Reducing Selectivity in Narrow-Vein Mining through the Integration of Underground

Pre-concentration
Andrew Bamber, Bern Klein, Mario Morin, Malcolm Scoble
Department of Mining Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Abstract
The introduction of pre-concentration technology into the underground narrow-vein mining scenario has the
potential to change the entire economics of utilizing bulk-mining methods in these situations. An idealized
integrated underground mining and processing system, comprising elements of bulk mining, underground preconcentration and backfill systems is presented. Through simulation and a systems engineering approach, the
implications of enabling the utilization of bulk mining methods in a narrow vein deposit through the adoption of
this technology is considered. Parameters considered include orebody characteristics, ore mineralogy, grade,
metal value, mining rate and cost.
Keywords narrow-vein mining, bulk methods, underground pre-concentration, backfill, economics

1.

Introduction

The majority of Canadian hard-rock narrow-vein mines are mature, and face the need to mine deeper deposits in
the face of increasing costs and declining grades. Obstacles to the successful mining of such deposits include
ground control, material handling and ventilation. In addition to these issues, the mining of narrow-vein deposits
faces additional economic challenges in the low productivity of the typical narrow-vein mining method, the
management of dilution and therefore grade, and the optimal integration of fill into the mining cycle.
UBC has been involved with INCO in a strategic research initiative into mine-mill integration, and more
specifically underground pre-concentration, since 2000. Several enabling technologies such as coarse-particle
mineral processes, hydraulic transport and modular cemented backfill systems have been identified, and
integrated using systems engineering techniques into a conceptual underground mining and processing system
for the rejection and disposal of waste. The grade of ore delivered to surface is substantially increased through
the rejection of barren waste underground. Previous research has indicated that substantial operating and capital
cost savings can be achieved, as well as a reduction in the surface footprint of the operation.
A case study has been undertaken for Falconbridges Onaping Depth Deposit in Sudbury, Ontario to assess the
potential impacts of underground pre-concentration. Geological research and mineralogical evaluation of typical
Sudbury Igneous Complex ores indicate that between 20 70% of the ore mined can be rejected with a good
metallurgical recovery. Several coarse-particle separation technologies have been identified and tested for use in
the underground process plant. Waste thus rejected is highly competent, and is suitable for use as a source of
aggregate for cemented backfill of superior mechanical properties. A conceptual process plant has been
developed and integrated into the underground mining and material handling system. Several impacts of the
implementation of underground pre-concentration on the operation have been identified, including:
Lowering of the cost of metal production through rejection of up to 60% dilution underground at
greater than 95% metal recovery
Savings in underground haulage, hoisting, surface transport, milling and tailings disposal
Lowering the cutoff grade through the reduction in operating costs
Increasing the mineral reserve though lowering of the effective cutoff grade
Decrease in selectivity of mining, thus increasing productivity
A possible increase in minimum stoping height (ground conditions permitting), facilitating the use of
more productive mining equipment and the introduction of automated roof-bolters
Potential change in mining method to bulk-mining techniques due to the inclusion of a continuous,
efficient and effective waste-rejection step within the mining cycle
Improvement in ground control and a potential reduction in rockbursting due to the introduction of
superior backfill into the mining void.
A discussion of the integration of the mining, processing, and backfill systems into the case study mine is
presented. Revisions to the present mining method which will increase the productivity and lower the costs of

the method are proposed. Conclusions to the feasibility and benefits of implementing such an integrated mining
and processing system will be presented.
2.

Impact of introducing Bulk Mining Methods in Narrow Vein Situations

Consider a deep, steeply-dipping, narrow tabular orebody as shown in Figure 1. The orebody is deep, and thus a
low cost of mining is critical to the feasibility of exploiting this resource. Due to the geometry of the orebody,
typically a narrow-vein mining method such as longwall stoping or drift-and-fill would be preferred.

Figure 1 Example of Deep, Moderately Dipping Narrow-vein Orebody Configuration

Let it be assumed that a drift-and fill method has been selected, orebody access is via a central footwall drift,
and two strike-oriented drift-headings are driven simultaneously from the central drift out towards the East and
West abutments. A typical narrow-vein drift and fill panel on strike can be represented as shown in Fig 2. Seam
thickness t is 1m. In the interests of minimising dilution, panel dimensions outside of the seam must be
minimised, thus panel dimensions for a seam width of 1m would be of the order of 3m x 2.5m, with a round
length of approximately 2 2.5m. The seam angle a in this case is 55. This panel dimension would be
suitable for a mining suite comprising a single-boom jumbo, a 4.5m3 LHD and a roof-bolter.

Figure 2 Typical Narrow-vein Drift-and-fill Panel on Strike

The overall characteristics, including the grade of the round can be determined from the dimensions and
geometry of the panel, as well as the density and grade of the ore and waste respectively. The critical parameters
in this calculation are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Orebody Characteristics for Grade Determination
Variable
Description
Ore thickness
t
Orebody dip
a
Ore grade
g
Ore density
o
Waste grade
w
Waste density
w

Value
1m
55deg
10%
3.4
1%
2.8

The grade of the round overall can be calculated based on the seam thickness and orientation, panel dimensions,
and the relative grade of the ore and the waste.
The quantity of metal in the round can be calculated as follows:
Ore mass

mo

= otwd
cos(a)

(1)

mw

= w(wdh twd )
cos(a)

(2)

Ore grade = g
Waste mass
Waste grade = w
Thus overall panel grade can be calculated according to the ratio of the mass of ore and waste in the round:
p

= mog + mww
mo + mw

(3)

For the parameter values in Table 1, the grade of a narrow seam drift-and-fill round on this orebody would be
From (1) mo

= 35.57 t and from (2) mw

= 12.71 t

Dilution in the round is thus 35%. Substituting for mo, g, mw and w in (3), the overall grade of the round is
p

= [35.57(10) + 1(12.71)]/(48.28)
= 7.63%

Productivity for this type of equipment suite is low, and therefore unit mining costs for narrow-seam methods
are high. The unit cost of mining can be lowered by increasing the productivity of the mining suite. This will
entail an increase in the panel dimensions, and consequently a decrease in the overall panel grade, and thus the
overall as-mined grade.
Panel dimensions for a mining suite comprising a double-boom jumbo, 6m3 LHD and an automated roof-bolter
would be of the order of 6m x 3m, with a face advance of 3m. The grade of the round as calculated by the above
method would be:
mo
mw

= 106.7 t
= 63.3 t

Dilution of the round is now 59.3%. The grade of the ore and waste is unchanged, thus the overall panel grade p
would be:
p
= 6.65%

The grade of ore generated from mining operations is decreased by 13% through a 41% increase in panel size;
this figure would be greater for a greater increase in panel dimensions. However, mining costs arising from this
method will also be lower due to the higher productivity of the suite. The value of the ore delivered to surface is
dependent on the grade of the ore, as well as the price of the metal; if this decrease in value is greater than the
cost saving of adopting the more productive method, then this approach is unfeasible.
In the interests of clarity and simplicity, a tabular narrow vein deposit has been chosen. However, Figure 3
shows a number of other presentations of ore or panel mineralogies which could be considered narrow vein,
and for which the volumetric and therefore grade calculations are substantially more complex.

Figure 3 Potential Panel Mineralogies Found in Narrow-vein Situations

While the panel mineralogies in each case differ, due to the narrow-vein nature of the deposit, increasing the
mining width consequently decreases the grade of ore mined. However, in each case, there is a substantial
proportion of the tons mined which can be distinguished from the ore and rejected as barren waste.

3.

Impact of Underground Pre-concentration on Ore Tonnage, Grade and Mining Costs

UBC is involved in a strategic research programme into underground pre-concentration. It has been identified
that savings in haulage, hoisting and surface milling can be achieved through the rejection of waste
underground. The grade of ore delivered to surface can be improved by up to 100% through the rejection of
gangue material underground in an integrated underground mining and processing system (Bamber et al, 2004).
A case study has been undertaken in order to identify suitable design criteria for a typical underground preconcentration facility. Basic design criteria identified through research and testwork are:
Waste must be rejected as coarse and as early in the mining cycle as possible
Process plant must be compact, robust, and flexible in the face of variations in feed size, tonnage
and grade
Coarse-particle processing technologies are preferred
Maximum recovery of the economic mineral(s) must be achieved
A maximum of 60% only of the tons mined can be rejected
Waste products must be suitable for use as backfill
Coarse particle technologies that have been identified and tested thus far include:
Optical sorting
Conductivity sorting
High intensity magnetic separation
Gravity concentration
Dense media separation
Coarse-particle grinding and flotation has also been identified as a viable technology, but has not as yet been
tested. A basic process flowsheet of the integrated mining and processing system is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Integrated Underground Mining and Processing System

The optimum performance of an underground pre-concentration facility has been determined to be 60% waste
rejection at 95% metal recovery. The overall metallurgical balance for such an underground pre-concentration
plant is shown in Figure 5.

Feed
tons F
grade g
dilution d

Pre-concentrator
capacity t
mass pull 40%
recovery 95%

Concentrate
tons C = F - T
grade =
0.95*(Fg)/(F-T)

Rejects
tons T = 0.6F
grade =
0.05*(Fg)/T

Figure 5 Metallurgical Balance for an Underground Mining and Processing System

Feed is processed at as coarse a size as possible, typically 100% - 80mm. Waste rejects are slightly coarser than
plant feed due to the characteristic increase in grade towards the finer fractions exhibited by massive-sulphide
base metal ores. Concentrate grade is approximately double the feed grade due to the rejection of barren waste.
Metal values in the rejects are low due to the high metallurgical recovery of the processes that have been
researched.
There are a number of impacts of implementing such a pre-concentration system on the underground mining
system. In the example cited in section 2, the panel grade resulting from the adoption of bulk mining techniques
was shown to be 6.65% with 59% dilution. Assuming a mining rate of 3000 tpd, pre-concentrated ore at 1800
tpd and a grade of 10.53% could be delivered to surface through the adoption of underground pre-concentration.
Waste products are suitable for use as fill either as rockfill, or with further processing as high-strength cemented
backfill. Implementation of the system was shown through modelling to reduce mining and milling costs by
20%. A further benefit that would be enjoyed in a greenfields situation would be a reduction of 10% in the
initial capital outlay due to a reduction in tons, and therefore the size of the hauling, hoisting, milling and
tailings disposal facilities at the mine.

4.

Case Study Onaping Depth

For the purposes of this paper, the authors have chosen to examine the impact of pre-concentration on the
extraction of Falconbridges Onaping Depth deposit, located in the Sudbury Basin in Ontario. In the late 1990s,
Falconbridge was considering the mining of this resource but has chosen to postpone its development
indefinitely. The safe extraction of the ore at these depths has proven itself to be too risky at this time due to
ground stability issues.
4.1.
Geology, Mineralogy and Mining
Ore deposits of the North Range of the Sudbury Igneous Complex can be classified into 5 generic ore types
(Coats and Snadjr, 1984):
Disseminated sulphides in the mafic norite of the Complex
Disseminated sulphides, stringer sulphides, massive sulphide lenses and interstitial sulphides in
breccias in the sublayer norites
Massive sulphides and interstitial sulphides in breccia at the contact of the sublayer norite and the
Footwall rocks
Sulphide lenses associated with massive sulphide stringers in Footwall rocks
Cu-rich massive sulphide stringers and dykes in Footwall rocks

Ores of the Craig / Onaping occur as two of the above ore types. The Main or contact ore zones are shallower
deposits comprising massive, disseminated and breccia sulphides occupying a deep embayment in the
mineralized zone of the Footwall breccia of the SIC. The Main ore zone sulphides grade into Footwall zone ores
comprising Cu-rich massive sulphide stringers varying in width between 0 6m. It is thought that these ores
originate from copper remobilization in the contact ore zone. Sulphide stringers in the SIC are typically oriented
parallel to the Footwall contact, and are thought to occupy stress-related fractures in the footwall normal to the
compressive stress generated by the igneous intrusion. The brecciation at the contact between the sublayer
norites and the footwall rocks is related to shock generated by the rate of the igneous intrusion. Principal NorthRange sulphides are chalcopyrite, pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. PGMs occur as sperrylite or as a solid
solution in the chalcopyrite or pentlandite.
Principal characteristics of the Onaping Depth orebody are shown in Table 2 (Swan & Campbell, 2001).
Table 2 Orebody Characteristics of Onaping Depth Deposit
Property
Value
Ore type
Massive and stringer sulphides (pentlandite / chalcopyrite) in
Sudbury Breccia
UCS
20 GPa
Hangingwall
Sudbury Breccia
UCS
100 GPa
Footwall
Footwall gneiss
Dilution
30%
Extraction
80%
Depth
2300 2600 m
Thickness
Variable 60 100m, average 70m
Dip
30
Strike
420m
Total Resource (Indicated + Inferred)
15.8 Mt
Cu
1.16 %
Ni
2.6 %
TPM (estimate)
0.65 g/t
Narrow vein orebodies are generally classified as seams of between 0.1 and 3m with an intermediate or steep
dip of 20 - 55o (Miller-Tate et al, 1995). The Onaping Depth orebody, like the Strathcona Copper Zone and the
McCreedy East footwall ores, comprises multiple stringers of varying thickness within the thickness of the
orezone, but can be considered a narrow-vein orebody due to the narrowness and steep inclination of the
individual veins. The mining method in use at Strathcona and McCreedy on these ores is drift-and-fill, which is
a suitable narrow-vein method.
Based on the geometry, depth and orientation of the orebody a number of mining methods are suggested (De
Souza et al 1987):
Longwall stoping
Drift-and-fill
Cut-and-fill (overhand or underhand)
Shrinkage stoping (wider veins with steep dip only)
Sublevel caving (wider veins and steep dips in competent hangingwall only)
In each case, resueing may also be adopted in addition to the basic method in order to reduce dilution. A second
factor to be considered in selecting the mining method is the geotechnical characteristics of the ore, footwall and
hangingwall rocks. This can be defined by the Q index (Barton, 1988) as follows:
Q=
Where:

(RQD) Jr Jw
Jn Ja (SRF)

(4)
RQD
SRF
Jr

- Rock Quality Designation

- Stress Reduction Factor
- Joint roughness number

Jw
Jn
Ja

- Joint water reduction number

- Joint set number
- Joint set alteration number

Other mining method selections based on orebody geometry and depth as well as the geotechnical setting of the
deposit are similar and include the Nicholas method (Nicholas, 1981) and the UBC modified Nicholas approach
(Pakalnis et al, 1995). A low Q index indicates that low-volume supported methods such as longwall stoping or
drift-and-fill methods would be preferred. A moderate Q index indicates a preference for higher volume
methods such as room-and-pillar, cut and fill or shrinkage stoping. A high Q indicates enables the consideration
of high volume methods such as open stoping, VCR or sublevel caving.
Applying all method selection criteria, drift- or cut-and-fill methods are preferred in conditions of high stress, or
poor ore, hangingwall and footwall strength or condition through the improved ground control offered through
the use of fill. The benefits of increased ground control in this method can be further improved through the use
of higher strength fills, although this is not generally considered economic.
In the case of Onaping Depth, underhand cut-and-fill was the method selected due to concerns for rockbursting
precipitated by the high level of rock stress at this depth, and the brittle nature of the Sudbury Breccia (Romer,
2001). Principal access to the orebody was to be via a sub-shaft developed from the 4500 level of Craig Mine
(see Figure 6).

Figure 6 Onaping Depth Location and Access (www.falconbridge.com/projects)

A number of options for secondary access to the orebody were considered. These included:
Strike oriented mining with hangingwall access
Strike oriented mining with footwall access
Strike oriented mining with east abutment access

Dip-oriented mining with hangingwall access

Dip-oriented mining with footwall access
Dip-oriented mining with east abutment access

The final mining method selection was dip-oriented sequential underhand cut-and-fill panel in a weave pattern
with orebody access obtained from a strike-oriented footwall drift (Figure 7). A sequence of two underhand cutand fill levels with alternating sill-cut levels was used in order to further minimize anticipated the rock-bursting
problem. Based on a reserve estimate of 16Mt, a mining rate of 2933 tpd over 341 working days / year gives a
life-of-mine of 16 years.

Figure 7 Typical Onaping Depth Drift-and-Fill Mining Level (Romer and Lawler, 2001)

4.2. Evaluation of Cut-and-fill Mining with Underground Pre-concentration

It has been demonstrated that underground pre-concentration can decrease the tons, and increase the grade of ore
delivered to surface (Bamber, 2004). An estimate of capital and operating cost savings is given for the case
study outlined above, based on the mining of the Onaping Depth orebody alone, and delivering the ore to a
dedicated mill nearby.
Impacts on the tonnage and grade of ore delivered to surface, based on a mining rate of 2933 tpd and the
metallurgical performance indicated above is shown Table 3.
Table 3 Comparison on Impacts Caused by Pre-concentration on Onaping Depth Ore
In situ
After Pre-concentration
2933
1760
Mining Rate (tpd)
30
0
Dilution (%)
1.13
1.8
Cu grade (%)
2.6
4.12
Ni grade (%)
0.64
1.01
PGMs (g/t)

4.3 Capital and Operating Cost Impacts

Capital cost impacts are estimated based on the reduction of tonnage and therefore size of downstream facilities
after the rejection of waste. Capital impacts are calculated using the industry capital estimation formula that can
be used to estimate the cost of an envisaged facility from the cost of an existing similar facility, according to the
relation:
C2

= C1 (t2/t1)2/3

C2
C1
t1
t2

= new capital cost

= existing capital cost
= throughput of existing facility
= throughput of new facility

(5)

Where

In this way the theoretical capital saving enabled through the rejection of the waste fraction can be calculated.
The mining rate is unchanged; therefore there is no change in the capital requirement for mining. Capital
savings are enjoyed in haulage, hoisting, surface transport, and milling and tailings disposal operations. The
additional capital cost of the new pre-concentration facility must be accounted for in this estimate: if the cost of
the pre-concentration facility is greater than the capital saving, there will be an increase in the overall capital
required for the system. Capital savings for scenarios with low proportions of waste rejection are often
insufficient to offset the increase in capital for the pre-concentration facility. Based on industry averages for
Capex in mining, underground haulage, hoisting, and surface milling, the break-even point is approximately
30%, thus it can be seen in the example of Onaping Depth that there is a slight increase in capital cost, based on
estimated figures for the capital cost of the baseline system. Substituting into equation 5 for the estimated
Capex, we obtain the results shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Capex Cost Comparison for Medium-Depth Orebody without/with Pre-concentration
PreSurface
Mining Hauling
concentration
Hoisting Transport Milling Tailings
Total
15
10
0
25
10
35
5.00
100
15
8.39
20
20.98
8.39
29.39
4.19
106.36
Operating cost savings can be calculated in two ways. In the scenario described in this paper, the possibility of
facilitating cut-and-fill instead of drift-and-fill methods through the implementation of underground preconcentration results in a reduction of mining costs from those typical for drift and fill to those more typical of
cut and fill. This can be quantified through historical data for similar mining operations from sources such as the
Canadian Mines Handbook. A comparison of industry average costs for drift-and-fill methods results in the
following estimate of typical mining and milling costs for a medium-depth drift-and-fill operation (see Table 5).
Table 5 Mining and Milling Costs for Medium-Depth Drift-and-Fill Operation
Mucking/
Crush/
Surface
Mining
haulage
Backfill Convey
Hoisting Haul
Milling
Tailings
46.90
11.70
24.28
1.66
1.90
4.45
7.34
2.00

Total
100.25

Comparing costs for drift-and-fill to cut-and-fill from the same source indicates the type of saving possible
through the facilitation of the higher productivity, lower cost method (see Table 6). It must be pointed out that
for Onaping Depth, underhand cut-and-fill was chosen as the only practicable and safe mining method so the
cost comparison and related conclusions may not be entirely valid.
Table 6 Mining and Milling Costs for Medium-Depth Cut-and-Fill Operation
Mucking/
Crush/
Surface
haulage
Mining
Backfill convey
Hoisting Haul
Milling
Tailings
25.15
7.74
8.24
3.33
1.53
4.45
7.34
2.00

10

Total
59.78

A possible operating cost saving of 40% is indicated in this instance. Operating cost savings can also be enjoyed
within the same mining method through the reduction in tons processed in the downstream activities. The saving
due to the reduction in tons applies only to the variable portion of the operating costs, fixed operating costs
remain unaffected by this reduction. It is assumed that unit-operating costs do not vary significantly over small
variations in the feed tonnage to a particular process. The savings expressed in terms of ROM tons can be
calculated according to the relation:
c2 =

c1t2
t1

c2
c1
t2
t1

= revised operating cost

= original operating cost
= throughput after pre-concentration
= original ROM throughput

(6)

Where

In the case of underground pre-concentration savings of up to 50% are also enjoyed in the area of backfill costs
through the generation of large quantities of cheap, competent backfill close to the active stopes. Crushing and
conveying costs indicated above are replaced by the additional operating costs of pre-concentration. Substituting
the tonnage values indicated above into equation 6, the reduction in operating costs for the drift-and-fill method
costs detailed above can be calculated, and are shown in Table 7 below.
Table 7 Mining and Milling Costs for Medium-Depth Cut-and-Fill with Pre-concentration
Mucking/
PreSurface
Mining haulage
Backfill concentration Hoisting Haul
Milling Tailings Total
46.90
8.19
12.14
2.08
1.33
3.11
5.13
1.4
80.28
Downstream operating cost savings for drift-and-fill method are of the order of 20% overall. Similar capital and
operating cost savings have been documented for the implementation of pre-concentration on surface. Capital
and operating cost savings as well as an increase in the effective capacity of the surface mill were observed
(McCullough et al, 1999). The capital and operating costs savings precipitated through pre-concentration on
surface can only be maximised by implementing the concept underground. This observation has been borne out
in a number of case studies in the impact of implementing underground pre-concentration on cut-and-fill and
drift-and-fill mining scenarios at UBC (Schindler, 2001; Bamber, 2004).
4.

Conclusions

The basic economics of facilitating high-productivity mining methods in narrow-vein situations have been
presented. Larger face dimensions and longer drill rounds can result in an unacceptable drop in the grade of the
ore in the panel. The adoption of an underground pre-concentration system with good metallurgical performance
has been shown to increase the grade of a round thus produced to a value superior to that of the original driftand-fill stope through the rejection of both external and interstitial waste. Simulation of the proposed integrated
mining and processing system has shown the physical possibility of adopting this method, and both literature
and calculation shows that there are capital and operating cost benefits to the system.
A case study focusing on the Onaping Depth orebody in Sudbury, Ontario is discussed. Mining of the orebody is
presently considered unfeasible due to difficult ground conditions and associated safety risks resulting in
marginal economics. The implementation of underground pre-concentration at Onaping Depth has been
suggested: capital costs for downstream facilities such as hoisting and milling are increased by 6%, however
operating costs are reduced by between 20 and 40%. There is also a positive benefit to the project through an
improvement in ground control via the generation of substantial quantities of cheap, competent cemented
backfill which can be pumped to the fill stopes as required.

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