms and a fourth colour is sometimes used to
indicate the tolerance of the resistor.

Colour Number Tolerance (%) The amount by which the actual resistance can be
Black 0 -- different from the colour coded value is the
17
Brown 1 1 tolerance, usually given in%. For example, a 2000
Red 2 2 ohm resistance with  10% tolerance can have
Orange 3 3 resistance 10% above or below the coded value.
Yellow 4 4 The resistance, therefore, is between 1800 ohms &
Green 5 5 2200 ohms. When the colour code us used with the
Blue 6 6 end-to-centre band marking system, the resistor is
Violet 7 7 normally marked with bands of colour at one end of
Grey 8 8 the resistor. The body or base colour of the resistor
White 9 9 has nothing to do with the colour code and in no
Gold - 5 way indicates a resistance value.
Silver - 10
To prevent confusion this body will never be the
No Colour - 20
same colour as any of the bands indicating
resistance value.

When the end-to-centre band marking system, is used the resistor will be marked by either
three or four bands. The first colour band (nearest the end of the resistor) will indicate the first
digit in the numerical resistance value. This band will never be gold or silver in colour. The
second colour band will always indicate the second digit of ohmic value. It will never be gold or
silver in colour. The third colour band indicates the no. of zeroes to be added to the two digits
derived from the and second bands, except in the following two cases :-
1) If the third band is gold in colour, the first two digits must be multiplied by 10%.
2) If the third band is silver in colour, the first two digits must be multiplied by 1%.

If there is a fourth colour band, it is used as a multiplier for percentage of tolerance. If there is
no fourth band, the tolerance is understood to be 20%.

End-to-centre band system

Colour Numerical Value Significance

Red 2 1st digit
Green 5 2nd digit
Yellow 4 No. of zeros to add
So, ohmic value = 2 5 0000 = 250 kΩ, as there is no fourth band, which means the tolerance is
 20%, So, tolerance = (20/100) x 250,000 Ω = 50,000 Ω = 50 kΩ.
Maximum resistance = 250,000+50,000 = 300 kΩ Minimum resistance = 250,000-50,000
= 200 kΩ
Body-end-dot system
Body colour-1st digit of ohmic value
End colour-2nd digit of ohmic value
Dot colour-No. of zeros to be added

Body colour red (2) End colour green (5)

Dot colour yellow (4)

Body–1st digit–2, End–2nd digit–5, Dot–Number of zeros – 0000, The resistor value is 250,000 ±
20% ohms

A 33,000 ohms resistor will be entirely orange. If only one end of the resistor is painted, it
indicates the second figure of the resistor value and the tolerance will be 20%. The other two
tolerance values are gold (5%) and silver (10%). The opposite end of the resistor will be painted
to indicate a tolerance other than 20%. The body-end-dot system is rarely used today.

18
Preferred values of resistors-In order to minimize the problem of manufacturing different
resistance values for an almost unlimited variety of circuits, specific values are made in
large quantities so that they are cheaper and more easily available than unusual sizes.
For resistors of  10%, the preferred values are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68
and 82 with their decimal multiples. As example, 47, 470, 4700 and 47,000 are
preferred values. In this way, there is a preferred value available within 10% of any
resistance value needed in a circuit. For resistors of 20%, the preferred values are 10,
15, 22, 33, 47, 68 and 100 with their decimal multiples. Similarly for resistors of  5%,
the preferred values are 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43,
47, 51, 56, 62, 68, 75, 82, 91 and 100 with their decimal multiples.

Wattage ratings-In addition to having the required ohms value, a resistor should have a
wattage rating high enough to dissipate the power produced by the current flowing
through the resistance, without becoming too hot. Carbon resistors in normal operation
often become warm, but they should not get so hot that they "sweat" beads of liquid on
the insulating case. Wire-wound resistors operate at very high temperatures, a typical
value being 300°C for the maximum temperature. If a resistor becomes too hot
because of excessive power dissipation, it can change appreciably in resistance value
or burn open. The power rating is a physical property that depends on the resistor
construction, especially physical size. Note the following –A larger physical size
indicates a higher power rating, Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher
temperatures, Wire-wound resistors are physically larger with higher wattage ratings
than carbon resistors.

Potentiometers & Rheostats-Rheostats and potentiometers are variable resistances, either

carbon or wire-wound, used to vary the amount of current or voltage for a circuit. The controls
can be used in either d.c or a.c applications. A rheostat is a variable resistance with two
terminals connected in series with a load. The purpose is to vary the amount of current. A
potentiometer generally called a pot for short, has three terminals. The fixed maximum
resistances across the two ends is connected across a voltage source. Then the variable arm is
used to vary the voltage division between the centre terminal and the ends.

It is important that rheostats have a wattage rating high enough for the maximum current when
the resistance is minimum. Rheostats are often wire-wound-variable-resistors used to control
relatively large values of current in low-resistance circuits for a.c power applications.
Commercial rheostats are generally wire-wound high-wattage resistors for power applications.
However, a small low-wattage rheostat is often needed in electronic circuits. One example is a
continuous tone control in a receiver. The control requires the variable series resistance of a
rheostat but dissipates very little power. A method of wiring a potentiometer as a rheostat is to
connect just one end of the control and the variable arm, using only two terminals. The third
terminal is open or floating, not connected to anything. Another method is to wire the unused
terminal to the centre terminal. When the variable arm is rotated, different amounts of
resistance are short- circuited. This method is preferable because there is no floating resistance.
Either end of the potentiometer can be used for the rheostat. The direction of increasing
resistance with shaft rotation reverses, though, for connections at opposite ends. Also, the taper
is reversed on a non-linear control.

The resistance of a potentiometer is sometimes marked on the enclosure which houses the
resistance element. The marked value indicates the resistance between the outside terminals.
Positive & negative temperature coefficient-The factor with the symbol alpha (α ) states
how much the resistance changes for a change in temperature. A positive value for α means
that the resistance increases with temperature, with a negative α , resistance decreases, zero
for α means the resistance is constant.

All metals in their pure form, such as copper and tungsten, have a positive temperature
coefficient. The α for tungsten is for example, is 0.005. Although it a is not exactly constant, an
increase in wire resistance caused by a rise in temperature can be calculated approximately
from the formula, Rt=R0+Ro(1+α ∆t), where, R0 is the resistance at 200C, Rt is the higher
resistance at the temperature, ∆t is the rise in temperature above 200C. A negative value of α
means les resistance at higher temperature. In general, α is negative for all semiconductors.
Also, all electrolyte solution, such as sulphuric acid & water, have a negative α . The resistance
of semiconductors for diodes & transistors, therefore, can be reduced appreciably when they
become hot with normal load current.

19
Carbon composition resistors -The great majority of resistors used to control small amounts
of current are made of a mixture of carbon and an insulating material. Small amounts of
materials are used to dissipate small amounts of power and, for more power, more material is
used. Composition resistors are normally available in sizes from 1/8 watts up to two watts. The
larger the physical size of the resistor, the more power it will dissipate. Most modern resistors
are of the axial lead type i.e. the leads come directly out of the ends of the resistor. Some
composition resistors have their leads coming off of the body radially instead of parallel to the
resistor axial.

Film resistors-Film resistors are manufactured by placing a thin layer or film resistive material
around a non-conductive core material such as ceramics. The resistor leads, usually of the axial
type, are inserted into a cap and placed onto the ends of the ceramic core. Film resistors usually
are of the low power variety ranging from one-tenth to two watts and are generally available in
the same range of resistance values as carbon resistors.

Wire wound resistors-When more power needs to be dissipated than can be handled by a
composition resistance, special resistance made of resistance wire wound over hollow ceramic
tubes are used. Some of these resistors are tapped along the length of the wire to provide
different values of resistance and others have a portion of the wire left bare, so a metal band
can slide over the resistor, allowing it to be set to any desired resistance. When the screw is
tightened, the band will not move from the selected resistance.

Variable resistance-When it is necessary to change the amount of resistance in a circuit,

variable resistors may be used. These may be of either the composition or the wire wound type .
In the composition resistor, the mix is bonded to an insulating disk, and a wiper, or sliding
contact, is rotated by a shaft to vary the amount of material between the two terminals.
Variable resistors having only two terminals, one at the end of the resistance material and the
other, the sliding contact, are called rheostats and are used to vary the amount of resistance in
a circuit. If the resistor has three terminals, one for either end of the resistance material an done
for the slider, it is called a potentiometer and may be used as a voltage divider.

Thermistors-A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with
changes in operating temperature. Because of the self-heating effect of current in a thermistor,
the device changes resistance with changes in current. Thermistors, which are essentially
semiconductors, exhibit either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). If a thermistor has a PTC, its resistance increases as the
operating temperature increases. Conversely, if a thermistor has an NTC, its resistance
decreases as the operating temperature increases. How much the resistance changes with
changes in operating temperature depends on the size and construction of the thermistor. It
should be noted that the resistance does not undergo instantaneous changes with changes in
the operating temperature. A certain time interval, determined by the thermal mass (size) of the
thermistor, is required to accomplish the resistance change. A thermistor with a small mass will
change more rapidly than one with a large mass. Carbon and metal- film resistors are different,
their resistance does not change appreciably with changes in operating temperature.
Thermistors are manufactured in a wide variety of different shapes and sizes. The different
shapes include beads, rods, disks, and washers. Thermistors are frequently used in electronic
circuits in which it is desired to provide temperature measurement, temperature control, and
temperature compensation.

Varistor-It is a voltage dependent metal-oxide material whose resistance decreases sharply

with increasing voltage. So, the voltage –current characteristics is not linear. The Zinc-Oxide
based varistors are primarily used protecting solid-state power supplies from low & medium
surge voltages in the supply lines. Silicon-Carbide varistors provide protective against high
voltage surges caused by lightening and by the discharge of electromagnetic energy stored in
the magnetic fields of large coils.
Capacitor-Electrical energy may be stored in the magnetic field which surrounds a conductor
through which electrons are moving. It may also be stored in electrostatic fields caused by an
accumulation of electrical charges that are not moving, but are static. The electromagnetic field
strength is determined by the amount of current flowing in the conductor, but the strength of
the electrostatic field is determined by the amount of pressure, or voltage, on the static
charges. A capacitor, sometimes called a condenser, is a device that stores electrical energy in
the electrostatic fields that exist between two conductors that are separated by an insulator or a
dielectric. A charged capacitor acts as a voltage-source. The charged capacitor consists of an
excess of electrons on the negative plate and a corresponding deficiency of electrons on the
positive plate. If the capacitor is disconnected from the voltage source, the charge will remain in
20
the capacitor for a length of time depending on the nature of the dielectric. The insulating
quality of a material is called its dielectric strength and is measured in terms of the voltage
required to rupture (break down) a given thickness of the material.

Material Dielectric constant

Air 1.0
Resin 2.5
Asbestos 2.7
Hard Rubber 2.8
Dry Paper 3.5
Common Glass 4.2
Quartz 4.5
Mica 4.5-7.5
Porcelain 5.5
Flint Glass 7.0
Crown Glass 7.9

Unless there is a complete vacuum between the plates, the dielectric material between the
plates of a capacitor consists of a large number of atoms. This holds true whether the dielectric
is gaseous, liquid or solid. Since the dielectric is an insulator, it takes a very high voltage to
cause the free electrons to break away from the dielectrics atom and move through the
material. When the capacitor is charged, a voltage exist between the plates and acts upon the
dielectric. Although the voltage is not great enough to cause the electrons in the dielectric to
break away from the atoms, it does cause them to shift a small distance in their orbits. This
shifting of the electrons towards the positive plate of the capacitor creates what is known as a
dielectric stress. When the plates of a charged capacitor are connected by a conductor, the
electrons flow from the negative plate to the positive plate, thus neutralising the charge and
relieving the dielectric stress. Then the capacitor is said to be discharged.

Factors affecting capacitance-The amount of electricity a capacitor can store depends on

several factors, including the type of material of the dielectric. It is directly proportional to the
plate area and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. i.e. C = Q / E, Where,
C= capacity in farads, Q=charge in coulombs & E= applied potential in volts

The farad is such a large unit that it is seldom used in practical circuits. Instead, most capacitors
are measured in microfarads, which are millionths of a farad, or in picofarads which are
millionths of millionths of a farad. Picofarads have formerly been called micro-micro farads and
may still be referred to in this way in some texts. The Greek letter mu (µ ) is used to represent
the prefix micro.

The capacity is affected by three variables, the area of the plates, the separation between the
plates, and the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. In only stands to reason
that the larger the plates, the more electrons can be stored. One very common type of capacitor
has plates made of two long strips of metal foil separated by waxed paper and rolled into a tight
cylinder. This construction provides the maximum plate area for its small physical size. The
distance the plates are apart determines the strength of the electrostatic field between them,
and this affects the capacity. If the plates are widely separated, the field will be weak, and it will
not pull very many electrons onto the negative plate. If, on the other hand, they are very close
together, the attraction caused by the unlike charges will produce a very strong field in the
dielectric, and many electrons will be held on the negative plate. The strength of the
electrostatic field increases inversely as the separation between the plates. When the space
between the plates is cut in half, the strength of the electrostatic field will double.

One problem with getting the plates too close together is the possibility of the field becoming so
strong that electrons will be pulled across the insulator and actually flow to the positive plate.
When this happens, in most capacitors the dielectric will be damaged and a conductive path set
up, shorting the capacitor and making it useless. For this reason, all capacitors are rated with
regard to their working voltage, which is a DC measurement indicating the strength of the
dielectric.

The third factor which affects the capacity of a capacitor is the material of the dielectric. More
specifically, it is the dielectric constant of the insulating material. Energy is stored not only in
the stress across the dielectric, but by the distortion of the orbits of the electrons in the material
of which the dielectric is made. Air is used as the reference for measuring the dielectric constant
and is given a value of one. If glass, which has a dielectric constant of eight, is substituted for air
21
as an insulator, the capacity will increase eight times because of the energy stored in the
distortion of the electron orbit within the glass.

The area of the plates-Most radios have variable capacitors in which we change the area of
the plates. The plates are made of thin sheets of aluminum and are meshed together with one
group of plates fixed and serving as the stators. The other plates, called the rotors, are mounted
on a shaft and mesh with the fixed plates, but do not touch them. The air between the plates
serves as the dielectric. When the plates are fully meshed, the capacity is maximum, and as the
shaft is rotated, the area of the plates that are meshed decreases and the capacity becomes
less.

The spacing between the plates-While variable area capacitors are used for the main tuning
capacitor for a radio, small trimmer and ladder capacitors are used for fine-tuning. These small
capacitors are made up of a stack of metal foil plates separated by thin sheets of mica. A screw
adjustment allows the plates to be squeezed tightly together to increase the capacitance, or
relaxed to decrease the capacitance.

The dielectric constant-The most popular fuel quantity measuring system used in our modern
aircraft is the capacitance system, in which the measuring units are capacitors in the form of
probes in the fuel tanks. Each of these probes is made up of two concentric tubes, which fit
across the tank from top bottom. Each tube acts as one of the plates of the capacitor, and both
the area and the separation and the separation between the plates are fixed. When the tank is
empty, the dielectric is the fuel, which has a dielectric constant of approximately two. The
indicator for this system measure the capacity of the probes converts it into terms of gallons or
pounds of fuel in the tanks.

Voltage rating of capacitors-This rating specifies the maximum potential difference that can
be applied across the plates without puncturing the dielectric. Usually the voltage rating is for
temperatures up to about 600C. Higher temperature result in a lower voltage rating. Voltage
rating for general-purpose paper, mica, and ceramic capacitors are typically 200 to 500 V.
Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1 to 20kV are also available. Electrolytic capacitors are
typically available in 16 -, 35 - & 50 - V ratings. For applications where a lower voltage rating is
permissible, more capacitance can be obtained in a smaller physical size.

The potential difference across the capacitor depends upon the applied voltage and is not
necessarily equal to the voltage rating. A voltage rating higher than the potential difference
applied across the capacitor provides a safety factor for long life in service. With electrolytic
capacitors, however, the actual capacitor should be close to the rated voltage to produce the
oxide film that provides the specified capacitance. The voltage ratings are for dc voltage
applied. The breakdown rating is lower for ac voltage because of the internal heat produced by
continuous charge & discharge.

The working voltage of a capacitor is the highest voltage that can be steadily applied to it
without the danger of the dielectric breaking down. The working voltage depends upon the
material used as the dielectric and on it thickness. A capacitor used in AC circuit should have a
working voltage at least 50% greater than the highest voltage that will be applied to it.

Capacitor colour coding-The value of a capacitor is always specified in either microfarads or

picofarads. As a general rule, if a capacitor (other than the electrolytic capacitor) is marked
using a whole number such as 33, 220 or 680, the capacitance is in picofarads. Conversely, if a
capacitor is labelled using a decimal fraction such as 0.1, 0.047 or 0.0082, the capacitance is in
microfarads.

In film-type capacitors, the first two numbers printed on the capacitor indicate the first two
digits in the numerical value of the capacitance. The third number is the multiplier, indicating by
which factor the first two digits must be multiplied. The letter at the far right indicates the
capacitor’s tolerance. With this coding system the capacitance is always in picofarads.

The capacitor’s breakdown voltage is usually printed on the body directly below the coded value
of capacitance. In disk ceramic capacitors, the capacitance is expressed either as a whole
number or as a decimal fraction. Mica capacitors are coded using dots to indicate the
capacitance value in picofarads.
Film Type Capacitors

First digit 1 5 2 K
22
 Toleranc
5 e6 3 J

Second digit No. of 0’s to be added

The fist digit is 5, second 6, the third is number 3, so the capacitance is 56000 pf. The letter J
indicates a capacitor tolerance of  5%. Similarly the capacitance of the other capacitor shown is
1500 pf with ± 10%.

Colour Digit Tolerance

C≤ 10 Pf C>10 pF
(in pF) (in%)
Black 0 ± 20
Brown 1 ± 0.1 ±1
Red 2 ± 0.25 ±2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5 ± 0.5 ±5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9 ±1 ± 10
Colour code for tolerance for capacitor
C ≤ 10 Pf C >10 pF
Tolerance Code Tolerance Code
(in pF) (in%)
0.25 N 1 D
0.50 L 2 C
1 M 5 B
10 A
Colour code for breakdown voltage of capacitor
Brown 100 V
Red 250 V
Yellow 400 V
Blue 630 V

The ceramic pin-up type capacitors are coded as – If the capacitor has only one colour on its
body, we write the colour three times and apply the colour code principal to it. e.g. let us
assume that the capacitor has only red colour on its surface, then w write Red-Red-Red and it is
equal to 2200 pF.

If the capacitor has two colours-one of large and the other of small size on its surface, then we
write large colour two times followed by the small colour, e.g. Red-Red-Orange is equal to 22000
pF.

If the capacitor has three colours of equal size, e.g. brown-grey-red, its value will be 1800 pF.

If the capacitor has four different colours on its surface-then first three colours give its nominal
value & the fourth one tells about its tolerance. e.g. Orange-White-Red-Black 3900 pF ±20%

If the capacitor has five colours on its surface, then the first three colours give its nominal value,
the fourth one tells about its tolerance & the fifth one about the breakdown voltage. e.g. Brown-
black- yellow- white- red indicates capacitance of 100000 pF ± 10% 250 Volts

Types of practical capacitors-Capacitors may be divided basically into two types, fixed and
variable, and the fixed capacitors may be further divided into electrolytic and non-electrolytic
types.

Non-electrolytic capacitors-When relativity low values of capacitance are needed, Non-

electrolytic capacitors are used, and one of the most common types of non-electrolytic
capacitors is the paper capacitor. The plates are made of two strips of very thin metal foil and
are separated by a strip of waxed paper. The sandwich is coiled into a tight roll, and wire leads
23
are attached to the plates. The assembly may be encapsulated in plastic, or, in the case of an
aircraft magneto capacitor, sealed in a metal can. Capacitors requiring a smaller capacity, but a
higher working voltage, are made using stacks of thin metal foil sandwiched between thin
sheets of mica. This stack-up is encapsulated in plastic and is familiar to us as the rectangular
block-like capacitor. For high voltage applications paper capacitors may be enclosed in a metal
container filled with insulating oil. If a voltage surge should break through the insulator, the oil
will flow in and restore its insulating characteristics. These are called self- healing capacitors.
High-voltage, low capacitance capacitors may be made of either a disc or tube of ceramic
material plated with silver on each side to form the plates. The leads are attached to the silver,
and the entire unit is covered with a protective insulation.

Electrolytic capacitors-Electrolytic capacitors are used when it is necessary to have a large

amount of capacity with a relatively low working voltage. These capacitors are polarized,
meaning that they can be used only in DC circuits because they act as capacitors only when
they are properly connected into the circuit. If they are installed with the wrong polarity, current
will flow through them, causing them to overheat and actually explode.

The reason electrolytic capacitors have such a high capacity for their small physical size is their
extremely thin dielectric. The positive plate is made of aluminum foil and has electrolytically
deposited on its surface an extremely thin oxide film which serves as the dielectric. A liquid or
paste electrolyte which will conduct current saturates a gauss, which is held in contact with both
the positive plate, and the negative can in which the capacitor is sealed. The moist electrolyte
forms the second plate of the capacitor and this combination of metal plate, oxide film, and
conductive liquid or paste makes a capacitor, which has the maximum capacity for its size.

If the electrolytic capacitor is connected in opposite polarity, the reversed electrolysis forms gas
in the capacitor. It becomes hot and may explode. This is a possibility only with electrolytic-
capacitors. The disadvantage of electrolytic capacitors, in addition to the required polarization,
is their relatively high leakage current compared with other capacitors, since the oxide film is
not a perfect insulator. The problem with leakage current in a capacitor is that it allows part of
the dc component to be coupled into the next circuit along with the ac component. In the newer
electrolytic capacitors, the leakage capacitors, the leakage current is quite small.

Series & parallel connections of capacitors-In a capacitor, the voltage between its plates is
proportional to the amount of charge on the plates. Capacitance is a measure of how much
charge is required to produce a given voltage between the plates of a capacitor.

Capacitors in series & parallel-It is often necessary to connect multiple capacitors into a
circuit and, when they are installed in series, the effect is comparable to increasing the
separation between the capacitor plates, thus the total capacity will be less than that of any of
the series capacitors. The formulas for finding the total series capacitance are the same as
those used for finding the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel. When multiple
capacitors of equal value are connected in series, the total capacitance is found by dividing the
value of one capacitor by the number of capacitors in series. If there are two unlike capacitors,
the total may be found by dividing the product of the two by their sum.

When there are more than two unlike capacitors, their total capacity is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual capacitors. When capacitors are connected in parallel, the
effect is the same as adding the areas of their plates. So, the total capacity is the sum of that of
the individual capacitors.

Time constants of capacitors-In a capacitive circuit, the results are the opposite. Changes in
the current lead the changes in the voltage. When the switch is closed, current immediately
begins to flow as electrons are attracted away from the positive plate and forced onto the
negative plate. The voltage across the plate does not jump up immediately, but it rises as the
plates become charged. The time constant of a capacitive circuit is the time, in seconds required
for the voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the source voltage and is determined by
both the capacitance and the resistance of the circuit, expressed as, time constant = R x C
seconds

Timing circuits are often made using a capacitor and a resistor in series. We have a 100,000-
ohm resistor in series with a 100-microfarad capacitor and both of these across a 100-volt power
source. When the switch is closed, current will begin to flow but it will be limited in its rate by
the opposition caused by the resistor. In 10 seconds, the voltage will rise to 63.2 volts, in 20
seconds, it will be up to 86.5 volts, in 30 seconds, to 95 volts, in 40 seconds to 98 volts, and in
24
50 seconds the voltage will be equal to the source of 100 volts and no more current will flow.
When the switch is placed in the discharged position, the voltage will begin to drop as the
capacitor starts to discharge. It will begin to drop as the capacitor starts to discharge. It will
follow the curve of and in 10 seconds it will be down to 36.8 volts, and then its drop will slow
down. In 20 seconds, it will be down to 13.5 volts, in 30 seconds, to 5 volts, in 40 seconds to 2
volts, and it will not be down to zero volts until the current has flowed through the resistor for 50
seconds or five time constants.

Electromagnetic induction-The transfer of electric energy from one circuit to another without
the aid of electric connections is called induction. When electric energy is transferred by means
of a magnetic field, it is called electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction occurs
whenever there is relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic field, provided the
conductor is cutting across the magnetic lines of force and is not moving parallel to them. The
relative movement may be caused by a stationary conductor and a moving field or by a moving
conductor with a stationary field. A moving field may be provided by a moving magnet or by
changing the valve of the current in an electromagnet. The two general classifications of
electromagnetic induction are generator action and transformer action. Both actions are the
same electrically but the methods of operation are different.

Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction-Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic

flux, an e.m.f is induced in that conductor. or, Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a
circuit changes an e.m.f is always induced in it.

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction-The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is

equal to the rate of change of flux-linkages. (When 1x10 8 lines of force are cut per
second, an e.m.f of 1volt will be induced).

The direction of induced e.m.f and current can be found by applying left-hand-rule for
generators or Lenz’s Law. Left-hand rule is used where induced e.m.f is due to flux-cutting i.e.
dynamically induced e.m.f and Lenz’s when it is due to change by flux-linkages i.e. statically
induced e.m.f. Faraday's second law determines the magnitude of an induced e.m.f, and Lenz's
law determines the polarity.

Dynamically induced e.m.f-The field is stationary and conductors cut across it e.g. dc
generators.

Statically induced e.m.f- The conductor or the coil remains stationary and the flux linked with it
is changed by increasing or decreasing the current producing this flux e.g. transformers.
Statically induced e.m.f can be divided into (i) mutually induced e.m.f and (ii) self-induced
e.m.f.

Mutually induced-e.m.f -An e.m.f induced in one coil by the influence of the other coil is called
mutually induced e.m.f.

Self-induced e.m.f-The counter e.m.f induced in a coil, whenever there a change in the current
through it is called the self-induced-e.m.f.

Self-inductance-Anytime current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field surrounds it and the

strength of this field is determined by the amount of current flow. The direction of the lines of
flux around the conductor may be found by the left-hand rule for generators. Which states that if
the conductor is held in the left hand so that the thumb points in the direction of electron flow
(from the negative to the positive terminal of the source), the fingers will encircle the conductor
in the direction of the lines of flux. As the amount of current flow changes, the magnetic field
expands or contracts. As it does, the flux cuts across the conductor and induces a voltage into it.
According to Lenz’s law, the voltage that is induced into the conductor is of such a polarity that
it opposes the change that caused it. For example, as the voltage begins to rise and the current
increases, the expanding lines of flux cut across the conductor and induce a voltage into it that
opposes, or slow down, the rise. When the current flow in the conductor is steady, lines of flux
surround it, and since there is no change in the amount of current, these lines do not cut across
the conductor, and so there is no voltage induced into it. When the current decreases, the lines
of flux cut across the conductor as they collapse and they induce into it a voltage that opposes
the decrease. When the conductor carries alternating current, both the amount and the
direction of the current continually change, so an opposing voltage is constantly induced into
the conductor.

25
Factors affecting inductance-Inductance opposes in current by the generation of a back
voltage, and all conductors have the characteristics of inductance, since they all generate back
voltage any time the current flowing in them changes.

The amount of inductance is increased by anything that concentrates the line of flux or causes
more of the flux to cut across the conductor. If the conductor is formed into a coil, the lines of
flux surrounding any one of the turns cut not only across the conductor itself, but also across
each of its turns, and so it generates a much greater induced current to oppose the source
current. If a soft iron core is inserted into the coil, it will further concentrate the lines of flux and
cause a still higher induced current. Which allows less source current flow. Inductance is
measured in henrys, and one henry will generate one volt of induced voltage when the current
changes at the rate of one ampere per second. The inductance of a coil is determined by the
number of turns in the coil, by the spacing between the turns, by the numbers of layers of
winding, and by the wire size. The ratio of the diameter of the coil to its length and the type of
material used in the core also affect the amount of inductance in the coil. Since all of these
factors are variable, there is no simple formula we can use to find the inductance of a coil.

It is sometimes necessary to use more than one inductor, or coil, in a circuit. If they are
connected in series in such a way that the changing magnetic field of one does not affect the
others, the total inductance will be equal to the some of their individual inductance. When
inductors are connected in parallel, the total inductance will be less than that of any of the
individual inductors. The formulas used for finding the total inductance of parallel connected
inductors are the same as those used for finding the total resistance of parallel connected
resistors. If the inductors are all the same, the total inductance may be found by dividing the
inductance, in henrys, of one inductor by the number of inductors.

If there are only two inductors, the total inductance may be found by dividing the product of the
two inductors by their sum. When more than two inductors having different amounts of
inductance are connected in parallel, the formula used in the same as that for finding the total
resistance of several unlike resistors connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocal of the inductances.

Time constant of inductors-If a source of direct current is placed across an inductor and
controlled by a switch. We see that the current does not rise instantly. At the instant
the switch is closed, the current finds a minimum of opposition and starts to flow as its
greatest rate. But this great change in the rate of the current flow from zero to
maximum induces a maximum induces a maximum back voltage that opposes the
current and causes the current rise to decrease.

The time required for the current to rise 63.2% of its peak value is known as the time constant
of the circuit and is determined by the value of inductance and resistance in the circuit,
expressed as, time constant = L/R seconds. For example, a circuit containing 2H of inductance
and 50 ohms of resistance would have a time constant of 0.04 second, which would normally be
spoken of as 40 milliseconds. The current will rise to 63.2% of its peak value in a period of time
equal to one time constant (0.04 second). In two time constants, or 0.08 second, it will rise to
86.5% of its peak value. In three time constants (0.12 seconds) to 98%, and it will take five time
constants or 0.2 second for the current to approach the peak value of the source. When the
switch is opened, the current starts to drop off immediately, but the changing current induces a
voltage that opposes the change and so drop-off is slowed down.

Inductive reactance-The opposition to the flow of alternating current caused by the

generation of a back voltage as the magnetic flux cuts across the conductor is called inductive
reactance, and its symbol is XL. It is measured in ohms, and it varies directly as the frequency of
the AC that produces it. The formula for inductive reactance is-XL = 2 π f L ohm. Where, 2π is
the constant equal to 6.28, the frequency is measured in hertz, and the inductance, in henrys,
From this formula, we see that for zero frequency, as we have in direct current, there is no
inductive reactance. This is because there is no changing magnetic field. As the frequency
increases, the amount of change in the magnetic field increases, and the inductive reactance
increases. An infinite frequency would produce an infinite amount of inductive reactance, the
opposition is caused by the generation of a counter or back, electromotive force. Unlike the
opposition caused by resistance, no heat is generated in the circuit by this opposition, and
therefore no power is dissipated. If the circuit is purely inductive- that is, there is no resistance
present- the current will not begin to flow until the voltage has risen to its peak value. The
amount of current is determined by the rate of change of the voltage, that when the voltage is
at its peak, there is no change, and so the current is zero. There can be no true power in a
26
purely inductive circuit, because the negative power equals the positive power. The load returns
as much power as it receives from the source.

If an inductor of the proper size is placed in series with a light bulb, the inductive reactance will
cause most of the source voltage to be dropped across the inductor, and the bulb will burn very
dimly, if at all. Most aircraft use 400-hertz alternating current, because the inductive reactance
at this frequency is high enough to allow smaller transformers and motors to be used. If a
transformer designed for 400-hertz AC is used in a 60-hertz circuit, the lower frequency will
allow enough current to flow that the transformer will be burned out. But if a 60-hertz
transformer is used in a 400-hertz circuit, there will be so much inductive reactance that the
efficiency of the transformer will be too low for practical use.

Mutual inductance-When alternating current flows in a conductor, the changing lines of flux
radiate out and cut across any other conductor that is nearby, and anytime they cut across a
conductor, they generate a voltage in it even though there is no electrical connection between
the two. Hence, mutually induced e.m.f is produced in the other conductor, whose magnitude is
given by Faraday’s laws and direction by Lenz’s law. This induced voltage, generated by mutual
inductance is the basis for transformer action that is so important to us in our use of alternating
current, as it allows us to change the values of AC voltage and current in our circuits.

Use of inductors
Chokes-It is often necessary to install an inductor, or a choke, in a circuit to impede the flow of
alternating current of a particular frequency, while not affecting the flow of AC below
that frequency.

When alternating in the power frequencies of 50 or 60 hertz is rectified, or changed into direct
current, the output is in the form of pulsating direct current, and if an inductor is placed in series
with the load, the changing current will induce back voltage that will tend to smooth out the
pulsations, or ripples. Chokes of this type have laminated iron cores and often have an
inductance of more than one henry.

Transformers-We can get almost any voltage of alternating current by using a transformer.
The primary winding is designed to accept the voltage and frequency of the power
source, and there may be one or more secondary windings needed for the particular
application.

Characteristics of the circuit elements

Resistor Capacitor Inductor
Opposes the flow of current Opposes any sudden Oppose any sudden change in
change in voltage current
Dissipates energy as heat Stores energy Stores energy
Ideal resistance has fixed Ideal capacitor dissipates Ideal inductor has no resistance
resistance for any input no energy. Practical and dissipates no energy.
voltage. Practical resistance capacitor has leakage Practical inductor dissipates
will have its resistance resistance which does energy due to its winding
change at higher voltages. dissipate some power. resistance and also losses in the
core.
Resistance acts the same Capacitor opposes change Inductor opposes change in the
during transient interval & in in the voltage during current during transient interval &
steady state. transient interval & acts as acts as short circuit in d.c steady
open circuit in d.c steady state.
state.

Dc motors &
generators
Dc motor theory-A direct current motor is a rotating machine which transforms direct-current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Whenever a current-carrying wire is placed in the field
of a magnet, a force acts on the wire. The force is not one of attraction or repulsion, however, it
is at right angles to the wire and also at right angles to the magnetic field set up by the magnet.

Since, the current-carrying-wire produces a magnetic field, a reaction occurs between the field
about the wire and the magnetic field between the magnets. When the current flows in a
direction to create a counter clockwise magnetic field about the wire, this field and the field
27
between the magnets add at the bottom of the wire because the lines of force are in the same
direction. At the top of the wire, they subtract or neutralize, since the top lines of force in the
two fields are opposite in direction. Thus, the resulting field at the bottom is strong and the one
at the top is weak. Thus, the wire is pushed-upward. The wire is always pushed away from the
strong field.

If current flow through the wire were reversed in direction, the two fields would add at the top
and subtract at the bottom. Since, a wire is always pushed-away from the strong field, the wire
would be pushed down. The tendency of a force to produce rotation is called torque. Torque is
developed by the reacting magnetic fields about the current-carrying coil. This is the torque
which turns the coil.

The right-hand-motor-rule can be used to determine the direction of the current-carrying wire
will move in a magnetic field. If the index finger of the right hand is pointed in the direction of
magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of current-flow, the thumb will indicate the
direction the current carrying conductor will move.

The torque in a motor containing only a single coil is neither continuous nor very effective,
because there are two positions where there is no torque at all. To overcome this, a practical dc
motor contains a large number of coils wound on the armature. These coils are spaced do that,
for any position of the armature, there will be coils near the poles of the magnet. This makes the
torque both continuous and strong. The part of the motor which changes the current from one
wire to another is called the commutator. The commutator, likewise, contains a large no. of
segments instead of two.

Dc motor construction-The major parts in a practical motor are the armature assembly, the
field assembly, the brush assembly and the end frames.

Armature assembly-The armature assembly contains a laminated, soft-iron core, coils and a
commutator, all mounted on a rotatable steel shaft. Laminations made of stacks of soft iron,
insulated from each other, form the armature core solid iron is not used. Since a solid iron core
revolving in a magnetic field would heat and use energy needlessly. The armature windings are
insulated copper-wire, which are inserted in slots insulated with fibre paper (fish paper) to
protect the windings. The end if the windings are connected to the commutator segments.
Wedges or steel bands holds the windings in place to prevent them from flying out of the slots
when the armature is rotating at high speeds. The commutator consists of a large no. of copper
segments insulated from each other and the armature shaft by pieces of mica. Insulated wedge
rings hold the segments in place.

Field assembly-The field assembly consists of the field frame, the pole pieces, and the field
coils. The field-frame is located along the inner wall of the motor housing. It contains laminated
soft steel pole pieces on which the field-coils are wound. A coil, consisting of several turns of
insulated wire, fits over each pole-piece and together with the pole, constitute a field-pole.

Brush assembly-The brush assembly consists of the brushes and their holders. The brushes
are usually small blocks of graphite carbon, since this material has a long service life and also
causes minimum wear to the commutator. The holders permit some play in the brushes so they
can follow any irregularities in the surface of the commutator and make good contact. Springs
hold the brushes firmly against the commutator.

End frames-The end frame is designed so that it can be connected to the unit to be driven. The
bearing for the drive end is also located in the end frame sometimes, the end-frame is made a
part of the unit driven by the motor. When this is done, the bearing on the drive end may be
located in any of a number of places.

Types of dc motors
There are three basic types of dc motors-Series motor, Shunt Motor & Compound Motor. They
differ largely in the method in which their field and armature are connected.

Series dc motor-In the series motor, the field winding consists of a relatively few turns of
heavy wire, are connected in series with the armature-windings. The same current flowing
through the field winding also flows through the armature winding. Any increase in current,
therefore, strengthens the magnetism of both the field and the armature. Because of the low
resistance in the windings, the series motor is able to draw large current in starting. This
starting current, in passing-through both the field and armature-windings produces a high
28
starting torque. The speed of a series motor is dependent upon the load. A series motor will run
at high speed when it has a light load and at low speed with a heavy load. If the load is removed
entirely, the motor may operate at such a high speed that the armature will fly-apart series
motors are used in aircraft as engine-starters and for raising and lowering lauding gear, cowl
flaps and wing flaps.

Shunt dc motors-In the shunt motor field winding is connected in parallel or in shunt with the
armature winding. The resistance in the field winding is high. Since, the field winding is
connected directly across the power supply, the current through the field is constant. The field
current does not change with the motor speed as in the series motor and therefore, the torque
of the shunt motor will change only with the current through the armature. The torque
developed at starting is less than that developed by a series motor of equal size. Shunt motor is
suitable for use when constant speed is desired and when high starting torque is not needed.

Compound dc motor-The compound motor is a combination of the series and shunt motors.
There are two windings in the field-a shunt winding and a series winding. The shunt winding has
many turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with the armature-winding. The series
winding consists of a few turns of large wire and is connected in series with the armature
winding. The starting torque is higher than in the shunt motor but lower than in the series motor
variation of speed with load is less than in a series motor but greater than in a shunt motor. The
compound motor is used whenever the combined characteristics of the series and shunt motors
are desired.

Reversing motor direction-To reverse the direction of rotation of a d.c motor, reverse the
polarity of either the field or the armature but not both. Motors used for operation of flap-
system, landing gear actuators, auto-pilot servo and many other application, require reversing
the direction of rotation. If the wires connecting the motor to an external source are
interchanged, the direction of rotation will not be reversed, since changing these wires reverses
the magnetism of both field and armature and leaves the torque in the same direction as before.
The single-pole, double-throw switch makes it possible to direct, current to either of the two
windings. When the switch is connected to CW position, the motor rotates in CW direction and
when the CW position is selected, the direction of current creates a torque, since the two
windings are wound in opposite directions. This type of motor is also known as split-field-series-
motor. Another method of reversal, called switch-method employs a double-pole, double-throw
switch which changes the direction of current flow in either the armature or the field. In the
above figure, current direction may be reversed through the field but not through the armature.

In a dc shunt motor a double-pole, double-throw switch is used with the armature being supplied
with current in either position of the switch. When the switch is in one position, the armature is
supplied through one-half of the switch and the clockwise field coils are supplied through the
other half. When the switch is in the counter-clockwise position, the counter-clockwise field coils
are supplied as well as the armature. When the switch is in the centre-position, all current is
shut off to both the field and the armature.

Changing motor speed-Motor speed can be controlled by varying the current in the field
windings. When the amount of current flowing through the field windings is increased, the field
strength increases but the motor slows down since a greater amount of back e.m.f is generated
in the armature windings. When the field current is decreased, the field strength decreases and
the motor speeds up because the back e.m.f is reduced. A motor in which the speed can be
controlled is called a variable speed motor.

In the shunt motor, speed is controlled by a rheostat in series with the field windings. If the
resistance in the rheostat is increased, the field current decreases. As a result, there is a
decrease in the strength of the magnetic field and in the counter e.m.f. This momentarily
increases the armature current and the torque. The motor will then speed up until the counter
e.m.f increases and causes the armature-current to decrease to its previous value. When this
occurs, the motor will operate at a higher fixed speed than before. To decrease motor speed,
the resistance of the rheostat is decreased. More current flows through the field windings and
increases the strength of the field, then, the counter e.m.f increases momentarily and
decreases the armature current. As a result, the torque decreases and the motor slows-down
until the counter e.m.f decreases to its previous value, then the motor operates at a lower fixed
speed than before.

In the series motor, the rheostat speed control is connected either in parallel or in series with
the motor field or in parallel with the armature-windings. When the rheostat is set for maximum
29
resistance the motor speed is increased in the parallel armature connection by a decrease in
current. When the rheostat resistance is maximum in the series-connection, motor speed is
reduced by a reduction in voltage across the motor. For above normal speed operation, the
rheostat is in parallel with the series field. Part of the series field is by passed and the motor
speeds up.

Energy losses in dc motors-Losses occur when electrical energy is converted to mechanical

energy in the motor or mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy in the generator.
Some losses are electrical others are mechanical. Electrical losses are clarified as copper losses
and iron losses, mechanical losses occur in overcoming the friction of various parts of the
machine.

Copper losses occur when electrons are forced through the copper windings of the armature &
the field. They are sometimes called I2R losses, since they are due to the power dissipated in the
form of heat in the resistance of the field and armature windings.

Iron losses are subdivided into hysterisis and eddy current losses. Hysterisis losses are caused
by the armature revolving in an alternating magnetic field. It therefore becomes magnetized in
one direction and then in the other. The residual magnetism of the iron or steel of which the
armature is made causes these losses. Since, the field magnets are always magnetized in one
direction (dc field) they have no hysterisis losses. Eddy current losses occur because the iron
core of the armature is a conductor revolving in a magnetic field. This sets up an emf across
portions of the core, causing currents to flow within the core. The currents heat the core and if
they becomes excessive, may damage the windings. To reduce eddy currents to a minimum, a
laminated core usually is used. A laminated core is made of thin sheets of iron electrically
insulated from each other. The insulation between laminations reduces eddy currents, because
it is "transverse" to the direction in which these currents tend to flow. However, it has no effect
of the magnetic circuit. When trouble develops in a dc motor system, check first to determine
the source of the trouble. Replace the motor only when the trouble is due to a defect in the
motor itself. In most cases, the failure of a motor to operate is caused by a defect in the external
electrical circuit or by mechanical failure in the mechanism driven by the motor.

Dc generator-A generator is any machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy by electromagnetic induction. A generator which produces direct-current energy is called
a dc generator. In aeroplanes one or more dc generators driven by the engine supply electrical
energy for operation of all units in electrical system as well as energy for changing the battery.

Theory-When lines of magnetic force are cut by a conductor passing through them, voltage is
induced in the conductor. The strength of the induced voltage is dependent upon the speed of
the conductor and the strength of the magnetic field. If the end of the conductors are
connected to form a complete circuit, a current is induced in the conductor.

The loop of wire is arranged to rotate in a magnetic field. When the plane of the loop is in a
vertical position i.e. when both the sides are parallel to the magnetic lines of force, no lines of
force are cut and there is no induced voltage. As the rotation of the loop continues, the no. of
lines of parallel to the magnetic lines of force, i.e. the sides are cutting maximum lines of force
by being horizontal. As rotation of the loop continues, the no. of lines of force having been cut
decreases and the induced voltage becomes zero when the loop becomes vertical once again.
So far the loop has completed half-cycle of rotation and the fixed brushes are in contact with the
rotating commutator-segments. Beyond this position, when the loop starts to rotate, the
segment of the commutator touching the brushes changes and because of this though the
current reverses its direction, commutator action causes the current to flow always in the same
direction. The process of commutation is sometimes called rectification since rectification is the
converting an ac voltage to a dc voltage.

At the instants when each brush is contacting two segments on the commutator a direct short
circuit is produced. If an e.m.f were generated in the loop at this time, a high current would flow
in the circuit causing an arc and thus damaging the commutator. For this reason, the brushes
must placed in the exact position where the short will occur when the generated e.m.f is zero.
This position is called the neutral plane. The voltage generated by the basic dc generator varies
from zero to its maximum values twice for each revolution of the loop. This variation of dc
voltage is called 'ripple' and may be reduced by using more loops or coils and the no. of
commutator segments is increased in direct proportion to the number of loops i.e. two segments
for one loop, four segments for two loops and so on. Increasing the no. of loops does not
increase the maximum value of generated voltage but, increasing the no. turns in each loop will
30
increase this value. The major parts of a dc generators are a field frame or yoke, a rotating
armature and brush assembly.

Field frame or yoke-The frame has two functions-it completes the magnetic circuit between
the poles & acts as a mechanical support for the other parts of the generator. In small
generators, the frame is made of one piece of iron but in larger generators it is usually made of
two parts bolted together. The frame has high magnetic properties and together with the pole
pieces forms the major part of the magnetic circuit. The field poles are bolted to the inside of
the frame and form a core on which the field coil windings are mounted. The poles are usually
laminated to reduce eddy current losses and serve the same purpose as the of an
electromagnet i.e. they concentrate the lines of force produced by the field-coils. The entire
frame including field poles is made from high-quality magnetic iron or sheet steel (silicon steel is
generally used which has a property to retain magnetism source of its magnetism). A practical
d.c generator uses electromagnets instead of permanent magnets. To produce a magnetic field
of the necessary strength with permanent magnets would greatly increase the size of the
generator.

The field coils are made up of many turns of insulated wire and are usually wound on α form
which fits over the iron core of the pole to which it is securely fastened. The exciting current
which is used to produce the magnetic field and which flows through the field coils, is obtained
from an external source or from the generated d.c of the machine. Most field coils are connected
in such a manner that the poles show alternate polarity. In projected pole machines the air
offers a great amount of reluctance to the magnetic field, this design reduces the length of the
air gap between the poles and the rotating armature and increases the efficiency of the
generator.

Armature-The armature assembly consists of armature coil wound on an iron core, a

commutator and associated mechanical parts. Mounted on a shaft it rotates through the
magnetic field produced by the field coils. The core of the armature acts as an iron conductor in
the magnetic field and, for this reason, is laminated to prevent the circulation of eddy currents.
A drum-type armature has coil placed in slots in the core but there is no electrical connection
between the coil and core. Usually, the coils are held in place in the slots by means of wooden or
fibre wedges. The connection of the individual coils called coil-ends are brought out to individual
segments on the commutator.

Commutator-The commutator is located at the end of an armature and consists of wedge-

shaped segments of hard-drawn copper, insulated from each other by thin sheets of mica. The
segments are held in place by sheet V-rings or clamping-flanges fitted with bolts. Rings of mica
insulate the segments from the flanges. The raised portion of each segment is called a riser, and
the leads from the armature coils are soldered to the risers. When the segments have no risers,
the leads are soldered to short slits in the ends of the segments.

The brushes ride on the surface of the commutator, forming the electrical contact between the
armature coils and the external circuit. A flexible, braided-copper conductor commonly called a
pig-tail connects each brush to the external circuit. The brushes usually made of high-grade
carbon and held in place by brush holders of high-grade carbon and held in place by brush
holders insulated from the frame, are free to slide up and down in their holders. The brushes are
usually adjustable so that the pressure of the brushes on the commutator can be varied and the
position of the brushes sort the segments can be adjusted. The carbon must be soft enough to
prevent undue wear of the commutator and yet hard enough to provide reasonable brush life,
and it must be of large area to provide a large area of contact. (minimum acceptable brush
contact area is 80% ). Brush spring tension is checked by spring balance. The commutator
surface is highly polished to reduce friction as much as possible. Oil or grease must never be
used on a commutator.

Series-wound d.c generator-The field winding of a series generator is connected in series

with the external circuit. The field coils are composed of a few turns of large wire, the magnetic
field coils are composed of a few turns of large wire, the magnetic field strength depends more
on the current flow rather than the no. of turns in the coil. The greater the current through the
field coils to the external circuit, the greater the induced emf and the greater the terminal or
output voltage. Therefore when the load is increased, the voltage increases similarly when the
load is decreased, the voltage decreases. Thus the voltage regulation of a series dc generator
under changing load is poor. The output voltage may be controlled by a rheostat in parallel with
the field windings. Because of such a poor regulation, it is never used as an aeroplane
generator.
31
Shunt wound dc generators-A generator having a field winding connected in parallel with the
external circuit is called a shunt generator. The field coils of a shunt generator contains many
turns of smaller gauge wire, the magnetic strength is derived from the large no. of turns rather
than the current strength through the coils. Since the armature and the load are connected in
series, all current flowing in the external circuit passes through the armature winding. Because
of the resistance in the armature winding, there is a voltage drop. As the load increases, the
armature current increases and the voltage drop in the armature resistance increases. The
terminal voltage in the armature and the drop across the armature-resistance, thus decreases.
This decrease in voltage causes a decreases in field strength because the current in the field
coils decreases in proportion to the decrease in terminal voltage, with a weaker field, the
voltage is further reduced.

When the load decreases, the output voltage increases accordingly, and a larger current flows in
the windings. This action is cumulative, so the output voltage continues to rise to a point called
field saturation, after which there is no further increase in output voltage. Thus, the shunt
generator is not suitable for rapidly fluctuating loads. The terminal voltage of a shunt generator
can be controlled by means of a rheostat inserted in series with the field winding. As the
resistance is increased, the field current is reduced, thus, the generator voltage is reduced also.
Certain voltage-sensitive devices available which automatically adjust the field rheostat to
compensate for variation in load. When these devices are used, the terminal voltage remains
essentially constant.

Compound-wound dc generator-A compound wound generator combines a series winding

and a shunt winding in such a way that the characteristics of each are used to advantage. The
series field coils are made of a relatively small no. of turns of large copper conductor, and are
connected in series with the armature circuit. These coils are mounted on the same poles on
which the shunt field coils are mounted and therefore contribute a magneto-motive force which
influences the main field flux of the generator. If the ampere-turns of the series field act in the
same direction as those of the shunt-field, the combined magneto-motive force is equal to the
sum of the series and shunt field components.

Armature reaction-By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by
armature current on the distribution of flux under main poles of a generator.

Current flowing through the armature sets up electro-magnetic field in the windings. These new
fields tend to distort or bend the magnetic flux between the poles of a generator from a straight
line path. Since armature current increases with load, the distortion becomes greater with an
increase in load. This distortion of the magnetic field is called armature-reaction. The armature
magnetic field has two effects-it demagnetises or weakens the main flux, and, it cross
magnetises or distorts it.

There is a magnetic neutral axis (MNA) along which no emf is produced in the armature
conductors because they move parallel to the lines of flux or MNA is the axis which is
perpendicular to the flux passing through the armature. The brushes are always placed along
MNA. Armature windings of a generator are spaced in such a way that, during rotation of the
armature, there are certain positions when the brushes contact two adjacent segments, thereby
sorting the armature windings to these segments. Usually, when the magnetic field is not
distorted, there is no voltage being induced in the shorted windings, and therefore no harmful
results occur from the shorting of the windings. However, when the field is distorted, a voltage is
induced in these shorted windings and sparking takes place between the brushes and the
commutator segments. Thus, the wear on the brushes becomes excessive and the output of the
generator is reduced. To correct this, the brushes are set so that the plane of the coils which are
shorted by the brushes is perpendicular to the distorted magnetic field, which is done by moving
the brushes forward in the direction of rotation.

Interpoles or compoles-These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the
main poles. They are wound with relatively few heavy gauge Cu wire turns and are connected in
series with the armature so that they carry full armature current. Their polarity, in the case of a
generator, is the same as that of the main pole ahead in the direction of motion. The magnetic
flux produced by an interpole cause the current in the armature to change direction as an
armature winding passes under it. This cancels the electromagnetic field about the armature
windings. The magnetic strength of the interpoles varies with the load on the generator, and
since field distortion varies with the load, the magnetic field of the interpoles counteracts the
effects of the field set up around the armature windings and minimises field distortion.
32
Compensating windings-These are used for large direct current machines which are
subjected to large fluctuations in load. In the absence of compensating windings, the flux will be
suddenly shifting backward and forward with any change in load. This shifting of flux will induce
statically induced emf in the armature coils. The magnitude of this emf will depend upon the
rapidity of changes in the load and the amount of change. This may be so high as to strike an
arc between the consecutive commutator segments across the top of the mica sheets
separating them. These windings are placed in slots in the pole shoes an dare connected in
series with armature in such a way that the current in them flows in opposite direction to that
flowing in armature conductors directly below the pole shoes.

Iron loss in an armature-Due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the magnetic
flux of the field poles, there are some losses taking place continuously in the core an dare
known as Iron losses or Core losses. Iron losses consists of Hysterisis loss and Eddy current loss.

Hysterisis loss-This loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation of the armature core. Every
portion of the rotating core passes under N and S poles alternately, thereby attaining S and N
poles respectively. The core undergo one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing
under one pair of poles. If P is the no. of poles and N, the armature speed in rpm then frequency
of magnetic reversal is f = P x N/120. The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron,
max. value of flux density and frequency of magnetic reversals.

Eddy current loss-When the armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic flux. Hence, an
e.m.f is induced in the body of the core. This e.m.f though small, sets up large current in the
body of the core due to its small resistance. This current is known as eddy current. The power
loss due to the flow of this current is known as eddy current loss. This loss would be
considerable if solid iron core were used. In order to reduce this loss and the consequent
heating of the core to a small value, the core is built up of thin laminations, which are stacked
and then riveted at right angles to the path of the eddy currents. These core laminations are
insulated from each other by a thin coating of varnish. The same core has been split up into thin
circular discs insulated from each other, being resistance. Hence, magnitude of eddy current is
reduced considerably thereby drastically reducing eddy current loss.

Eddy current loss is reduced by using laminated core but hysterisis loss can not be reduced this
way. For reducing the hysterisis loss, those metal are chosen for the armature core which have
a low hysterisis coefficient. Generally, special silicon steels such as steel alloys are used which
not only have a low hysterisis coefficient but which also posses high electrical resistivity.

Starter generators-Most small turbine engines are equipped with starter-generators rather
than separate starters and generators. This effects an appreciable weight saving, as both
starters and generators are quite heavy and they are never used at the same time. The
armature of a starter-generator is splined to fit into a drive pad on the engine, rather then being
connected through a clutch and drive jaws as starters are. Starter-generators are equipped with
two or three sets of field winding. The generator circuit consists of the armature, a series filed
around the interpoles and a shunt filed for generator control. A series motor filed is wound
around the pole shoes inside the filed frame and the end of this winding is connected to the C
terminal. For starting, current flows from the battery or external power unit through the series
winding and the armature. As soon as the engine starts, the start relay disconnects this winding
and connects the generator circuit to the aircraft electrical system.

A.c.
fundamentals
Alternating current is defined as current that periodically changes direction and continuously
changes in magnitude. The current starts at zero and builds up to a maximum in one
direction, then falls back to zero, builds up to a maximum opposite direction and reduces to
zero. In the same manner the voltage attains a maximum in one direction, drops to zero,
rises to a maximum in the opposite direction, and returns to zero. The voltage i.e. the
electrical pressure does not actually flow, therefore when voltage changes direction, the
positive and negative values simply reverse i.e. polarity of the circuit reverses. Values of
alternating current and voltage are indicated by a sine curve or sine wave.

Phase-The phase of an alternating current or voltage is the angular distance it has moved from
0˚ in a positive direction. The phase angle is the difference in degree of rotation between two

33
alternating currents or voltages, or between a voltage and a current. In circuits where the
current and voltage do not reach maximum at the same time, they are said to be out of phase.

Peak value-The amplitude or peak value is the maximum instantaneous value of an alternating
quantity in the positive and negative directions.

R.m.s value-The effective or r.m.s current is equivalent to that d.c current, which produces the
same amount of heat in a resistance, when applied for the duration of time. The calculation of
power, energy etc, in an a.c circuit is not straightforward because the values of current and
voltage are changing throughout the cycle. The ‘effective’ value of these quantities are
calculated by taking a number of instantaneous values, square of these values, taking their
mean and then taking the square root.

Mean and average value-The steady or direct current which transfers in the circuit the same
charge as is transferred by the alternating current during the alternation is called the mean or
average value of alternating wave.

DC Voltage AC Voltage
Fixed polarity Reverses in polarity
Can be steady or vary in magnitude Varies between reversals in polarity
Steady value can not be stepped up or down by Can be stepped up or down for electric power
a transformer distribution
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect is the same for direct or alternating current

Cycle-A cycle is one complete sequence of voltage or current changes from zero through a
positive peak to zero, then through a negative peak, back to zero where it can start over and
repeat the sequence.

Alternation-An alternation is one-half of an ac cycle in which the voltage or current rises from
zero to a peak and back to zero.

Period-The period is the duration of time to complete one cycle or in other words time period is
the duration of time after which a signal starts repeating its pattern. In can be expressed in
seconds or milliseconds or in electrical degrees where one cycle equals 3600.

Frequency-Frequency of a signal is the number of cycles completed in one second. Its unit is
hertz (Hz). Bigger units are Kilo-hertz (kHz), Mega-hertz (MHz) & Giga-hertz (GHz).

Instantaneous value-The instantaneous value is the value of an alternating quantity at any

given instant of time.

Peak to peak value-It is the difference between the two peak values of an alternating quantity
in the positive and negative directions. For a uniformly time-varying signal, it is just the double
of the amplitude or the peak value as both the maximum values are the same in positive &
negative directions.

Average or mean value-The steady or direct current which transfers in the circuit the same
charge as is transferred by the alternating current during the alternation is called the mean or
average value of alternating wave. For a sine wave, average value = 0.637 x peak value

In all cases, the cycle is measured between two points having the same amplitude and varying
in the same direction. The period is the time for one cycle. Peak amplitude is measured from the
zero axis to the maximum positive or negative value. However, peak-to-peak amplitude is better
for measuring non-sinusoidal waveforms because they can have unsymmetrical peaks.

 The rms value 0.707 of maximum applies only to sine wave, as this factor is derived from the
sine wave in the angular measure used only for the sine waveforms.
 Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as angular measure is used only for sine waves.
 For all the waveforms representing ac voltage or current, positive values are shown above
the zero axis and the negative values below the axis.

Waveform R.M.S Value Average Value

Sine 0.707 X Peak Value 0.637 X Peak Value
34
Half Wave Rectified Sine 0.5 X Peak Value 0.318 X Peak Value
Full Wave Rectified Sine 0.707 X Peak Value 0.637 X Peak Value
Rectangular Peak Value Peak Value
Triangular 0.578 X Peak Value 0.5 X Peak Value

Calculation of power-In ac circuits, there may be a phase difference between the voltage &
current so the calculation of power is not straight like dc circuits where the product of voltage
and current equals the power. Here, the power has been divided into three different forms –
apparent power, real or true power & reactive power.

Apparent power-In ac circuits, the product of rms value of voltage and current is known as
apparent power. The unit of apparent power is volt-ampere. Higher ratings are kilo-volt-
ampere(kVA) and Mega-Volt-ampere (MVA).It is called apparent power because it appears that-
product of voltage and current is power. However, in case of ac circuits is usually phase-
difference between the voltage and current so that VI does not give the real power.

Real power-In ac circuits, reactance is invariably present, resulting in phase difference

between voltage and current. Thus voltage may have a high value when current is near zero or
vice-versa. Hence, real power is less than the apparent power and is given by

Real Power = Apparent power x Cosø = V I Cos ø,

Where, ø is the angle between voltage and current. The unit of real power is watt.

Reactive power-The power taken by pure reactance in a circuit is called reactive power. The
unit of reactive power is volt-ampere-reactive (VAR).

Reactive Power = Apparent power x Sinø =VISinø

Power factor-Power Factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power. The more inductive or
capacitive reactance, the lower the circuit's efficiency, and smaller the power factor.

 It is Cosine of angle between voltage and current

 It is the ratio of Resistance/ Impedance
 The value of power factor can never be more than unity
 When power factor is lagging, current lags the voltage which is possible in case of inductive
circuit.
 When power factor is leading, current leads the voltage, which occurs in capacitive circuits.
 Sometimes power factor is expressed as percentage. Thus 0.8 lagging power factor can be
expressed as 80% lagging.
 A power factor of 1 indicates a purely resistive circuit. A power factor of zero indicates a
purely reactive circuit.

Effects of low power factor

 In order to obtain a certain real power, with a low power factor, total current must be
increased resulting in increase in resistive losses to that efficiency decreases.
 The low power factor limits the output of the both generators and transformers. This
happens because of high currents drawn out of the generators and transformers, resulting in
temperature rise.
 Low power factor cause greater fall in then terminal voltage, hence make the voltage
regulation greater than at unity.

Generally the alternating current machines e.g. alternators, transformers etc, use apparent
power and power factor to describe the power used by the entire circuit-i.e. both resistance and
reactive power. For example, a particular aircraft alternator may be rated as follows: apparent
power maximum of 200 kVA and a power factor range of 0.9 to 1.0. These specification must
never be exceeded, otherwise, the alternator may be internally damaged.

35
Three phase a.c circuits-A poly-phase ac circuit consists of two or more circuits that are
usually interconnected and so energised that the current through the separate
conductors and the voltage between them have exactly equal frequencies but differ in
phase. A difference in phase means that the voltages do not reach peak-positive or
peak-negative values at the same time, Also, the corresponding values of currents are
usually separated by an equal number of degrees. For example, in a three-phase ac
system, no. 1 phase will reach a peak voltage 120° before the no. 2 phase, the no. 2
phase will reach the maximum positive voltage 120° before no. 3 phase and so on.
Thus, the three phases are separated by an angle of 120°. Modern, large, transport-
category aircraft of all types empty a 3-phase ac electrical system. This system is
considerably more efficient than a comparable single-phase ac system or a dc electrical
system. Because of the great electric power requirements on large aircraft, a dc power
system would add heavy weight in comparison with a 3-phase ac system. The use if
three wires is standard for the transmission of 3-phaes power today. The return current
from any one alternator coil always flows back through the other two wires in the 3-
phase circuit.

Phase sequence-Phase sequence means the order in which the three phases attain their peak
or maximum values. By reversing the rotation, the sequence also changes. The three
phases may be numbered 123 or abc or as is customary, they may be given three
colours. The colours used commercially are red, yellow (or sometimes white) and blue.
In this case the sequence is RYB. The 3 phases can be connected in the two ways,
namely-Star or Wye (Y) connection & Delta or Mesh (Δ) connection.

Three phase star (y) connection-In this method of inter connection, the similar ends (or,
start ends) of three coils (it could be finishing ends also), are joined together, which is known as
star point or neutral point.

Line voltages and phase voltages

VRY = VYB = VBR = √3 (ER or EY or EB ) i.e. Line voltage = √3 Phase voltage

Line currents and phase currents-Current in lines, IR=IY=IB , which is also equal to the phase
current. Thus, Line current = Phase Current

Power-The total active or true power in the circuit is the sum of the three phase powers.

Total active power = 3 x phase active power = 3 Vph Iph cos Φ = √3. VL. IL. cos Φ, Here, Φ is the
angle between phase voltage and phase current and not between the line voltage and line
current.

Similarly, total reactive power = √3.VL.IL.Sin Φ

& Total apparent power = √3.VL.IL

The voltage between any two of the three phase windings of the two of the phase windings. For
example, if the voltage across one winding is 120 volt, the voltage between two of the three
phase-terminals is √3 times of 120 or 208 volt. An arrangement of this type is useful where the
120-volt circuit may be used for operating lights and other small loads and the three phase 208
volt circuit used to operate larger power requirements/ equipment. On an airplane in which the
neutral wire is grounded, a single-wire system can be used for all single-phase 120 volt circuits.
The 208 volt 3-phase power can be directed to a 3-phase motor or some other device requiring
3-phase power.

Three phase delta or mesh connection-In this type of connection, the dissimilar ends of the
3-phase windings are joined together i.e. the 'starting' end of one phase is joined to the
'finishing' ends of the other phase and so on.

Line voltages & phase voltages VL=VRY=VYB=VBR=VPH

Line currents & phase currents IL=√3.Iph

Line currents are 120° apart, line currents are 30° behind the respective phase currents, the
angle between the line currents and the corresponding line voltages with the current lagging.

36
Power
Active power/phase = Vph.Iph.cos Φ Total active power = 3 x Vph x Iph cos Φ
But, IL = √3.Iph and VL = Vph
So, active power in terms of line voltage & current = 3 x VL x (IL/ √3) x Cos Φ = √3 .VL.IL.Cos Φ
Similarly, reactive power = √3 .VL.IL.Sin Φ Total apparent power = 3 x Vph. Iph= √3.VL.IL

Advantage & use of star & delta connections-When it is necessary to get the maximum
amount of power from an alternating current circuit, three – phase generators, or
alternators, as they are more properly called, are used. These alternators have three
sets of output windings excited by a single rotating field, and the voltage in each
winding is 120 degrees out of phase with that in the other windings is 120 degrees out
of phase with that in the other windings. There are several advantages of using three –
phase AC, and one of the main advantages lies in the fact that when the AC is rectified,
or changed into direct current, there are three times as many pulses of rectified current
as there are in single- phase AC, and these pulses overlap so that the current never
drops to an instantaneous value of zero. The higher frequency of these pulses also
makes it easier to filter, or smooth out the ripples.

Star connected alternators-There are two ways of connecting the three output windings of an
alternator. We will first discuss the star– connected windings, in which one end of each of the
three windings is connected together at a common or neutral point. The other ends of the three
windings are brought out of the alternator as the output leads, each of which is across two of
the windings in series. Since the voltage across each winding is 120 electrical degrees out of
phase with that in the other windings, the output voltage will never be twice that of one of the
phase windings. It will, instead, be 1.73 times that of a single–phase winding. Many three–phase
alternators produce 120 volts across each phase, and the voltage between any two of the
output leads is a 208 volts.

Delta–connected alternators-Both ends of each phase winding may be connected to the ends
of the other windings to form a loop or delta connection. (So called because of the triangular
symbol formed by the coils resembling the Greek letter delta [∆ ].) An output lead is brought
from each junction so that the output voltage will always be the same as the phase voltage. But,
there are two coils in series across, or in parallel, with each of the phase windings, and since the
current in each of these windings is 120 degrees out of phase with that in the other windings,
the output current is 1.73 times that of the current in the phase winding.

Three–phase transformers-Three–phase transformers may have their primary and secondary

windings connected in primary and secondary windings connected in either a Y or a delta to
provide the needed output.

Delta to delta-In this type of connection, both the primary and secondary windings have their
leads connected in the delta form, and if there are the same number of turns in the secondary
as there are in the primary, both the secondary voltage and current will be the same as the
primary voltage and current.

Star to star-If both the primary and secondary windings are connected Y – fashion, the
secondary voltage and current will be the same as the voltage and current in the primary.

Delta to star-It is possible, by connecting the primary as a delta and the secondary as a Y, to
have a secondary voltage that is 1.73 times as high as the primary voltage,. But since a
transformer is not capable of producing power, when the secondary voltage is higher than the
primary, the secondary current must be lower. The current in the secondary will. With this form
of connection, be only 0.578 times the primary current.

37
Star to delta-If the primary winding is connected as a star and the secondary as a delta, the
secondary voltage will be only 0.578 of the primary voltage, but the secondary current will be
1.73 times the primary current.

A.c
circuits
Purely resistive circuit-In purely resistive AC circuit, the current is equal to the voltage
applied divided by the resistance. i.e. I=V/R and there is no phase shift between the voltage
and current. These two are in phase.

Purely inductive circuit-In purely inductive AC circuit, the current is equal to the voltage
applied divided by the inductive reactance (inductive reactance is the opposition offered by the
inductor when placed across a.c supply). i.e. I=V/XL and the current lags the applied voltage by
900.

Purely capacitive circuit-In purely capacitive AC circuit, the current is equal to the voltage
applied divided by the capacitive reactance (capacitive reactance is the opposition offered by
the capacitor when placed across a.c supply). i.e. I=V/Xc and the current leads the applied
voltage by 900.

A.c characteristics of circuit elements

Element Resistor Inductor Capacitor
Basic Unit Ohms Henries Farads
Opposition to Resistance Short Circuit Open Circuit
dc
Opposition to Resistance, (I=E/R) Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance
ac (I=E/XL) (I=E/XC)
Effects of None, resistance at all XL increases with XC decreases with
frequency frequency frequency (XL= 2∏fL) frequency (XC=1/2∏fC)
In Series R=R1+R2+R3… X=X1+X2+X3+... X=X1+X2+X3+ …
In Parallel R=R1 . R2/ (R1+R2) X=X1 . X2/(X1+X2) X=X1 . X2/(X1+X2)
Phase angle Current is in phase Current lags Voltage by Current leads Voltage by
with Voltage 90° 90°

Resonance in an ac circuit-Inductive reactance in a coil is zero when the frequency is zero,

and it increases smoothly until at an infinite frequency, it is infinity, that is, the back voltage
generated in the inductor is equal to the source voltage, and no current can flow.

The reactance in a capacitor changes in exactly the opposite way as that in an inductor. At zero
frequency, no current can flow through the capacitor, so the reactance is infinite. But as the
frequency increases, until at an infinite frequency, there is no capacitive reactance. The way the
two types of reactance vary with the frequency.

The lines representing the two reactances cross at the resonant frequency of the circuit. Here
the inductive and the capacitive reactances are equal. It makes no difference whether the
capacitor and inductor are connected in series or in parallel, the resonant frequency is the
same, and it may be found by the formula f=1/ 2π √LC. The resonant frequency in hertz is
found by dividing 1 by the constant 2π times the square root of the product of the inductance in
henrys and the capacitance in farads.

Series resonant circuit-At the resonant frequency of a series R L C circuit, the current flowing
in the coil and the capacitor are equal, but they are 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
The inductive and capacitive reactance are also exactly the same, but, because of the phase
difference, they cancel each other, and the total reactance is zero. The total opposition the
circuit offers to the flow of AC is that of the resistance, and so the circuit impedance is minimum
at resonance and is equal to the circuit resistance.

The voltage drop across the entire circuit is very low, or is zero and the current flow is
maximum. But the voltage across either of the reactances is quite high and can even be higher
than the source voltage. Remember, the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across the
capacitor are out of phase with each other so the sum of the individual voltages does not equal
the source voltage, as it does in a DC circuit. A series resonant circuit acts as a pure resistance,
and the source voltage and current are in phase, so the power factor of the circuit is one.
38
Parallel resonant circuit-In a parallel RLC circuit at its resonant frequency, there is a large
amount of current flowing between the capacitor and the inductor, storing energy first in an
electrostatic field in the capacitor and then in an electromagnetic field around the inductor. If
there were no resistance in the circuit, once the exchange of energy between the two types of
fields had started, the circulating current, as this current is called, would continue to flow back
and forth indefinitely. But in practice, all circuits have some resistance, which causes this
current to die down, unless extra energy is added from the source.

At the resonant frequency, the circulating current in the inductor and capacitor is high, but there
is almost no current supplied from the source, so the source sees the parallel circuit as having
high impedance. The reactances cancel each other, and so the opposition is purely resistive,
and the power factor of the circuit is one.

Resonance In Series R L C Circuit:

 The voltage drops across these two reactance cancel each other out. The voltage applied
drops entirely across the resistor
 Thus in a resonance circuit
 The total impedance = Resistance (min.)
 Current is maximum
 Power factor is unity
 Net reactance is zero.

Resonance In A Parallel R L C Circuit

A parallel circuit is said to be resonant when the reactive or watt-less component of line current
becomes zero. The frequency at which this happens is known as resonant frequency.
 Net impedance = L/CR (max.) (dynamic or equivalent impedance)
 Line current is minimum and is in phase with the applied voltage.
 Power factor is unity.
 Reactive or watt-less component of line current is zero.
 Net susceptance is zero.
 It is also known as rejector circuit because of rejects or takes minimum current of that
frequency to which it resonates.

Series alternating current circuits

Impedance-The flow of current in an AC circuit is opposed by three things by resistance, which
converts the electrical energy into heat, and by inductive and capacitive reactance which
oppose the flow but do not produce heat. All circuits have some resistance, some inductance,
and some capacitance, but the total opposition is not just the arithmetic sum of the three
individual oppositions. Since both the inductance and the capacitance cause phase shifts
between the voltage and the current, the total opposition will be the vector sum of the three
oppositions. e.g a 400-hertz ac circuit which has a total resistance of 100 ohms and an
inductance of 20 mH.

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction, and for solving AC problems, we
will plot the opposition caused by the resistance of the circuit on a horizontal line extending to
the right of the zero point on our graph. Draw this to scale with a length representing 100 ohms
of resistance. This is the total resistance of the circuit and includes not only any resistors in the
circuit, but the resistance of the inductor as well. The inductive reactance of the 20- millihenry
inductor, and to do this, we use the formula, XL = 2π f L ohm. When we multiply the constant
2π (=6.28) by the frequency of 400 hertz, and the inductance of two millihenrys, we get an
inductive reactance of 50.24 ohms. We plot the vector for the inductive reactance vertically
upward from zero point. The resistance and inductive reactance are at right angles to each
other, and their vector sum is the circuit impedance (Z), which is the square root of the sum of
their squares. Z = √ X2 + R2 , By using this formula, the impedance is 112 ohms.

39
 R L

100ohm 20mH

XL = 50.24 ohm

Z = 112 ohm
115V 400Hz 0Deg

R = 100 ohm

Power factor-Not all of the current and voltage in this circuit are in phase, and power is
produced only by that portion of the voltage and current that are in phase, so we must find this
percentage which is the power factor.

The power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent power. It is also the ratio of the
resistance of the circuit to the impedance. In this problem, the power factor is 0.89, or 89% of
the current is in phase with the voltage.

Phase angle-The phase angle is the angle whose cosine is the power factor, and by looking at
the trigonometric function chart. We see that 0.89 is the cosine of 27 degrees. In this circuit, the
current lags behind the voltage by 27 degrees.

Current-Rather than using E = I X R as an expression of ohm’s law in an AC circuit, this law

must be stated as E = I X Z because we must consider the total opposition, the impedance,
rather than just the resistance. In our circuit, we found the impedance to be 112 ohms, and we
know the source voltage is 115 volts, so we can find the total current through the series circuit
to be I = E / Z= 115 / 112 = 1.03 amps.

True power-The true developed in this circuit is found by the formula P= E X I Power factor,
and is equal to 115 X 1.03 X 0.89 = 105.4 watts.

Apparent power-This is the product of the source voltage times the total current and is 115 X
1.03, or 118.5 voltamps.

Voltage-The voltage dropped across the inductor is not in phase with the current through the
inductor, but the voltage and current are in phase through the resistor. Because of this, the sum
of the voltage across the two components will be greater than the source voltage.

ER = IT X R = 1.03 X 100 = 103.0 volts

EL = IT X XL = 1.03 X 50.24 = 51.7 volts

RC circuits-Anytime we analyse a series circuit, we should make a chart similar to the one to
record all of the information about the circuit. Now, let’s look at a circuit in which there is
negligible inductance, but there is a measurable capacitance and resistance, and we will
complete the chart.

In the circuit, we have a 115-volt, 400- hertz power source and a total circuit resistance of 100
ohms and a capacitance of 5 microfarads.

40
 Using the formula, XC=1/2π fC, The
R1 C1 impedance is found by the formula Z = √ X2
+ R2= 128 ohms.
The total circuit current is found by the
100ohm
5uF formula I =E/Z to be 0.9 amp. And since this
is a series circuit, the same current will flow
through the resistor and the capacitor.
115V 400Hz 0Deg
The voltage across the resistor is E =I x R

To be 90 volts, and since this is considered to

be a pure resistance, the voltage and the
current are in phase.

The voltage dropped across the capacitor E =

I x Xc. is 71.6 volts, and since the current
changes must occur before there can be any
voltage change, the current leads the
voltage.

The power factor is found by dividing the circuit resistance by the impedance and is 0.78 or 78%
by referring to the table of trigonometric functions of the power is found by dividing the circuit
resistance by the impedance and is 0.78 or 78%. By referring to the table of trigonometric
functions, we see that the angle whose cosine is nearest to 0.78 is 39 degrees, and in this
circuit, the current is leading the voltage.

The apparent power is the product of the source voltage and the total current and is 103.5
voltamps, while the true power which is the product of the apparent power and the power
factor, is 80.73 watts.

RLC circuits-If all three of the variables are measurable in an AC circuit, we can analyse it in
the same way we have just done. The only difference is that we must find the total reactance
and use it to find the impedance.
R1 L1
XL = 50.2 ohm
C1

100ohm
20mH 5uF

R = 100 ohm
115V 400Hz 0Deg
X = Xc – XL = 29.4 ohm

Xc = 79.6 ohm

In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90 0. In an inductive circuit, it lags by 90
0
. The current in the two components is 180 0 out of phase, and as far as the circuit is
concerned, the currents cancel each other, and so do the reactances. The total reactance will
then be the difference between the capacitive and the inductive reactance.

If we consider a circuit having the same components we have just been working with, but having
all the three of them in the circuit at the same time, we can find all of the values on the chart.
The total reactance will be the difference between the inductive and the capacitive reactance
and is 29.4 ohms. Since the capacitive reactance is the greater, this total reactance, and it is
found to be 104 ohms. The total current is 1.1 amps, and since this is a series circuit, the
current through all of the components is the same. The voltage dropped across each of the
components is found by multiplying the total current by the resistance and the inductive and the
capacitive reactance. The power factor, phase angle, and the true and apparent powers are all
found in the same way they were found in the previous problems.

Parallel a.c circuits-Almost all of the alternating current circuits in our shops and homes have
the components connected in parallel rather than in series, and parallel AC circuits are handled

41
in much the same as parallel DC circuits, with the exception that we must take into
consideration the phase shifts that occur between the flowing in each of the three components.

The circuit has a 115 volt, 400-hertz power

source and consists of a 100-ohm resistor, a
20-millihenry inductor, and a five microfarad
R1 L1 capacitor, all in parallel.
C1
100ohm 20mH We can follow the work as we analyse the
115V 400Hz 0Deg
5uF circuit, starting with resistor. The voltage
across the resistor is the same as the source
voltage, or 115 volts. The current through the
resistor is found by the formula: I=E / XL =
2.29 amps.

The reactance of the capacitor is found to be 79.6ohms, and the current through it is 1.44 amps.
Before we can find the circuit impedance, we must find the total current, which is the vector
sum of the current flowing through the three components. The current through the inductor is
180 degrees out of phase with that flowing through the capacitor. So the total reactive current is
the difference between the two, which is 0.85 amps, and since the inductive reactance, the total
reactance is inductive.

The total current is found as the square root of the square of the reactive current plus the
square of the resistive current, This is 1.43 amps. The impedance of the circuit is now found by
dividing the total voltage by the total current, and this is 80.42 ohms. The power factor is the
ratio of the current through the resistor to the total circuit current, and it is 0.80. Eighty% of the
voltage and current are in phase with each other. The phase angle is found by referring to the
table of trigonometric functions. The angle whose cosine is nearest 0.80 is 37 degrees, and
since the circuit is more inductive than capacitive, the current lags behind the voltage. The
apparent power is the product of the total voltage and the total current, and is 164.45 voltamps.
And the true power, which is the product of the apparent power and the power factor, is 131.56
watts.

Transforme
r
A transformer is a device for converting a.c at one frequency and voltage to a.c at the same
frequency but at another voltage. It consists of three main parts.

1. An iron core, which provides a circuit of low reluctance for an alternating magnetic field,
created by –
2. A primary winding which is connected to the main power source, and
3. A secondary winding which receives electrical energy by mutual induction from the primary
winding and delivers it to the secondary current.

Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Iron Core

When an a.c voltage is connected across the primary terminals of a transformer, an alternating
current will flow and self induce a voltage in the primary coil which is opposite and nearly equal
to the applied voltage. The difference between these two voltages allows just enough current in
the primary to magnetise its core. This is called the exciting or magnetising current. The
magnetic-field caused by this exciting current cuts across the secondary coil and induces a
voltage by mutual induction. If a load is connected across the secondary coil, the load current
flowing through the secondary coil will produce a magnetic field which will tend to neutralise the
42
magnetic field produced by the primary current. This will reduce the self-induced voltage in the
primary coil and allow more primary current to flow. The primary current increases as the
secondary load current increases and decreases as the secondary load current decreases. When
the secondary load is removed, the primary current is again reduced to the small exciting
current sufficient only to magnetise the iron core of the transformer.

If, N1 = Number of turns on the primary winding, N2 = = Number of turns on the secondary
winding,V1= Voltage applied on the primary side, V2= Voltage on the secondary side, I1=
Current in the primary side & I2 = Current in the secondary side. Then, V2/V1 = N2/N1 = I1/I2

The ratio N2/N1 i.e. the turns ratio is known as transformation ratio. If the transformation ratio is
more than 1, the secondary voltage will be more than the voltage on the primary side and thus
that type of transformer is known as a step-up-transformer.

Two coils of wire, a primary and secondary, wound around a common core, but not connected
electrically. When an alternating current flows in the primary, a voltage will be induced into the
secondary and current will flow in it. Since we can consider these windings to be purely
inductive, we see that the current in the primary winding lags the source voltage by 90 0 without
a load. The voltage induced into the secondary winding will be greatest when the change in
current is the greatest, and it is therefore 90 0 out of phase with the current in the primary. So
when flux’s voltage are in phase, the two-phase shifts are added, the voltage in the secondary
winding will be 1800 out of phase with the voltage in the primary. The amount of voltage
generated in the secondary winding of a transformer is equal to the voltage in the primary,
times the turns ratio between the primary and the secondary windings. For example, if there are
100 turns in the primary winding and 1,000 turns in the secondary, we have a turn ratio of 1:10,
and if there are 115 volts across the primary, there will be 1,150 volts across the secondary.

A transformer does not generate any power, so the product of the voltage and the current in the
secondary must be the same as that in the primary. Because of this, there must be a flow of one
ampere in the primary winding to produce a flow of 100 milliamps in the secondary.

A transformer may have its primary winding connected directly across the AC power line, and as
long as there is an open circuit in the secondary winding, the back voltage produced in the coil
will block the source voltage enough that there will be almost no current flowing through the
primary winding, But, when the push button in the secondary circuit is pressed to complete the
circuit for the light secondary current will flow and its flux will oppose that which created the
back voltage so source current will flow in the primary. Only when the switch in the secondary
circuit is pressed, Will there be any current flow indicated on the AC ammeter in the primary
circuit.

When the voltage of the secondary side is higher than that of the primary the transformer is
called the step-up transformer and when the secondary side voltage is less than the primary
side voltage, then it is called the step-down transformer. The transfer of electric energy from the
first coil to the second coil takes place entirely magnetically. The core of a transformer consists
of silicon steel laminations. The steel of high silicon content sometimes heat treated results in
high permeability and these reduces the hysterisis loss. The laminations are done to reduce the
eddy current loss.

The two coils are arranged in such a way that they are not electrically connected but the
magnetic field surrounding one coil cuts through the other coil. When an alternating voltage is
applied across one coil, the varying magnetic filed set up around that coil creates an alternating
voltage in the other coil by mutual induction. A transformer can also be used with pulsating d.c
but a pure d.c voltage can not be used, since only a varying voltage creates the varying
magnetic field which is the basis of the mutual induction process.

Transformer losses-The addition o the power loss caused by imperfect coupling, transformers
are subject to ‘copper’ and ‘iron’ losses. Copper loss is caused by the resistance of the
conductor of the coil. The iron losses are of two types called hysterisis loss and eddy current
loss. Hysterisis loss is the electrical energy required to magnetise the transformer core, first in
one direction and then in the other, in steps with the applied alternating voltage. Eddy current
loss is caused by electric current (eddy currents) induced in the transformer core by the varying
magnetic fields. To reduce eddy current losses, cores are made of laminations coated with an
insulation, which reduces the circulation of induced currents.

43
Step- up or step-down transformers-When there are more turns in the secondary than in
the primary, the transformer is called a step-up transformer, but if the secondary has
fewer turns, it is called a step-down transformer. Step-down transformers are often
used to get the high current necessary for operating some motors.

Auto transformers-An autotransformer is a form of variable transformer. There is only one

winding, the primary, which is connected across the source. One lead of the secondary
is common with the primary, and the other secondary lead is connected to a brush
which is movable and makes contact with a bare spot in the primary winding. The
amount of secondary voltage is determined by the position of the brush. The greater
the number of turns between the two secondary leads, the greater will be the
secondary voltage.

Current transformers-It is possible to measure the amount of AC current flowing in line by the
use of a clamp-on type ammeter, which uses a current transformer. The probe consists
of a coil that can be opened up, and it is clamped over one of the wires carrying the
current to be measured. The flow of alternating current induces a much smaller current
into the coil that is proportional to the amount of load current flow. The meter that
reads this induced current is calibrated in terms of the load current.

Ac generators &
motors
Direct current is normally used as the main electrical power for aircraft, because it can be stored
and the aircraft engines can be started using battery power. Large aircraft require elaborate
ground service facilities and require external power sources for starting, they can take
advantage of the weight saving provided by using alternating current for their main electrical
power.

Alternating current has the advantage over direct current in that its voltage can be stepped up
or down. If needed to carry current for a long distance, we can pass the AC through a step–up
transformer to increase the voltage and decrease the current. The high voltage AC can be
conducted to the point it will be used through a relatively small conductor, and its destination it
is passed through a step – down transformer where its voltage is lowered and its current is
stepped back up to the value we need. It is an easy matter to convert AC into DC when we need
direct current to charge batteries or to operate variable speed motors. All we need to do is pass
the AC through a series of semiconductor diodes. This changes the AC into DC with relatively
little loss.

Types of alternators-Alternators are classified in several ways in order to distinguish properly

the various types. One means of classification is by the type of excitation system used. In
alternators used on aircraft, excitation can be affected by one of the following methods.

A direct – connected direct–current generator. This system consists of a DC generator fixed on

the same shaft with the AC generator. A variation of this system is a type of alternator, which
uses DC from the battery of excitation, after which the alternator is self– excited.

By transformation and rectification from the AC system. This method depends on residual
magnetism for initial a.c voltage build up, after which the field is supplied with rectified voltage
from the AC system.

Integrated brush-less type - This arrangement has a direct–current generator on the same shaft
with an alternating - current generator. The excitation circuit is completed through silicon
rectifiers are mounted on the generator shaft and their output is fed directly to the alternating –
current – generator’s main rotating field.

Another method of classification is by the number of phases of output voltage. Alternating

current generators may be single–phase, two–phase, three–phase or even six–phase and more.
In the electrical systems of aircraft, the three–phase alternators is by far the most common.

Still another means of classification is by the type of stator and rotor used. From this standpoint,
there are two types of alternators: the revolving – armature alternator is similar in construction
to the DC generator, in that the armature rotates through a stationary magnetic field. The
revolving– armature alternator is found only in alternators of low power rating and generally is
not used.
44
The revolving–field type of alternator has a stationary armature winding (stator) and a rotating-
field winding (rotor). The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the
armature can be connected directly to the load without having sliding contacts in the load
circuit. The direct connection to the armature circuit makes possible the use of large cross –
section conductors, adequately insulated for high voltage.

Since the rotating - field alternator is used almost universally in aircraft systems, this type will
be explained in detail, as single - phase, two – phase, and three – phase alternator.

Single – phase alternator - Since the emf induced in the armature of a generator is
alternating, the same sort of winding can be used on an alternator as on a DC generator. This
type of alternator is known as a single – phase alternator, but since the power delivered by a
single – phase circuit is pulsating, this type of circuit is objectionable in many applications.

The four-stator windings are connected to each other so that the AC voltages are in phase, or
“series adding”. All four stator coil groups are connected in series so that the voltages induced
in each winding will add to give a total voltage that is four times the voltage in any one winding.

Two phase alternator - Two-phase alternators have two or more single – phase windings
spaced symmetrically around the stator. In a two–phase alternator there are two single-phase
windings spaced physically so that the AC voltage induced in one is 90 0 out of phase with the
voltage induced in the other. The windings are electrically separate from each other. When one
winding is being cut by maximum flux, the other is being cut by no flux. This condition
establishes a 900 relation between the two phases.

Three – phase alternator - A three phase or polyphase circuit, is used in most aircraft
alternators, instead of a single or two – phase alternator. The three – phase alternator has three
single – phase windings spaced so that the voltage induced in each windings is 1200 out of
phase with the voltage in the other two windings.

A simplified schematic diagram, showing each of the three phases. The rotor is omitted for
simplicity. The waveforms of the voltage are shown to the right of the schematic. The three
voltages are 1200 apart and are similar to the voltages that would be generated by three single
phase alternators, whose voltages are out of phase by 1200 . The three phases are independent
of each other.

Rather than having six leads from the three – phase alternator, one of the leads from each
phase may be connected to form a common junction. The stator is then called Y – or star –
connected, to form a common junction. The stator is then called Y–or star–connected, end–to–
end. The common lead may or may not be brought out of the alternator. If it is brought out it is
called the neutral lead. A three- phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are
connected end – to – end, this arrangement is called a delta connection.

Brushless alternators - Most of the AC generators used in the large jet–powered aircraft are
of the brushless type and are usually air-cooled. Since the brushless alternators have no current
flow between brushes or slip rings they are quite efficient at high attitudes where brush arcing
could be a problem.

The exciter field current is brought into the alternator from the voltage regulator. Here it
produces or will produce the magnetic field for the three–phase exciter output. Permanent
magnets furnish the magnetic flux to start the generator producing an output before field
current flows. The voltage produced by these magnets is called residual voltage. The output
from the exciter is rectified by six silicon diodes, and the output field winding are all mounted on
the generator shaft and rotate as a unit. The three – phase output stator windings are wound in
slots in the laminated frame of the alternator housing, and their ends are connected in the form
of a Y with the neutral and the three – phase windings brought out to terminals on the outside of
the housing. These alternators are usually designed to produce 120 volts between any of the
phase terminals and the neutral terminal and 208 volts between any of the phase terminals.

Alternator ratings - The true power produced in an AC generator is the product of the voltage
and that portion of the current that is in phase with the voltage, and is expressed in watts or
kilowatts. It is this power that determines the amount of useful work the electricity can do.

45
KVA-AC generators are rated, however, not in watts, but in volt – amps, which is a measure of
the apparent power being produced by the generator. Because of the outputs of most large
aircraft alternators the ratings will generally be expressed in KVA (Kilo–volt–amperes). The
reason for using this rating is that it is the heating effect of the current in the generator
windings that limits generator output, and this current flows in the windings whether it is
producing power or not.

Frequency-The frequency of the AC produced by an AC generator is determined by the number

of poles and the speed of the rotor. The faster the speed, the higher the frequency will be & the
lower the speed, the lower the frequency becomes. The more poles of the rotor, the higher the
frequency will be for any given speed. The frequency of the alternator in cycles per second
(hertz) is related to the number of poles and the speed, as expressed by the equation f= P N /
120, where P is the number of poles, N is the speed in rpm & f is the frequency in hertz. For
example, a two – pole, 3600 rpm alternator has a frequency of 2 X 3600/120 = 60 hertz

To provide a constant frequency as the engine speed varies, many engine – driven aircraft AC
generators are connected to the engine through a hydrostatically operated constant speed drive
unit, a CSD. These drive units normally consists of an axial-piston variable – displacement
hydraulic pump driven by the engine, supplying fluid to an axial-piston hydraulic motor, which
drives the generator. The displacement of the pump is controlled by a governor which senses
the rotational speed of the AC generator. This governor action holds the output speed of the
generator constant and maintains the frequency of the AC at 400 hertz, plus or minus
established tolerances. Some of the modern jet aircraft produce their alternating current with a
generator similar to the one. This unit is called an Integrated Drive Generator, an IDG, and it
includes a constant speed drive unit in the housing with the generator.

Maintenance and inspection of alternator systems is similar to that of DC systems. Proper

maintenance of an alternator requires that the unit be kept clean and that all electrical
connections are tight and in good repair. Because alternators and their drive systems differ in
design and maintenance requirements, no attempt will be made here to detail those
procedures. Specific information may be found in the manufacturer’s service publications and in
the maintenance program approved for the particular aircraft.

Synchronization of alternators - Two or more alternators may be operated in parallel, with

each alternator carrying the same share of lad. However, certain precautions must be taken and
various conditions complied with before connecting an alternator to a bus with another
alternator. Synchronizing, or paralleling, alternators is somewhat similar to paralleling dc
generators, except that there are more steps with alternators. In order to synchronize two or
more alternators to the same bus, they must have the same phase sequence as well as equal
voltages & frequencies. The following steps are a general guide in synchronizing an alternator
and connecting it to a bus system on which one or more alternators are already operating.

Phase sequence check - The standard phase sequence for ac three phase power circuits is A,
B, C. The phase sequence can be determined by observing two small indicator lamps. If one
lamp lights, the phase sequence is A, B, C. If the other lamp lights, the phase sequence is A, C,
B. If the light indicates the wrong phase sequence, reverse the two leads to the incoming
alternator. To parallel or synchronize two alternators with the wrong phase sequence would be
the same as short circuiting two leads and would set up dangerous circulating currents and
magnetic disturbances within the alternator system, which could overheat the conductors and
loosen the coil winding.

Voltage check – The voltage of the alternator to be connected to the bus bar must be equal to
the bus voltage. It is adjusted by a control rheostat located on the switch panel. This rheostat
controls the current in the voltage regulator coil and causes the alternator magnetic field to
increase or decrease, controlling, in turn, the alternator voltage.

Frequency check – The frequency of an alternator is directly proportional to it speed. This

means that the speed of the alternator being connected to the bus must equal the speed of the
alternator already connected. By observing the frequency meter and by adjusting the rheostat
on the switch panel, the frequency of the incoming alternator can be brought up to the correct
value. By observing the synchronizing lamp, and by fine adjustment of the speed control
rheostat, the frequencies may be brought to almost exact synchronization. The synchronizing
lamp will blink as the two frequencies approach the same value, when they are very nearly the
same, the lamp will blink slowly. When the blinking decreases to one blink or less per second,
close the circuit breaker while the lamp is dark and connect alternator no. 2 to the bus. The dark
46
lamp indicates no voltage between phase A of the bus and the phase A of the incoming
alternator. To close the circuit breaker when the synchronizing lamp is lighted would be similar
to short circuiting two leads and would cause serious voltage and magnetic disturbance within
the alternators.

AC motors
Conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of an
electric motor. In dc motors, the electrical power is conducted directly to the armature i.e
rotating part through brushes and commutator. So a dc motor can be called as a conduction
motor. However, in ac motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by
induction. In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotated as a rotating transformer i.e.
one in which primary winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate. An induction
motor consists of two main parts - a stator & a rotor

Stator
It is made of number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries
a 3 – phase winding and is fed from a 3–phase a.c supply. The stator windings when supplied
with 3–phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which is of constant magnitude but, which
revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed given by Ns = 120 x f / P rpm, where, f = supply-
frequency in Hz & P= no. of poles. Since aircraft electrical systems operate at 400 Hz, an
induction motor may operate at speeds ranging from 6,000 rpm to 24,000 rpm. Because of this
high speed of rotation, 400-Hz ac motors are suitable for operating small high-speed rotors,
through reduction gears, in lifting and moving heavy loads, such as the wing-flaps, the
retractable landing gear and the starting of engines.

Rotor
Squirrel-cage-rotor - The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with slots for carrying
conductors, which are heavy bars of copper, aluminium or alloys. The rotor bars are brazed
or electricity welded or bolted to two end rings. In small motors, the entire rotor core is
placed in a mould and casting all the bars and end-rings in one piece. The metal commonly
used is an aluminium alloy.

Phase-wound-rotor - This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase windings consisting of coils.
The three phases are starred internally. The other three winding terminals are brought out and
connected to three insulated slip rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them.
These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase-star-connected rheostat.
When running under normal conditions, the slip rings are automatically short-circuited.
AC motors are rated in horsepower output, operating voltage, full-load current, speed, no. of
phases and frequency. Whether the motors operate continuously or intermittently is also
considered in the rating. There is no electrical connection to the rotor, but as soon as current
flows in the stator, the lines of magnetic flux produced in the field coils cut across the rotor and
induce a voltage in the bars. The rotor has such an extremely low resistance that the induced
voltage causes a large current to flow, and this current creates a magnetic field that reacts with
the rotating field in the stator.

The steel core of the rotor also has a voltage induced in it, but because it is made up of thin
sheets of metal, each covered with an oxide, its resistance is quite high, which keeps the
current low. Any current that does flow in the core causes a power loss, which is called the iron
loss in a motor.

Another form of rotor consists of a solid cylinder of steel without any conductors or slots at all.
The motor operation depends upon the production of eddy currents in the steel rotor.

Slip
The rotor of an induction motor will assume a position in which the induced voltage is
minimised. If the rotor were to turn at the same speed as the rotating field, the rotor-
conductors would not be cut by any magnetic lines of force, no e.m.f would be induced in them,
no current would flow and there would be no torque. There must be a difference in speed
between the rotor and the rotating field. This difference in speed is called slip, and is expressed
as a%age of the synchronous speed.

Therefore, % slip = Ns-N x 100

Ns

Ns:- Synchronous speed = (120 x f / P) rpm, N:- Motor or Rotor speed

47
Sometimes, (Ns-N) is called the slip-speed. Both the rotor and stator fields rotate
synchronously, which means that they are stationary with respect to each other. The direction
of rotation of a three-phase-induction-motor can be changed by reversing two of the leads to
the motors.

Synchronous motor - A 3-phase source of ac is applied to the stator windings and a rotating
magnetic field is produced. A direct current is applied to the rotor winding and another
magnetic field is produced. The synchronous motor is so designed and constructed that these
two fields react to each other in such a manner that the rotor is dragged along and rotates at
the same speed as the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator windings.

Due to continuous and rapid rotation of stator poles, the rotor is subjected to a torque which is
rapidly reversing i.e the rotor is subjected to torque which tends to move it first in one direction
and then in the opposite direction. Because of its large inertia, the rotor can not
instantaneously respond to such quickly reversing torque and thus it remains stationary. Thus,
the synchronous motor is a not a self-starting motor. All synchronous motors have some kind of
starting device. One type of simple starter is another motor, either ac or dc, which brings the
rotor up to approximately 90% of its synchronous speed. The starting motor is then
disconnected and the rotor locks-in-steps with the rotating field.

Another starting method is a second winding of the squirrel-cage type of rotor. This induction-
winding brings the motor almost to synchronous speed and when the dc is disconnected to the
rotor windings, the rotor pulls into step with the field.

If the load on the motor is increased, rotor tends to fall back in phase but it still continuous to
run synchronously. The torque developed by the motor depends on this angle, which is also
known as coupling angle or load angle. The maximum torque, which the motor can develop
without pulling out of step or synchronism is, called the pull-out-torque.

Comparison between synchronous & induction motors

 For a given frequency, the synchronous motor runs at a constant average speed whatever
the load, while the speed of an induction motor falls somewhat with increase in load.
 A synchronous motor is not self-starting.
 A dc excitation is required by synchronous motor but not by induction motor.
 A synchronous motor can be operated over a wide range of power factor both lagging &
leading but induction motor always runs at lagging p.f, which may become very low at light
loads.

Single phase induction motor - A single phase motor has only one stator winding. This
winding generates a field which pulsates, instead of rotating. When the rotor is
stationary, the expanding and collapsing stator field induces currents in the rotor.
These currents generate a rotor field opposite in polarity to that of the stator. The
opposition of the field exerts a turning force on the upper and lower parts of the rotor
trying to turn it from its position. Since, these forces are exerted in the centre of the
rotor, the turning force is equal in each direction. As a result, the rotor does not turn. If
the rotor is started turning, it will continue to rotate in the direction in which it is
started.

Types of single-phase-motors
Split-phase motors - The stator is provided with an extra winding known as starting-winding
or auxiliary winding in addition to the main or running winding. These two windings are spaced
90º electrically apart and are connected in parallel across the single-phase supply.

The main winding has low resistance but high reactance, whereas the starting winding has a
high resistance but low reactance. The phase-difference between the currents in the two stator
windings is very large. These two currents produce a revolving flux and hence make the motor
self-starting. A centrifugal switch disconnects the starting winding automatically after the rotor
has attained approximately 25% of its rated speed.

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Capacitor-start motor - The phase-shift between currents of the two windings is obtained by
using capacitor connected in series with the starting-winding. Capacitor-start motors have a
starting torque comparable to their torque at rated speed and can be used in applications where
the initial load is heavy.

Shaded-pole-motors - In such motors, the necessary phase-splitting is produced by induction.

A low-resistance, short-circuited coil or copper-band is placed across one tip of each small pole,
from which, the motor gets the name of shaded-pole. The presence of the ring causes the
magnetic field through the ringed portion of the pole face to lag appreciably behind that through
the other part of the pole-face. The net effect is the production of a slight component of rotation
in the field, sufficient to cause the rotor to revolve. As the rotor accelerates, the torque
increases until the rated speed is obtained.

Direction of rotation of induction-motors-In a single-phase motor, reversing connections to the

starting winding will reverse the direction of rotation. Nothing can be done to a shaded-pole
motor to reverse the direction of rotation because the direction is determined by the physical
location of the copper-shading band.

Motor applications
Motors are used in various applications throughout the aircraft, from high torque starters to
delicate gyroscope motors. On light aircraft, DC motors are used since those aircraft employ DC
power generation systems. On large commercial aircraft, AC motors are used wherever possible
since, they require less maintenance and are typically lighter. A common motor found on
aircraft is the DC reversible motor. This motor may be used for the operation of flap-systems,
landing gear actuators, auto-pilot servos and many other applications. To reverse the direction
of rotation of a DC motor, reverse the polarity of either the field or the armature, but not both.

Electrical measuring
instruments
The D'Arsonval meter
In order to get the results we need from electrical circuits and components, we must be able to
measure each of the four variables: current, volt. age, resistance, and power. There have been a
number of principles used for these measurements, but by far the one most commonly found is
that which uses electromagnetism, and is based on two fundamental assumptions-The strength
of an electromagnetic field is proportional to the amount of current that flows in the coil &
Voltage, resistance, and power all relate to a flow of current, and if the' amount of current is
known, the other values may be found.

The most widely used meter movement is the D'Arsonval movement, whose pointer deflects an
amount proportional to the current flowing through its moving coil. A reference magnetic field is
created by a horseshoe-shaped permanent magnet and its field is concentrated by a cylindrical
keeper in the center of the open end. Surrounding the keeper and supported by hardened steel
pivots riding in smooth glass jewels, is a coil through which the current to be measured flows.
The current enters and leaves the coil through calibrated hairsprings, one surrounding, each of
the pivots. Current flowing through this j coil creates a magnetic field whose polarity is the same
as that of the permanent magnet and thus the two fields oppose each other. The opposing force
rotates the coil on its pivots until the force of' the hairspring exactly balances the force caused
by the magnetic fields.

Oscillation of the pointer is minimized by electromagnetic damping. The moving coil is wound
around a thin aluminum bobbin, or frame, and as this frame moves back and forth in the
concentrated magnetic field, eddy currents are generated within the bobbin that produce their
own fields which oppose the movement.

Meter ratings and terms - In order to use the basic D'Arsonval meter movement to measure
the different variables, we must know some of its characteristics.

Full-scale current-This is the amount of current that must flow through the meter coil to
deflect the pointer over the full calibrated scale.

Ohms-per-volt sensitivity-This measurement of meter sensitivity is the reciprocal of the full-

scale current and is the total amount of resistance for each volt of pressure needed to produce
full-scale current. A meter that requires one milliamp (1/ 1,000 amp) of current for full-scale
deflection would require one thousand ohms in the meter circuit to limit the current through the
49
meter to one milliamp. This meter is said to have a sensitivity of one thousand ohms per volt.

Many multimeters have a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms/volt and these meters require 1/20,000
amp or 50 microamps, of current to move the pointer full scale.

Meter resistance-The total resistance of the meter must be considered when making any
computations regarding the current through the meter. Both the moving coil and the hairsprings
have resistance, and in some meters there is a temperature compensating resistor in series with
the coil. This resistor is made of a material whose resistance decreases with an increase in
temperature which is opposite to the change in resistance of the coil. As a result, the meter
resistance remains constant as the temperature changes.

Ammeters, milli-ammeters & micro-ammeters-The D'Arsonval meter is a current

measuring instrument, and one with the proper sensitivity may be used in a circuit without
any additional components. But, if the range of current to be measured is greater than the
full-scale current of the meter, a shunt must be installed in parallel with the meter. The load
current flowing through the shunt will produce a voltage drop that is proportional to the
amount of current, and the meter will read the voltage drop across the shunt and display
this voltage in terms of amps, milliamps, or micro-amps on its scale. The standard aircraft
shunt produces a voltage drop of 50 millivolts when its rated current flows through it.

It is sometimes necessary to extend the range of an ammeter by using a precision resistor as a

shunt, and we can determine the resistance needed by the simple use of Ohm's law. Let's
assume that we want our meter to deflect full scale when ten milliamps flows through the meter
and shunt combination. If the meter requires one milliamp for full-scale deflection and has an
internal resistance of 50 ohms, it will deflect full scale when it is connected across a voltage of
50 millivolts. The shunt, therefore, must produce a voltage drop of 50 millivolts when 9
milliamps flows through it Remember that one milliamp flows through the meter when they are
connected in parallel. So, Rshunt=E/I= 0.050/0.009 = 5.55 ohms. According to the Ohm's law
formula, R=E/I , we find that if the meter is connected in parallel with a 5.55-ohm shunt, one
milliamp will flow through the meter when nine milliamps flow through the shunt. In other
words, the meter will deflect full-scale when ten milliamps flow through the circuit.

Voltmeters-A D'Arsonval meter can be used to measure voltage by using enough resistance in
series with the meter movement to limit the current to the value for which the meter
will give full scale deflection. The meter sensitivity is rated in ohms per volt, which is
the number of ohms of resistance we must have in the circuit for each volt we wish to;
measure. If, for example, our meter has a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms per volt and a
resistance of 1,000 ohms. we would need a resistor of 500 ohms in series with the
meter to limit the current to one milli-ampere when the meter is placed across a 1.5-
volt battery.

The resistors that are placed in series with the meter movement are called multiplier resistors,
or simply multipliers. because they are used to multiply the range of the basic meter.

Multi -range voltmeters use one meter movement with several different multipliers. These multi-
pliers are usually arranged so the current for each succeedingly higher range flows through the
multipliers for all of the lower ranges.

When the meter is used to measure 1.5 volts, the test leads are connected to the common
terminal and the I.5-volt terminal. Current then flows through the meter and the 5OO-ohm
resistor. To measure 15 volts connect to the common and the 15 volt terminals and the current
will flow through the meter, the SOD-ohm, and the 13,500-ohm multiplier resistors. The total
resistance in the circuit is 15,000 ohms. To measure voltages as high as 1,500, the current must
flow through all of the resistors in the voltmeter circuit.

Most multi-range meters use a selector switch rather than separate terminals. When using this
type of meter, the range is set for a voltage higher than that anticipated. After the meter is
connected and the needle is deflected, reduce the range with the selector switch to get a needle
deflection in the center third of the scale, where the meter is most accurate.

Ohmmeter-Resistance is most easily determined by measuring the current through the

unknown resistor when a known voltage is placed across the resistor.

50
Series ohmmeter-The series ohmmeter uses small flashlight or penlight batteries in series
with a fixed and an adjustable resistor and the meter. For the meter to deflect full-scale, the
total resistance must equal 4,500 ohms, since we are using a 4.5-volt battery, and the meter
has a sensitivity of 1,000 ohms per volt. Because the battery voltage changes with use, a
variable resistor is included in the circuit to "zero," or standardize' the meter before each use.
To set the meter up for use, short the test leads together and turn the zero adjusting knob until
the meter reads full-scale. Here, the scale is marked zero ohms, indicating that there is no
resistance between the test leads. When the leads are separated, the needle will drop back to
the left side of the scale where the dial is marked ∞. This is the symbol for infinity, and indicates
that there is an infinite resistance between the test leads, and no current is flowing. The scale
on a series ohmmeter is highly non-linear, meaning that there is no uniform distance between
the graduations. The numbers are fairly widely separated at the low-range end, on the right side
of the dial, but are crowded very tightly at the high end, the left side. For most accurate
measurement of resistance, you should use a scale that will give a pointer deflection in the
centre third of the dial. Different resistance ranges are selected by using different values of
battery voltage and of the fixed resistor.

Potentiometer-type ohmmeter-The simple series-type ohmmeter has a problem of seriously

crowding the resistances on the high end of the scale, and this problem is solved to some extent
by the potentiometer-type ohmmeter. The scale is still nonlinear. but it is not crowded nearly so
badly. A low resistance standard resistor is in series with the battery and the resistance to be
measured. This sets up a voltage divider circuit, and the voltage across the standard resistor is
proportional to the current through the unknown resistance. A sensitive meter having a high
internal resistance is used to measure the voltage drop across the standard resistor, hence the
name potentiometer-type ohmmeter. Rather than being calibrated in volts or millivolts, the
meter dial is calibrated in ohms.

Shunt-type ohmmeter-It is sometimes necessary to measure very low resistances, for

example, the resistance of the primary winding of a magneto coil. Neither a series nor a
potentiometer-type ohmmeter is suitable for this kind of measurement, but a shunt-type
ohmmeter may be used. The shunt-type ohmmeter uses a meter having a very low internal
resistance in series with a switch. When the switch is closed and the test leads are open, the
variable resistor is adjusted until the meter reads infinity. You will notice that the infinity mark is
on the right side, or the full scale side, of the dial which is opposite that of the other type of
ohmmeters. When the test leads are shorted, all of the current will flow through them and
bypass the meter, so the meter will read zero.

Megohmmeter-We sometimes need to measure very high resistance values that require a
voltage in excess of that provided in any of the standard ohmmeters, rnega-ohmmeter, or
"Megger," is used. A hand-cranked generator with a slip clutch allows the operator to produce a
voltage of several hundred volts. When the leads are separated and the crank is turned, the
pointer will deflect fully to the left, indicating that there is an infinite resistance between the
leads. When a high resistance is placed between the leads, a second coil within the meter will
pull the needle away from the infinity mark, and it will come to rest at the proper resistance
measurement. Meggers are most often used for measuring insulation resistance in ignition sys-
tems and other high-voltage circuits. It is important to exercise caution when testing resistance
with a megger. The high voltage generated by the megger may arc to ground through defective
insulation in a wire being tested and, if conditions are right, cause damage to equipment or
injury to personnel. Some maintenance organizations or companies may limit or prohibit the use
of meggers.

Electrodynamometers-It operates in a manner similar to a D'Arsonval meter, except that an

electromagnet is used for the fixed field instead of It permanent magnet. A large coil having a
few turns of heavy wire is connected in series with the load, and the strength of the magnetic
field is proportional to the amount of current flowing through the load. The movable voltage coil
is connected across the load, and its magnetic strength is proportional to the amount of voltage
dropped across the load. The magnetic fields caused by the current and the voltage react with
each other to move the pointer an amount that Is proportional to the power dissipated by the
load. Electrodynamometer wattmeters may be used in either DC or AC circuits. In an AC circuit.
they measure the true power, because if the current and voltage are out of phase in the circuit,
they will also be out of phase with each other in the coils of the instrument, and the resultant
field will cause the pointer to deflect an amount proportional to the true power rather than the
apparent power. The apparent power in an AC circuit may be found by measuring the current
with an AC ammeter and the voltage with an AC voltmeter. The product of these two values is
the apparent power.
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Electrodynamometer voltmeters & ammeters- Electro dynamometers may be used for
voltmeters and ammeters to measure AC as well as DC values, because the polarity of both the
fixed and movable fields reverse at the same time. The sensitivity of this type of meter is
considerably lower than that of the D'Arsonval-type meter.

Repulsion-type moving-vane meters- The repulsion type moving vane meter, like the
electro dynamometer, can be used to measure either AC or DC voltage or current. If the
instrument is an ammeter, its coil has a relatively few turns of heavy wire, but if it is designed as
a voltmeter, the coil will have many turns of fine wire. Inside the coil there are two vanes, one
fixed and the other attached to the pointer staff and free to move beside the fixed vane, but
restrained by a calibrated hairspring. When current flows in the coil, both the fixed and moving
vanes are magnetized with the same polarity, and they repel each other, driving the pointer
over the scale. The greater the amount of current, the farther the pointer will deflect. It makes
no difference in which direction the current flows, the pointer will always deflect upscale. It is
because of this feature that moving-vane meters are usable on AC Without the need of a
rectifier.

D'arsonval meters with rectifiers-D'Arsonval meter movements may be adapted for use in
AC circuits by using a rectifier to change the AC into DC before it flows through the
meter coil. Most D'Arsonval meters used in AC circuits use a four-diode full-wave
bridge-type rectifier.

Thermocouple-type ammeters - Low frequency alternating current can be measured with an

electrodynamometer or by a repulsion type moving vane meter, but when the
frequency is in the range of kHz or MHz, this type of meter is not usable, and the ther-
mocouple type indicator is used.
The alternating current to be measured passes through a small piece of resistance wire inside
the meter case. The greater the amount of current, the more the wire will be heated. A
thermocouple, made of two dissimilar metals welded together, is welded to the resistance wire.
The other ends of the thermocouple are connected to the moving coil of a D'Arsonval-type
meter movement. A voltage is generated in a thermocouple that is proportional to the difference
in the temperature between the two junctions & since the junction at the meter movement has
a relatively constant temperature, the amount of voltage, and therefore the current through the
meter is proportional to we temperature of the resistance wire. This temperature is proportional
to the amount of the current. The meter scale is calibrated in amperes, and since the amount of
heat produced in the wire is a function of the square of the current (P=I 2 X R), the scale is not
uniform, but the numbers are bunched up on the low end of the scale and spread out as the
current increases. When the current doubles, there is four times as much deflection.
Thermocouple-type ammeters are usable for direct current or audio-frequency or radio-fre-
quency alternating current.

Vibrating-reed frequency meters-For precise frequency measurement, integrated circuit

chips having clock circuits are used to actually count the cycles in a given time period and
display the frequency as a digital display. But a much simpler type of frequency meter is used
for determining the frequency of the AC produced by aircraft alternators. These frequency
meters use a series of metal reeds of different lengths. The centre reed has a resonant
frequency of exactly 400 Hz, and the reeds on one side are progressively longer, while those on
the other side are progressively shorter. A coil through which alternating current flows. is wound
around the fixture that holds these reeds, and the magnetic fields from the AC cause the fixture
to vibrate at the frequency of the AC. The reed whose natural resonant frequency is that of the
AC will vibrate with a large amplitude and will show up as a blur, while the other reeds will be
stationary or moving with far less amplitude.

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