ELECTROCHEMICAL

INSTRUMENTATION
Part I

BATTERY TEST
SYSTEMS

Control Systems
A typical control system incorporates not only
functions allocated to measurements of
variables and information transfer, but
functions for energy conversion, utilization
and control employing controllers of the
electronic, mechanical, pneumatic,
microprocessor, etc., type.
Exemplary control systems may be for position,
level, speed, rpm control.
The electrochemical control systems are
primarily devoted to potential, current, power,
temperature, density and other
electrochemical parameters control by
means of electronic controllers.

Control System Structure

Most electronic control systems include some kind of a feedback loop ---------------applying a corrective signal from the Output back to the Input.
The main purpose of this feedback signal is to correct the input signal in
such a way that an error signal be produced and amplified for the purpose
of RESULTS to most faithfully match the AIMS.

Classical Feedback Theory

Two distinct cases:
1. GCL = 1/, when A is too large
In this case the system closed
loop gain G is defined entirely
by the negative feedback
components and the output
signal is precisely defined by
.

Ul
A
GCL =
=
Uin 1 +A
1
When A
GCL

When A= 1180deg GCL

2. GCL = infinity, when A = -1

In this case the system is totally
useless, loses control, the
closed loop gain G goes to
infinity and the output becomes
destructive.

Advantages and Cost of Feedback

Reduction of sensitivity to variations of the bipolar
or FET transistors parameters due to changes of
ambient temperature, d.c. supply voltages, radiation,
aging etc.
The application of feedback tends to reduce the
harmonic distortion and noise generated inside the
internal amplifier
The above advantages however are achieved at the
cost of risk of instability since in certain cases the
amplifier may become unstable demanding the
addition of suitable corrective circuit elements to the
internal amplifier and/or the feedback network so as
to insure the overall system stability under all
possible operating conditions

The Electronic Amplifier

Ud - difference or error signal
Ur - feedback or return signal
A - amplifier open loop gain
- feedback network transfer
function

Uin and Uout Input and

Output signal

As the open loop gain A is increased in magnitude, the

error signal Ud becomes progressively smaller and the
feedback signal Ur approximates more closely the input
signal Uin, which is equivalent of saying that the closed
loop gain G is effectively equal to 1/.

The Closed Loop Gain G

Uout
A=
Ud
Ur = Uout
Ud = Uin Ur = Uin Uout
Uout
A
1 1
=
=
G=
Uin 1 + A 1
+1
A

The Electronic Amplifier Features

The dominated speed of response is much higher in
contrast to a typical industrial control system
microseconds (or less) compared to seconds
The mutual influence among the internal amplifier
stages and the feedback network components is
always to be accounted for
The higher frequency operation at different power
levels should not result to the introduction of
noticeable static or dynamic errors
The transfer function is to be precisely analytically
described to facilitate the judicious application of
stabilizing phase compensation techniques

The Basic Operational Amplifier

Amplifier gain A Very high, close to infinity

Input impedances Zin 1,2 Very high, close to infinity
Output impedance Rout Very small, close to zero
Bias currents Ib 1,2 Small to negligible
Offset voltage Uoff Small to negligible

Inverter and Summing Amplifier

R2
Uout =
Uin
R1

The potential difference between

the two amplifier inputs is
negligible due to the high
amplifier gain, hence the
summing point is virtually at
zero (ground) potential and is
frequently labeled as The
Virtual Ground of the amplifier.

The input resistances presented

to the input voltage sources U1
and U2 are correspondingly R1
and R2, hence these operational
circuits have final valued input
R3
R3
U out =
U1
U 2 resistances.
R1
R2

Voltage followers with/without Gain

Uout = Uin

R1 + R 2
Uout =
U in
R1

The simple voltage follower does

not change the sign of the input
voltage and the output voltage
equals the applied input voltage.
Commonly termed Buffer
Amplifier since its input
impedance presented to the input
voltage source is practically
infinite.

The same is valid for the follower

with gain with no sign inversion,
gain equal to (R1+R2)/R1 and
infinite input impedance presented
to the voltage source.

Integrators and Differentiators

1
Uout =
U in dt

RC

dUin
Uout = RC
???
dt

The integrating operational configuration

should be cautiously utilized since no
matter how small the bias current and the
offset voltage are, they will be integrated
over time and be presented as a
combined error term. By adding an
appropriate switching network this
operational circuit is often used for
sample-and-hold applications.
The pure differentiator circuit is quite a
controversial one since, for reasons that
will be discussed later on, it has not only
a tendency toward instability, but its gain
at high frequencies is very high and there
is a risk for the amplifier generated high
frequency output noise to obscure the
noise-free differentiated signal.

Differential Amplifier and I/E Converter

The simple differential amplifier finds numerous
applications when voltage differences are
measured. Its closed loop gain however
depends primarily on the resistors mach down
to less than 0.1%. The main advantage of this
operational configuration is that it heavily
suppresses common mode signals.

R2
Uout =
(Uin 2 Uin1)
R1

Uout IinR

The I/E current-to-voltage converter virtual

ground summing point allows for the precise
direct conversion of the short circuited current
source signal to an output voltage signal without
introducing any current shunts. Frequently used
for electrochemical sensors conditioning and
electrochemical impedance measurements but
the inevitable electrochemical capacitance
applied to the amplifier input transforms it to a
differentiator-like circuit with all the associated
risks of instability and obscuring noise
generation.

Typical Operational Amplifiers

GAIN

OFFSET

BIAS

INPUT

voltage

current

impedance

SPEED

POWER
output

Low
Offset

High

Very
low [nV]

Medium

Medium

High

Low

Low
input

Medium

Medium

Very low
[fA]

Very
High
[Gohms]

Low

Low

Fast

Medium

Medium

High

Low

Very
High
[>Mhz]

Medium

High
Power

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium

Medium Very
High
[A]

current

The Ideal/Real Voltage Source

The voltage presented to the load, Eo, by a real
voltage source E with a final output resistance of
ro, would equal

RL
Eo = E
ro + R L

<<

An ideal voltage source would ideally have zero

output resistance, following the thick black line.
The non-ideal output voltage due to the resistive
divider would follow the red line.
If, however, there is a way to introduce some
kind of a negative resistance ro to precisely
counteract the final output resistance ro
influence, the blue line, the real E Source would
behave as an ideal one.

The Ideal/Real Current Source

The current presented to the load, IL, by a real
current source I with a final output resistance of
Ro would equal

Eo
IL = I
Ro

<<

An ideal current source would ideally have an

infinite output resistance, following the thick
black line. The non-ideal load current due to the
Eo/Ro leakage would follow the red line.
If, however, there is a way to introduce some
kind of a negative resistance Ro to precisely
counteract the final value output resistance Ro
influence, the blue line, the real I Source would
behave as an ideal one.

E Source

E 0 = E REF

R1+ R 2
R1

E Source Errors

dE 0 = S u dE in + r0dI 0 + S tudT

I Source

E REF
R1
I Rl =
RS R 1 + R 2

I Source Errors

1
dI 0 = S i dE im +
dE 0 + S ti dT
R0

E/I Source

E 0 = E REF
E REF
I0 =
RS

R2
R1

E/I Source Characteristics

The angle reflects the
influence of the final valued
internal resistance of the

E source, while the angle

illustrates the combined I
source output resistance
participation
The automatic crossover
is user selectable.

Thermal Feedback

dE 0[thfmax]

E
R1+ R 2
= in Z thS th E REF
4 Rl
R1

High Power/Voltage E/I Source

Ir Compensati on
E 0 = E REF

R2
R2

r0 I 0 +
I0RS
R1
R

E
Compensati on
R
E0
E REF E 0
I0 =

+
RS
R0
R

The Bitrode Power Module

The Output Stage the Bitrode Module

The electrical and thermal design of
the output power stage is an art itself.
Various approaches for reduction of
the power dissipated by the active
components, mostly bipolar or FET
transistors, are employed.
The series-parallel operation of active
(transistors) and passive (resistors)
elements helps to dynamically
distribute the power dissipated by the
semiconductor components and
extend their operational life,
enhancing their reliability.
Special cases are the high
voltage/power output stages where the
active components Safe Operating
Area should carefully be considered
since the overvoltage destruction is a
nanosecond process.

Constant Power Source

This power controller utilizes an

analogue multiplier for fast and
precise control of the output power

Po

P0 = E

REF

R1+ R 2
Km
R 1. R s

Electronic Load
Constant Resistance
The equivalent of an infinitely variable
high power rheostat (0 to 100 ohms)
with close to 0.1% precision at
nominal power of up to 2000 watts (or
more)

E
R1+ R 2
R RS
Ic
R1

E/I/P Source

E/I/P Source + I/P/R Sink+Elimit

Universal Battery Test Unit

OPERATIONAL MODES
-CC charge/discharge
- CV charge/discharge
- CP charge/discharge
- CR discharge
- FV protection
- Ref Electrode control
- Cell pressure control
- Battery temperature limit
- Gas evolution control
- Heat sink temperature limit

Battery Life Cycling Tester Bitrode Corp.

High Power Test Unit Bitrode Corp.

Battery Test System Digatron Corp.

The Solartron 1470 Battery and Fuel Cell

Test Unit