GE

Peter E. Sutherland

Fig. 1. Generator step-up transformer.

ndustrial power-distribution-system substation transformers and generator step-up

transformers in power stations (Fig. 1 shown
above) often use resistance-grounded wye
secondary windings for medium-voltage power
distribution. The purpose of this is to limit damage
due to ground-fault currents, while providing sufficient fault current for the operation of
ground-fault relaying. The relaying used to protect
against ground faults in the system may not provide sufficient protection of the transformer winding against internal faults because the backup
ground overcurrent relay in the transformer neutral-to- ground connection must be set to coordinate with downstream relays. In order to protect
the winding itself, special relays are utilized [1].

1077-2618/01/$10.002001 IEEE

Ground differential protection can be provided

by digital overcurrent relays in conjunction with
auxiliary ratio matching transformers. Ground differential protection can also be provided in
multifunction digital relays. Transformer protection relays (Fig. 2) may include this feature with one
of the schemes used with component relays. If a
feeder-protection relay is used on the secondary, in
some cases, this may have a ground-directional feaPeter E. Sutherland is with Power Systems Energy Consulting, GE Power Systems of Schenectady, New York.
Sutherland is a Senior Member of IEEE. This article appeared in its original form at the 2000 Industrial &
Commercial Power Systems Technical Conference.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

71

ture that can be utilized for ground-differential protection. This article is an adaptation and expansion
of a similar presentation made on the general subject
of transformer ground-differential protection [1].

Single-Function Microprocessor Relays

The schemes discussed here have been implemented with component-type relays, where one relay performs each function.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2. (a) Relay in draw-out case. (b) Relay with

modular construction.
1200/5
1200/5

100/5
Res.

400 A

1200/5
3750 kVA
4160 V
87 G
OP

50
51

50
51

1/12

Fig. 3. Time overcurrent relay connected as a

differential ground relay.
72

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

50
51

Ground-Differential Protection with a

Time-Overcurrent Relay
The simplest method of ground-differential relaying is to connect a time-overcurrent relay between
the residual point of the phase current transformers
(CTs) and a neutral-ground CT (Fig. 3). Because
the CT ratios are usually not equal, an auxiliary
matching CT is required. When using an electromechanical relay, this application requires a neutral-ground CT with a high saturation voltage.
The sensitivity required depends upon the portion of the winding to be protected. Assuming that
the voltage is induced uniformly across the windings, a relay set at 5% of the maximum groundfault current will protect 95% of the winding. This
would require a sensitivity of 20 A for a 400-A
grounding resistor. The design issue is to select a
relay-CT combination that will be sufficiently sensitive to cover the winding, yet be insensitive to external faults. An external line-ground fault will not
exceed the full 400 A allowed by the resistor and
may cause increased saturation of the CT on the resistor. In the case of a line-line fault, CT saturation
may cause a residual current to flow, which could
cause false operations. In addition, the dc component of transformer inrush currents may cause saturation of phase and/or neutral CTs, also resulting in
false operations (see Fig. 4).
CT saturation, which is always present to some
degree, is usually said to occur when the voltage
across the CT magnetizing branch exceeds the
knee point of the saturation curve (see Fig. 5).
The knee point is defined as the point on the saturation curve where a line drawn tangent to the
curve is at a 45 angle to the abscissa [2]. In a general sense, the knee point is where an increase in CT
primary current no longer produces an increase in
secondary current proportional to the turns ratio.
Since there always is some inaccuracy in a CT due
to various causes, including saturation of the core,
the knee point is really where the accuracy begins
to degrade severely. The size of the burden impedance and the shape of the saturation curve will determine when saturation occurs. The ANSI class
rating [3] of the CT specifies the voltage at which a
10% error in current is reached, and thus, provides
a good estimate of the saturation voltage without
inspecting a saturation curve.
The effects of increasing CT saturation due to
fault currents and burden may be exacerbated by
the effects of remanent flux in the CT core and by
the presence of dc offset in the fault current-waveform. An examination of the effects of these factors
is beyond the scope of this article. A more detailed
discussion may be found in the IEEE Application
Guide for Current Transformers [2].
The burden on the line-side CTs is the relay
burden times the square of the auxiliary CT ratio.
Table I shows the calculation of the required minimum CT voltages where the leakage current is less

Multifunction Microprocessor Relays

Ground-Differential Protection with a
Percentage-Differential Relay

100% %coverage
I fault
100%
= 20 A.

4000
2000
0
2000 0

20

40

80

100

120

140

4000
6000

Time (ms)

Phase A

Phase B

Phase C

Sum

Fig. 4. The effect of transformer inrush current on residual current under

conditions of CT saturation can be seen in this oscillographic trace, taken from
a generator protection relay. The curve labeled sum is the point by point sum
of the three-phase current inputs to the relay.

ally be ignored. For example, if there is 20 A flowing into an internal ground fault, the secondary
load current in that phase is not decreased by 20
A. In fact, it is increased by 1 A. This can be seen
from Fig. 8, where the secondary winding is considered as an autotransformer. Let I1 be the current in the faulted section (20 A), If = Ig, the fault
current, and I2 the current in the rest of the winding due to the fault.
Then:
I2 =I1 -I f

New transformer protection schemes are usually

built using multifunction microprocessor relays.
Some relays of this type incorporate a ground-differential function. This may be implemented as a
percentage-differential relay with inputs from each
of the phase CTs and the ground CT. The relay connections are shown in Fig. 6. The block diagram of
the protective function is shown in Fig. 7.
For a 3750-kVA, 4160-V transformer, the relay
settings are as follows. The current to be detected
for 95% coverage of the winding with a 400-A resistor is:
I=

6000

Current (A)

than the relay tap setting. CT saturation calculation methods are given in [4] and [5]. With standard relays, a pickup setting of 0.5 or 1.0 A would
be used.
A separately powered solid-state relay [Table
I(a)] used in this application may have a typical
burden of <0.1 , regardless of setting. Thus,
there would be no potential problems of false operation on external faults due to CT saturation.
The use of a self-powered solid-state relay is illustrated in Table I(b). The relay burdens are
given for a 0.5-A relay for the 100/5 and 200/5
CTs. The relay burden for a 0.1-A relay is given
for the 400/5 CT. The much higher burdens for
the self-powered solid-state relay result in possible CT saturation in this application. Typical
knee-point voltages are 17 V for a 100/5 CT, 30 V
for the 200/5 CT, and 60 V for 400/5 CTs. In this
example, only the 200/5 CT has a calculated burden voltage of less than the CT knee point, and is,
therefore, worth further examination.
The last line of each table shows the effect of the
auxiliary CT and relay impedance on the phase
CTs. A typical knee point for a 1200/5 CT is about
200 V.
A separately powered solid-state relay is recommended in this application.

(3)

by Kirchkoffs law. And because of the turns ratio,

If can be compared to the full-voltage resistor current IR:
I2
IR
I1
I RI 1
=
IR
I R +I 1
400 200
=
400 +200
= 19 A.

(4)

If =

(1)
Vs

45

The full-load phase current is 520 A. The

ground-differential current, Igd, is the difference
between the ground current, Ig, and the residual
current, 3I0:
I gd = 3I 0 - I g .

(2)
Ie

The residual current 3I0 can be found by looking at the increase in per-unit primary current, Ip,
due to the fault. If the relay is to protect 95% of
the winding, this is a small effect, which can usu-

Fig. 5. The knee-point of a CT saturation curve is

the point where a tangent to the curve forms a 45
angle with the horizontal axis.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

73

Table IA. Performance of 87g with Various Relay-CT Combinations (Lead Burden 0.03 W)
Separately Powered Solid-State Relay
CT Ratio and
Class

Relay Tap (A)

Relay Burden
()

CT secretary.
Res. ()

Relay + CT +
Lead Burden
()

CT secretary. CT Knee Point

Current at 400 (V)
A

Min. CT (V)

100/5 C10

1.0

0.1

0.03

0.16

20

17

3.2

200/5 C20

0.5

0.1

0.06

0.19

10

30

1.9

400/5 C50

0.25

0.1

0.12

0.25

60

1.25

0.1

0.34 0.32 0.32 65.2 16.6 4.4

0.32

1.67

200

109 287.4

1200/5 C200 + 1.0 0.5 0.25

12: 1, 6:1 or 3:1
Aux

Table IB. Self-Powered Solid-State Relay

CT Ratio and
Class

Relay Tap (A)

Relay Burden
()

CT secretary.
Res. ()

Relay +CT +
Lead Burden
()

Relay Current
at 400 A

CT Knee Point
(V)

Min. CT Volt
(V)

100/5 C10

1.0

0.77 + j0.69

0.03

1.08

20

17

21.6

200/5 C20

0.5

1.28 + j1.15

0.06

1.79

10

30

17.9

400/5 C50

0.25

14.4 + j14.6

0.12

20.6

60

103

1200/5 C200 + 1.0

12: 1 Aux

0.77 + j0.69

0.34 0.32

190

1.67

200

317

1200/5 C200 + 6: 0.5

1Aux

1.28 + j1.15

0.34 0.32

72

1.67

200

120

1200/5 C200 + 3: 0.25

1Aux

14.4 + j14.6

0.34 0.32

187

1.67

200

312

Thus, by (3), I2 = 20 A 19 A = 1 A. And, since I2

is the increased phase current 3I0, the differential
current is:
I gd = 1 19 = 18 A.

(5)

The relay will be set to pickup at this value.

1200/5
1200/5

200/5
Res.

Ib I a

3750 kVA
4160 V
3I0

Ic

Transformer Protection
Relay

Fig. 6. Multifunction microprocessor transformer

protection relay.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

Slope =

March/April 2001

I gd

100%

(6)

I line
18
=
100% = 3.5%.
521

If the 1-A correction had been neglected, the result

would have been essentially the same.
The effect of CT error can be evaluated for this
relay. Assuming that saturation effects would occur only on the resistor-side CT and that the relay
burden is 0.2 VA, resistive, CT leakage currents
taken from a typical CT saturation curve are shown
in Table II. For the example above, the calculated
slope setting would only be affected by a fraction of
a percentage:

1200/5

Ig

74

The slope is set so that the relay will trip for the
minimum differential current at the maximum
line current (full-load current + 3I0):

Slope =

I gd + I leakage

100%

(7)

I line
18 +0.09
=
100% = 3.5%.
521

If, on the other hand, the phase CTs saturate during a line-line-ground fault, the setting may need
to be still higher, depending upon the leakage cur-

Calculate
Maximum Phase
Current

Ia
Ib

I max

Slope = Igd /Imax

Slope > Setpoint

Calculate
3I 0

Ic

Timer
0 - 0.5 s

and
Calculate
I3I0 - IgI

Output

I gd
l gd > Setpoint

Measure
Ig

Ig

Fig. 7. Multifunction relay ground-differential block diagram [6].

rent. There have been reported cases of CT errors in

the linear region of the saturation curve during external phase faults, causing false tripping of
ground-differential relays. Looking at the last line
in Table II, in this example, if the phase CTs see
20,000 A while the neutral CT sees 400 A, there
will be an additional leakage current of 0.02 A,
which will have a different phase angle than the
neutral CT current. In this example, the calculated
setting is not affected. However, this possibility
needs to be checked in the application of the relay,
and a higher setting may be required in some cases.
If a phase CT were to saturate during an external
phase-phase ground fault, the ground-differential
current would be much higher. In the worst case,
the unsaturated CT would provide its full output,
while the saturated CT would have no output. The
current from the unsaturated CT would split between the residual circuit and the saturated CT in a
current divider effect:
R CT + Lead
If

CTR R CT + Lead + R Relay

20,000 0.368
=

= 70 A.
240
0.44

3I 0 =

I gd + I leakage

100%

(10)

88

= 1
100% = 78%.
400
This is a considerable reduction from the goal
of 95% winding protection. The best solution to

I2

(8)

Then, by (8), assuming the phase difference between the two currents is 0:
Slope =

I
F = 1 1 100%
IR

If

I1

(9)

I line
18+70
88
=
100% =
100% = 17%.
521
521

The relay sensitivity would be severely decreased by such a setting. In Fig. 8 and (4) and (5),
for an internal ground fault, if If is 88 A, I1 becomes
113 A, and I2 becomes 25 A. The fraction, F, of the
winding protected is:

RES

Fig. 8. Transformer secondary winding ground fault

currents.
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

75

Table II. Performance of 87tg with Various Relay-CT Combinations (CT and Lead Burden as
per Table I) Transformer Protection Relay
CT Ratio

CT Current
at 400 A

0.2 VA Relay Burden () Relay + CT + Lead Burden ()

Min. CT (V)

CT Leakage Current
(A)

100/5

20

0.0005

0.06

1.2

0.11

200/5

10

0.002

0.09

0.9

0.09

400/5

0.008

0.16

0.8

0.08

1200/5

1.67

0.072

0.44

0.7

0.00

1200/5*

83.3

0.072

0.44

37

0.02

*At a fault current of 20,000 A.

1200/5

1200/5

200/5
Res.
400 A

51 G
1200/5
(67N)
87 G
POL

50
51

(67N)
87 G
OP

50
51

50
51

1/6
(Auxiliary Ration
Matching CT)

RMS Secondary Volts

Fig. 9. Electromechanical product type relay connected as a differential

ground relay.

C
B

C
B

100

A
10

1
0.1

.001
.01
0.1
1
RMS Secondary Amperes
Exciting Current

10 30 50 70
Degrees
Phase
Angle

Fig. 10. Typical CT secondary excitation characteristics [11]. Curve

A100/5 ratio, 0.06 winding resistance. Curve B600/5 ratio, 0.33
winding resistance. Curve C1200/5 ratio, 0.67 winding resistance.
76

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

this dilemma is to design the system to prevent

the line CTs from full saturation during external
phase faults.
In order to prevent false tripping due to normal
CT errors, the minimum slope setting in this example would be about 4%, but a setting which would
not cause false tripping even under conditions of
maximum CT saturation would be about 17%.
These numbers should not be taken as general
guidelines for appropriate settings. Every particular case should be evaluated in detail. The 4% slope
setting of the relay will result in the sensitivity decreasing slightly as the loading on the transformer
increases. Because the slope is calculated based
upon the maximum phase current rather than the
current into the differential circuit, the percentage
values appear to be lower than with the traditional
differential relay, although the effect is similar.
The final setting is for time delay. This will be
set to allow for instantaneous relays downstream to
clear high current faults. This is a precautionary
measure because if the differential functions and
their restraint circuits operate correctly, the relay
should not operate for faults outside of the differential zone.

Ground-Differential Protection with

Phase-Angle Restraint
This approach is a digital implementation of the
product-type ground-differential relay [7] (Fig. 9).
The standard product-type relay design is extended to include cases where the operating and
polarizing currents are out of phase due to CT saturation. When the differential current indicates that
the fault is external, the operating current is reduced by a factor proportional to a function of the
ground current, the zero-sequence current, and the
phase angle between them. This will allow the relay to trip for internal faults with CT saturation,
and yet still reject external faults.
The phase-angle saturation curves of typical
CTs (Fig. 10) show that the secondary voltage of a
CT leads the input current by an angle of 70-80
in an unsaturated condition. This angle decreases
to approximately 30 at the knee point and then re-

Ground Differential Protection with a

Solid-State Directional Overcurrent Relay
Function
Another multifunction microprocessor relay that
may be seen on a transformer is the feeder-protection relay. Many such relays contain a ground-directional function, which may be configured in a
similar manner to the product-type relay discussed
above. The types of polarization and the available
CT input connections for the relay should be examined. The residual current can be determined externally by having separate ground input terminals
for the residual connection, or it can be determined
internally, without separate input connections
(connection of Fig. 4). The residual current, however determined, will be the polarizing current.

Current

Voltage

The operating current is provided by the neutral

CT, which is also connected to a relay input. Thus,
a multifunction relay may have one or two sets of
ground CT inputs.
The relay coils should be connected with the polarization such that the relay will trip for a ground
fault within the differential zone.
The application of the directional ground relay
is discussed in [9]. A digital directional relay will
have a similar burden to the transformer protection
relay, as illustrated in Table II. As a directionally
polarized overcurrent relay, the types of errors that
can occur are as follows:
Saturation of phase transformer results in
reduction in polarizing current. The relay
will default to the forward direction on loss
of polarization, resulting in continued normal operation.

Time
B

Fig. 11. Phase-angle relationships for ground relay

with CT saturation. Curve Asystem voltage.
Curve Bfault current. Curve Crelay current.
Curve D60-Hz component of relay current.
(Magnitudes not to scale.)

Current

turns to 80 as the level of saturation increases.

When operating into a primarily resistive burden,
the secondary current will be in phase with the secondary voltage. Typical phase-angle relationships
for a saturated CT are shown in Fig. 11. Referring
to Fig. 9, the residual current from the phase CTs is
the reference, and the sum of the residual and neutral currents is the operating current. Considering
an internal fault, a phase difference of less than 90
between the neutral and residual currents (Fig. 12)
due to neutral CT saturation will not be able to reverse the direction sensed by the relay. On the
other hand, if one or two of the phase CTs saturates,
the direction sensed by the relay could change. If
the output of one CT is severely reduced (Fig. 13),
the residual current would be the sum of the other
two phase currents, which could result in a fundamental frequency phase angle of approximately
180 between the residual and neutral CT currents. Thus, if saturation is approached on one or
more phases, the relay could be fooled into thinking that an external fault had occurred.
The effect of digital relay filtering capabilities on
the current from a saturated CT is discussed in [8].
Two phase-to-ground faults, where there is
both a neutral-ground current and a high fault current passing through the phase CTs, which might
cause saturation, are very infrequent.
With a low-burden digital relay, this saturation
problem is not likely to happen in a resistance-grounded system, as can be seen for the
1200/5 CT in Table II. In a solidly grounded system, as shown in Table III, where the available
fault current is much higher, this could only happen if the CT and lead burden were excessively
high. The added burden can only exist if an auxiliary ratio-matching transformer is present. It is,
therefore, recommended that numerical relays utilize digital ratio matching algorithms, rather than
external auxiliary transformers. In some cases,
however, the range of settings of a digital relay may
not accept the difference in CT ratios, and auxiliary
CTs will be required.

Time
A

Fig. 12. Phase-angle relationships for internal fault with neutral

CT saturated. Curve Aresidual current. Curve Bneutral CT
current. Curve C60-Hz component of neutral CT current.
(Magnitudes not to scale.)
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

77

Current

Effect of Power Transformer Size

Time
A

Fig. 13. Phase-angle relationships for internal fault on phase A

with one phase CT saturated. Curve Aphase A current. Curve
Bphase B current. Curve Cphase C current. Curve
Dsaturated phase A current. Curve Eresidual current.
(Magnitudes not to scale.)

Saturation of neutral CTs results in reduction

in operating current. This may prevent relay
operation. The possibility of this happening
is very small, as can be seen from the calculations in Table II for the 100/5, 200/5, and
400/5 neutral CTs.
Voltage polarization may also be used. The
relay would then be a directional relay looking
into the transformer, rather than a true differential relay.
Dual polarization uses both current and voltage polarization. Because current polarization
would also be available, there is no reason to use
dual polarization.

The size of the resistance-grounded power transformer will affect the size of the phase CTs. The
generally accepted guideline [10] is that
ground-differential protection is applied on
transformers of 10 MVA or larger. Table IV
shows a typical evaluation of CT sizes used with
various transformers and relays. The combination is marked OK if the calculated CT voltage
for a 400-A (10 kA for Table III) ground fault is
less than the CT knee point. The transformer
protection relay of Table II is applicable in all
cases. When using an overcurrent relay and auxiliary transformer (Table I) the separately powered relay is applicable in more cases. If the
transformer is solidly grounded (Table III), an
auxiliary transformer may saturate due to the
high ground-fault current. The use of auxiliary
current transformers is not recommended when
the power transformer is solidly grounded.

Conclusions
Ground-differential relaying schemes with solidstate digital relays require evaluation in terms of
sensitivity, effect of CT saturation, cost, and complexity. It should not be assumed that simply because a low-burden digital relay is used, that
saturation problems may not occur. There have
been instances where this assumption has been
made, and low-accuracy CTs were used, resulting
in false operations due to CT saturation. It is
strongly urged that each individual application be
carefully analyzed during the design stage in order
to ensure proper operation.
In some cases, an externally powered timeovercurrent relay may be used. If CT saturation is
too great for a simple overcurrent relay, a transformer protection relay that does not require an
auxiliary transformer may be used. With a spe-

Table III. Performance of 87 tg with High Fault Currents Transformer Protection Relay
Case

CT Ratio Avail. Fault Current (kA) CT Current

(A)

0.2 VA Relay
Burden (W)

Relay + CT + Lead Burden (W) Min. CT (V)

Without Aux CT

1200/5

10

42

<0.001

0.37

16

1200/5

20

83

<0.001

0.37

31

1200/5

50

208

<0.001

0.37

78

Max. Burden without Sat. 1200/5

10

42

<0.001

4.8

200

1200/5

20

83

<0.001

2.4

200

1200/5

50

208

<0.001

0.96

200

1200/5 + 10

41.7

12:1,

0.016

53.1

2213

6:1

0.004

13.1

546

or 3:1

0.001

3.5

146

W/ Aux CT

Aux

78

IEEE Industry Applications Magazine

March/April 2001

Table IV. Example of Application Table for Various CT-Relay Combinations

Trans. Secretary. Secretary. CT Typ. CT CT Volts Table
MVA kV
(A)
Size Knee
IA with 6:1
:5
(V)
Aux

CT Volts Table CT Volts Table

IB with 6:1 Aux II

CT Volts Table
III without 6:1
Aux

CT Volts Table
III with 6:1 Aux

3.75

4.16

520

800

120

41

OK

180

3.75

4.16

520

1200 190

28

OK

120

3.75

13.8

157

250

38

133

3.75

13.8

157

300

45

110

4.16

694

1200 190

28

OK

120

4.16

694

1600 250

21

OK

90

13.8

209

300

45

110

13.8

209

400

60

83

10

4.16

1388

2000 200

17

OK

72

10

4.16

1388

3000 300

11

OK

48

10

13.8

418

600

90

55

OK

10

13.8

418

800

120

41

15

4.16

2082

4000 250

15

4.16

2082

15

13.8

15

1.1

OK

23

OK

820

0.7

OK

15

OK

546

577

3.5

OK

74

2623

481

2.9

OK

62

2186

OK

0.7

OK

15

OK

546

OK

0.6

OK

12

OK

410

481

2.9

OK

62

361

2.2

OK

46

OK

1639

OK

0.4

OK

OK

328

OK

0.3

OK

OK

219

240

1.5

OK

31

OK

1093

OK

180

1.1

OK

23

OK

820

OK

36

OK

0.2

OK

OK

164

OK

4000 250

OK

36

OK

0.2

OK

OK

164

OK

628

1000 160

33

OK

144

OK

0.9

OK

19

OK

656

13.8

628

1200 190

28

OK

120

OK

0.7

OK

15

OK

546

20

13.8

837

1200 190

28

OK

120

OK

0.7

OK

15

OK

546

20

13.8

837

1600 250

21

OK

90

OK

0.6

OK

12

OK

410

cially designed transformer ground-differential relay, CT saturation does not affect relay operation.
When evaluating different types of ground-differential protection for a range of transformers, the
factors relating to CT saturation may be calculated
and listed in a table that can be used for comparison
purposes (Table IV).
The use of digital solid-state relays can result in
the benefits of ground-differential protection in
packaged multifunction relays. Either transformer- or feeder-type relays can be utilized, if they
contain the necessary functions.

References
[1] P.E. Sutherland, Application of transformer ground differential relays, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 36, no. 1,
16-21, Jan./Feb. 2000.
[2] IEEE Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used for
Protective Relaying Purposes, IEEE Std. C37.110, 1996.
[3] Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers,
ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.13, 1993.

OK

2186

OK

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