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EQUIPMENT FOR POWER GENERATION

Power plants use several methods in converting natural gas to electricity. One process is
to burn up the gas in a boiler to produce steam, which is then used by a steam turbine to
generate electricity. A more common approach is to burn the gas in a combustion
turbine to generate electricity.
GAS TURBINE
A gas turbine consists of three segments (i) compressor (ii) combustor and (iii) turbine.
Ambient air is compressed to 11-30 bar pressure and as a consequence its temperature
rises. Most of this warm air is used in the combustor to burn fuel (natural gas or a liquid
fuel). The resulting hot gas expands through the turbine, doing work and exists at early
atmospheric pressure but a temperature of up to 500-640oC. Work extracted during the
expansion is used to turn the turbine which drives the generator that produces electricity.
Gas Turbine Cycle Brayton cycle
In a simple gas turbine cycle, low pressure air is drawn into a compressor (state 1)
where it is compressed to a higher pressure (state 2). Fuel is added to the compressed
air and the mixture is burnt in a combustion chamber. The resulting hot products enter
the turbine (state 3) and expand to state 4. Most of the work produced in the turbine is
used to run the compressor and the rest is used to run auxiliary equipment and produce
power.

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The hot gas (~ 500oC) exit from the turbine still has significant amounts of energy which
is used to raise steam to drive a steam-turbine and another generator. This combination
of gas and steam cycle gives rise to the term of combined cycle gas turbine or simply
known as CCGT plant.
Power output produced is from 1 to 200 MW with overall efficiencies of 25-30%. It is
suggested that the higher the temperature, the higher the efficiency of the turbine;
however this is limited by the gas turbine (blade) material.
Economics of gas turbines in process applications is depended on the effectiveness
usage of the exhaust energy (recovered energy) which is 60-70% of the inlet fuel
energy. Increase in overall effectiveness of energy use in a gas turbine heat recovery
system is a function of amount of energy transferred from the turbine exhaust gas. Most
common application of the gas turbine exhaust is for the generation of steam in a heat
recovery steam generator.

Advantages

Minimum cost investment when energy or peak power demand exists

Low maintenance cost

Low starting torque, allowing a fast start up

Fast rate of adjustment to load change/no cooling water required

On site installation

Installation time less than for other thermal plants

Multi-fuel capability

High power to weight ratio

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Disadvantages

High initial capital cost (for prime mover)

Low overall efficiency

High frequency noise generated

High gas pressure required

STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine based power plant consists of raising high pressure steam in a boiler
from the thermal energy and expanding the steam in a turbine to generate shaft power
which in turn is converted into electricity in the generator. Boiler/steam turbine systems
operating through a Rankine cycle in larger, electric utility power plants.

Figure 7-3: Rankine cycle

1-2: reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump
2-3: constant-pressure heat transfer of heat in the boiler
3-4: reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine
4-1: constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser

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How is electricity generated?

Natural gas and air are burned in a boiler to produce steam. Steam produced in a boiler
is expanded through the power turbine producing mechanical power. However unlike the
gas turbine, in a Rankine cycle, the steam is exhausted from the turbine is usually
condensed and recycled through the feed-water pump to a boiler.
Steam turbine is economically attractive for heat/power ratios of between 0.012-0.8
kg/MJ. Typical power out put is 15 kW to 500 MW with overall efficiencies between 2545%.
Advantages

Very liable prime mover

Low maintenance cost

Disadvantages

Require start up system

Long start up

Loss of circulation causes serious boiler damage

Types of steam turbine

a) Condensing turbine
Steam at boiler pressure and temperature is expanded from turbine, exhausting to subatmospheric pressure in the condenser
Maximum flexibility for meeting varying process steam and electrical load
Less efficient

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b) Back pressure turbine

Steam is only partially expanded and exhausted from the turbine at pressures above
atmospheric, finally exhausting the whole of the steam flow to the heating process
Maximum economy and simplest installation most efficient when the power demand
corresponds to the output obtainable from the available steam flow

c) Pass-out condensing turbine

Practical when the process steam is small compared to the power demand or if it varies
widely during the day back pressure and condensing sections-regulate according to
load and process steam demands

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COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT (CCPP)

CCPP describe the combination of gas turbine generator (s) (Bryton cycle) with turbine
exhaust waste heat boiler (s) and steam turbine generator (s) (Rankine cycle) for the
production of electric power.

How they work

Combined cycle power plants have two cycles for generating electricity, steam cycle and
the gas cycle. In the steam cycle, fuel is burned to boil water and create steam which
turns a steam turbine driving a generator to create electricity. In the gas cycle, gas is
burned in a gas turbine which directly turns a generator to create electricity. Combined
cycle power plants operate by combining the gas cycle and the steam cycle for higher
efficiency.

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The hot exhaust gases exiting the gas turbine are routed to the steam cycle and are
used to heat or boil water. These exhaust gases typically carry away up to 70% of the
energy in the fuel before it was burned, so capturing what otherwise would be wasted
can double overall efficiency from 30% for a gas cycle plant to 60% using the newest
combined cycle technology.

Advantages

Flexibility in unit size

Short construction period

More efficient than conventional gas fired generator

Significantly cleaner burning than coal/oil generating plant

Disadvantages

Produces air emission of NOx and CO2

Requires water to cool the plant-water pollution

Natural gas and light distillate fuels required for low maintenance operation of
gas turbine are expensive

Heavier distillates and residual oils are also expensive as compared to coal.

COGENERATION COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP)

Definition: a sequential production of thermal energy and electric energy from a single
energy source. Also known as combine heat and power (CHP)
Generally consist of a thermal energy generation device (e.g. boiler), a prime mover
(e.g. steam turbine), a generator and a heat exchanger.
Improve efficiency of power generation from 30-35% to 65-80%

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Major users of cogeneration include;

Industrial sectors (e.g. chemical plants, food processing, textiles etc)

Residential/commercial/institutional sectors (e.g. hospital, office building,

school, colleges, university etc)

Electricity utility sectors

Economic performance- high efficiency by using the same fuel to provide

Benefits

electricity & heat

Reduced fuel consumption

Reduced fuel cost

Reduced electric utility bills

Reduced production or operating cost

An economic competitive advantage through a maximised return on

investment capital

Most efficient use of capital investment

Security of power supply-guarantees continuity and quality of power and

thus high power supply reliability

Energy independence-production of process steam for internal use &

selling to neighbouring user

Operating flexibility-electrical and heat load can be managed

Respecting the environment-royal road to promote an environment

protection policy, reduced air and thermal pollution, no additional
combustion devices needed

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Fuel utilization effectiveness

How cogeneration works

1. fuel burned in a boiler produces steam

2. to drive steam
3. that is linked to an electric generator
4. the generator produces electricity
5. that is either sold to utility
6. used in-house or both
7. the steam expelled from the turbine is used for heating or manufacturing
8. as the steam cools either during use or in a condenser, it becomes water and is piped
back into the boiler

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Two major technologies for co-generating electrical or thermal energies as follow;

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Table 7-5: Comparison of commercially available cogeneration systems

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TRIGENERATION
Trigeneration is the concept of deriving three different forms of energy from the primary
energy source, namely, heating, cooling and power generation. Also referred to as
CHCP (combined heating, cooling and power generation). This option allows having
greater operational flexibility at sites with demand for energy in the form of heating as
well as cooling. A typical trigeneration facility consists of a cogeneration plant, and a
vapour absorption chiller which produces cooling by making use of some of the heat
recovered from the cogeneration system.

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EQUIPMENT FOR SPACE COOLING

STEAM ABSORPTION CHILLER
Steam absorption chillers use thermal input to produce cooling for space conditioning or
for refrigeration. Thermal input (heat source) can be from direct source (usually natural
gas burner) and indirect fired source (low pressure steam, hot water or waste process
heat).
Most common working fluids (refrigerant/absorbent)

Water/lithium bromide (H2O/LiBr)

Operate under vacuum (10-800 mbar a) all lithium bromide chillers operate in a
vacuum with the low side pressure equal to the vapour pressure of water vapour
at the evaporator temperature.
Large commercial chillers (nominal capacities ranging from 50 to 2000
refrigeration tons or 175 to 7000 kW) e.g. KLIA

Ammonia/water (NH3/H2O)
Operate above atmosphere
Achieve lower cooling temperature (since refrigerant is ammonia not water)
Small refrigerator and residential unitary systems

Basic working principles

Major component for an absorption chiller includes an absorber, generator,

solution pump, condenser, evaporator and a solution heat exchanger.

The cycle starts in the generator, where heat from a gas burner, heats a high
concentration ammonia mixture (strong solution) and produces ammonia vapour.

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This causes ammonia, to separate and rise up to leave the generator, while the
lower concentrated mixture (weak solution) falls downwards to the bottom of the
generator

This ammonia moves into a condenser coil & cooling water condenses it to a
liquid refrigerant

The refrigerant then moves into the evaporator where it cools a circulating water
system (chilled water)

The chilled water is pump into the building for air conditioning

The refrigerant, now an ammonia vapour again, moves into the absorber section
where it meets the weak solution and they are re-joined together again as strong
solution.

Chiller types

Absorption chillers are commonly classified by both their type of thermal input
and by the internal heat utilization capability

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Thermal input can be provided by steam, hot water, natural gas or oil other hot
liquid or vapour heat sources can be used in custom industrial heat recovery
applications

The natural gas or oil-fired units are commonly known as direct-fired chillers,
while the steam or hot water driven units are referred to simply as indirect-fired
chillers

PRESENT COMMERCIAL CHILLERS

Single effect chiller as previously discussed in the basic working principle of absorption
chiller

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Double effect chillers

A double effect chiller has an additional, higher temperature generator where the
primary heat is required

Additional strong solution and water vapour is produced in this unit.

The water vapour produced here is condensed to drive the lower temperature
(and lower pressure) generator while the additional refrigerant is produced to
provide additional cooling (double use of higher temperature primary energy)

An additional solution heat exchanger is included in this unit also for internal heat
recuperation and better efficiency

For a double effect chiller, there is an additional pressure level for the highest
temperature generator

Figure 7-6: Double effect chiller cycle

The cycle begin when refrigerant water is sprayed (misted) into the
evaporator (1) and absorbs heat from tubes containing cooling water that is
circulated through the building

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A concentrated solution of lithium-bromide is sprayed into the absorber (2)

that is connected to the evaporator

The lithium-bromide has a strong attraction for the (water) vapour that is
produced in the evaporator

The lithium-bromide solution pulls refrigerant (water) vapour that is produced

in the evaporator

This creates a vacuum that in turn causes the refrigerant (water) vapour to
evaporate at a low temperature

This low temperature is transmitted to the chilled water that returns to the
building

As the concentrated solution of lithium bromide absorbs more refrigerant

vapour, it dilutes and loses its affinity for the refrigerant vapour- the diluted
solution, containing lithium bromide and refrigerant vapour, is pumped (3)
from the absorber through heat exchanger (5A & 5B) to a high temperature
generator (4A) to boil off the refrigerant vapour and increases system
efficiency

The refrigerant vapour is cooled in the condenser (6) and then passed
through an expansion valve (7) to the evaporator/absorber vessels where the
cycle continues

COMMENT ON NATURAL GAS COOLING

Although natural gas absorption cooling technologies have progressed in recent years,
they still have a few critical downfalls that often make electric cooling more attractive.
Natural gas absorption units can only obtained a Coefficient of Performance (COP) of
1.1 whereby electrical centrifugal units can obtain COPs up to 6.0.
Gas absorption chillers generally cost 1.5 to 2.5 times that of electric chillers and often
require larger cooling towers and pump modifications. With high initial cost and
comparably low system efficiency, natural gas absorption chillers are only economically
feasible in areas with high electrical demand rates, low natural gas summer rates and
rebate and incentive plans offered by local gas utility companies.

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VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE (VCC)

VCC is able to transfer heat from low T system to high T system. Refrigerant used such
as R11, R122, CFC, R22

Non flammable, non toxic but ozone depletion

New type is being introduced e.g. R134a

Prime mover : electric motor (conventional)

engine (gas, petrol or diesel)

Compressor : reciprocating (small size system), centrifugal

a) refrigerant vapour is compressed causing its T and P to rise
b) the hot vapour passes through a condensing HEX and turn liquid at high
P. Heat is rejected to a water cooling circuit or air-cooled radiators
c) the liquid is expanded through a throttling valve and cools
d) the cool refrigerant passes through an evaporator where it absorbs heat
from the air conditioning chilled water or ambient air and vapourize at low
pressure.
e) The vapour returns to compressor to begin a new refrigeration cycle

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GAS UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT FURNACE

A type of heat exchanger where the fuel is burned in an enclosure to heat a process
material contained in tubular coils, tubes or in an enclosure itself. Other common names
are direct-fired heater, heaters, fired heaters and tube-still heaters. Mostly used in high
temperature industries such as ceramic, ferrous or non-ferrous, glass and refining
industries.
Process Refining Furnace Main Component

Burner
-

deliver heat to the furnace

capable of providing uniform heating environment

oil, gas or oil/gas burners

Radiant section
-

hottest area in a furnace

heat transfer to process materials radiation primarily from flames and flue gases,
through hot refractory on walls also radiate heat. Secondarily is by convection (510% of total radiant section

Convection section
-

typically preheats process materials before they go to the radiant section

convection heat transfer from flue gases

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Process Refining Furnace

The physical size and heat absorption capabilities of a furnace vary depending on its
design-the capacity of a furnace is expressed as its heat-absorption capability expressed
in million BTU per hour (MMBtu.hr). Furnaces are sometimes grouped by the following
characteristic:

orientation of the tubes in the radiant section horizontal or vertical

types of air supply and flue gases removal methods induced, forced or natural
draft

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Table 7-7: Modern furnace vs traditional furnace

Traditional furnace

large

furnace

chamber

Modern furnace

for

heat

forced draught firing

release/transfer

well-stirred furnace interior

mainly radiation

high exit velocity burner

densely refractory lining

good temperature uniformity

high thermal capacity

jet-driven recirculation

slow heat up, difficult controllability

high convection heat transfer

stratification

lightweight construction

rapid

heat

controllability

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GAS FIRED FURNACE

Classification
a) Method of firing
i)

directly fired: process materials directly contact with hot heating gases

ii)

indirectly fired: process materials contact with radiation heat transferred

from solid partition, e.g. refractory or some other metals, muffle, radiant
tube etc

b) Method of load handling intermittent (batch) or continuous

GAS FURNACE - REFRACTORY
Function: To isolate or form a heat barrier by means of resisting materials in the form of
lining within structure in such a way that maximum heat amount of initial heat input will
be contained and passed only to workload
The properties required from a refractory material are:
1. As high fusion or melting point as possible (primary requirement)
2. Resistant at working temperature to deformation under load
3. Minimum volume change with temperature
4. Adequate mechanical strength and insensivity to temperature change
5. High resistance to wear
6. Adequate chemical resistance to slag attack
7. Suitable thermal properties
8. Electrical non-conductance, if necessary
9. Uniform and constant composition
Refractories are materials that retain their shape and chemical stability for an acceptable
period when subjected to high temperature.

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Table 7-8: Properties of refractory brick

GAS UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT - BOILER

A boiler is a pressure vessel where water is heated to produce hot water or steam. This
hot water or steam is utilized for space heating or commercial and industrial buildings or,
in the case of high pressure steam, for process application.
The boiler derives its heat energy from the burning of the fuel in the furnace of the boiler
the resulting flue gases transfer their heat energy to the water contained within the
boiler as they circulate through the tubes of the boiler.
CLASSIFICATION
Boilers are classified as
a) steam or hot water
b) fire tube or water tube
c) horizontal flue or vertical flue
d) type of boiler and burner combinations (package and non-package)

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Steam boilers

low pressure for building space heating

or high pressure to generate process steam for dry cleaning or food processing

Hot water boilers

for conventional space heating of commercial and industrial buildings are limited
to a relatively low pressure of 160 psig and water temperature < 121oC

however for large commercial space heating applications involving long runs of
distribution piping (e.g. at airports, universities and hospitals), operating
temperatures and pressure from 121-221oC and 55-350 psig

Fired Tube boiler

Hot flue gases generated in the furnace of the boiler, flow through the fire tubes
transferring their heat to the boiler water within the shell surrounds the fire tubes

The water or steam pressure on the boiler tubes is exerted on the outside which
tends to collapse the tubes

This requires the tube to be made relatively thick and heavy, placing practical
limits on the size of fire tube boilers
Figure 7-8: Fired Tube boiler

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Water tube boilers

Consists of one more drums (or headers) with connecting tubes, arranged so that
water is contained in the drums and tubes

Unlike fire tube boilers, the hot flue gases flow around the outside of the water
tubes

The pressure on the tubes is from the inside

This arrangement allows water tube boilers to contain high operating pressures
as compared to fire tube boilers

Water tube boilers can be built in large sizes to operate at highly operating
pressures, such as large steam generators for power plant operation

Figure 7-9: Water Tube Boiler

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Horizontal flue boiler

The flue gases are drawn horizontally across the boilers heating-surface in a
number of passes

In a two pass boiler the flue gases have a relatively short travel time between the
burner and the flue outlet of the boiler resulting in a relatively low pressure drop
or a draft loss across the boiler

However, less heat is transferred and lower efficiency is obtained than for boilers
having three and four passes

As the number of passes in the boiler is increased, the efficiency of the boiler is
increased

However, greater burner fan power or draft developed by the boiler stack is
required to overcome the higher pressure drop or draft loss across the boiler due
to the restrictive design of the boiler

Vertical flue boilers

The flue gases flow vertically up through

the boiler in a single pass arrangement

Because of this distinct single pass

arrangement, most vertical flue boilers
are fired by an atmospheric burner,
unlike horizontal flue boilers which are
usually fired by a fan assist or a forced
draft type of burner.

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