Classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)

is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus
comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is
achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent
stimulus. The basic facts about classical conditioning were discovered
by Ivan Pavlov through his famous experiments with dogs. Together
with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation
of Behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of
psychological therapy and the study of animal behaviour (ethology).
Classical conditioning is now the best understood of the basic learning
processes, and its neural substrates are beginning to be understood.

as thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is useless in

explaining behavior.

Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning (also, instrumental conditioning) is a learning
process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by, its
consequences. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the
candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In contrast, classical
conditioning causes a stimulus to signal a positive or negative
consequence; the resulting behavior does not produce the consequence.
For example, the sight of a colorful wrapper comes to signal "candy",
causing a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam comes to signal an
angry parent, causing a child to tremble. The study of animal learning in

In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is not simply connected

the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of
learning,[1] and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.

to the unconditioned response; the conditioned response usually differs

in some way from the unconditioned response, sometimes significantly.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning. In it, an individual changes

For this and other reasons, learning theorists commonly suggest that the
conditioned stimulus comes to signal or predict the unconditioned
stimulus, and go on to analyze the consequences of this signal.
Classical conditioning differs from operant or instrumental conditioning:
in classical conditioning, behavioral responses are elicited by antecedent
stimuli, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are strengthened or

its behaviour because of the consequences (results) of the behaviour.

The person or animal learns its behaviour has a consequence. That
consequence may be
1. Reinforcement: a positive or rewarding event. This causes the
behaviour to occur more often

weakened by their consequences (i.e., reward or punishment).

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that had a major influence on
the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism. Discovered by
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs through associations between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. Behaviorism is based on the
assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the
environment.Two other assumptions of this theory are that the
environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such

2. Punishment: a negative or punishing event. This causes the

behaviour to occur less often
3. Extinction:

no

event

follows,

so

the

behaviour

has

no

consequences. When a behaviour has no consequences, it will

occur less frequently.
There are four different contexts in operant conditioning. Here, the
terms

'positive'

and

'negative'

are

not

used

in

their

basic

sense; positive means that something is added, and negative means

something is taken away:
1. Positive

reinforcement' (often just "reinforcement") occurs

when there is a reward for a form of behaviour. This will

increase the frequency at which the behaviour occurs. In
the Skinner box experiment, the reward is in the form
of food when the rat presses a lever.

Theories about human learning can be grouped into

four broad "perspectives". These are
1.

Behaviorism - focus on observable behavior

2. Cognitive - learning as purely a mental/ neurological process

3. Humanistic - emotions and affect play a role in learning
4. Social - humans learn best in group activities

2. Negative reinforcement (sometimes "escape") occurs when an

aversive stimulus is removed. This will increase the frequency at
which the behaviour occurs. In the Skinner box experiment,
there was a loud noise, which was removed when the rat pressed
the lever.
3. Positive punishment occurs when a stimulus is added, which
results in the behaviour occurring less often. Example stimuli
may be loud noise, electric shock (rat), or a spanking (child).

Most influential theories of learning

Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and

environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or
modifying ones knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world
views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this process
takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn
of the 20th century. The major concepts and theories of learning include
behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology, constructivism, social
constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated
learning theory and community of practice.

4. Negative punishment occurs when a stimulus is taken away, which

results in the behaviour occurring less often. An example might
be a child's toy taken away after the child does an undesired
behaviour.

different

The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in

from Pavlov's classical conditioning. Operant conditioning deals

behaviour due to the acquisition, reinforcement and application of

associations between stimuli from the environment and observable

with

the

Operant
voluntary

conditioning
modification

of

is

Behaviourism

behaviour;

conditioning with training a reflex.

classical

responses of the individual.

The idea of operant conditioning was first discovered by Edward

Thorndike.

Cognitive psychology
2

Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental phenomena,

ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the
computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous
to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the
acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who
absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it
in memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are
lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most extreme, the learner is
a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.

Constructivism
It give rise to the idea that learners are not passive recipients of
information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in
interaction with the environment and through the reorganization of their
mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not
simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of
learning led to the shift from the knowledge-acquisition to knowledgeconstruction metaphor.

Social learning theory

This theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social
context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as
modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward
reciprocal determininsm that holds the view that a persons behavior,
environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others.
He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from
model behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on
learning is well documented.

Socio-constructivism
The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing
constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within

the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it.
Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the
contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning
are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation;
knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity,
context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a
new metaphor for learning as participation and social negotiation.

Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories
of learning, but situate experience at the core of the learning process.
They aim to understand the manners in which experiences whether
first or second hand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in everyday life
that lead to a change in an individuals knowledge and behaviours. Carl
Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that
experiential learning is self-initiated learning as people have a natural
inclination to learn; and that they learn when they are fully involved in
the learning process.

Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning
is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to
the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory of multiple
intelligences in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of
intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that
every persons level of intelligence actually consists of many distinct
intelligences. These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2)
linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6)
interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his
theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual
framework beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and
testing. The recognition of multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means
to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in and of
itself.

Situated
practice

learning

theory

and

community

of

Situated learning theory and community of practice draw many of the

ideas of the learning theories considered above. They are developed by
Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory recognizes that
there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational
and negotiated character of knowledge and learning as well as the
engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved.
According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs
most effectively. Interactions taking place within a community of
practice e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building trust, understanding
and relations have the potential to foster community social capital that
enhances the community members wellbeing.

Laws of Learning
The six laws of learning are suitable for most learning situations. Keeping
these laws in mind when planning a lesson lets the instructor create a
better learning atmosphere for his students.
Law of Readiness. A person learns best when he has the necessary
background, a good attitude, and is ready to learn. He does not learn
much if he sees no reason for learning. Getting a student ready to learn
is usually the teachers job. A clear objective and a good reason for
learning sometimes help to motivate students to learn even when they
start off not caring. A student who is usually ready to learn meets the
instructor halfway. Sometimes the instructor can do little to create a
readiness to learn. Outside responsibilities, overcrowded schedules,
health, finances, or family affairs can take away a students desire to
learn.
Law of Exercise. Those things most often repeated are the best
learned. This is the basis for practice and drill. The mind rarely retains,

evaluates, and applies new concepts or practices after only one exposure.
A student learns by applying what he has been taught. Every time he
practices, his learning continues. There are many types of repetitions.
These include student recall, review and summary, and manual drill and
physical applications. All of these serve to create learning habits.
Law of Effect. This law is based on the feelings of the learner. Learning
is stronger when joined with a pleasing or satisfying feeling. It is
weakened when linked with an unpleasant feeling. An experience that
produces feelings of defeat, anger, frustration, futility, or confusion in a
student is unpleasant for him. This will decrease his learning capabilities.
Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the
classroom. Every learning experience does not have to be entirely
successful, nor does the student have to master each lesson completely.
However, every learning experience should contain elements that leave
the student with some good feelings. A students chance of success is
definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one.
Law of Primacy. Primacy is being first, which often creates a strong
impression. This means that the instructor must be right the first time.
Everyone knows from experience how hard it is to break a bad habit.
Unteaching wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right
the first time. The first experience of a student should be positive. This
helps to provide a stable foundation for all that follows.
Law of Intensity. A sharp, clear, or exciting learning experience teaches
more than a routine or boring one. This law implies that a student will
learn more from the real thing than a substitute. For example, a student
can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it
than by reading the script. A student will form a clearer concept of the
speed of tank ammunition by watching it fired than by reading 5500
feet per second. The classroom places real limits on the amount of
realism that can be brought in by the instructor. So, he should use his
imagination to keep things as close to real life as possible. Mockups,
videotapes, interactive courseware, slides, charts, and any number of
other training aids add sharpness and action to classroom instruction.

Demonstrations, skits, and role playing do much to increase the leaning

experience of students.
Law of Recency. Other things being equal, the things learned last will
be best remembered. The opposite is also true. The longer the student is
away from a new fact or understanding, the harder it is to remember.
For example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few
minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last
week. The instructor must recognize the law of recency when planning a
good summary. He should repeat, restate, or reemphasize the training
objectives. He also repeats important information the students need to
remember.
Not all of the laws of learning are in every learning situation. It is not
necessary to determine which law operates in which situation. An
instructor who understands the laws of learning can deal intelligently
with motivation, participation, and individual differences - the three
major factors that affect learning.

Other Ways/styles in Learning

Visual Learning Style

People with a visual learning style absorb information by seeing it in

front of them and storing the images in their brains. They often enjoy
reading, have good handwriting, are very detail-oriented, are organized,
and have a keen awareness of colors and shapes.

enjoy hearing stories and jokes, understand concepts by talking about

them, and may excel in music or the performing arts.
Some auditory learners read slowly and have trouble writing, struggle to
follow written directions, and have a tough time staying quiet for long
stretches of time. They remember names and recognize tone of voice
well, while not always remembering peoples faces. They often hum or
sing, and they may whisper to themselves while reading.

Kinesthetic Learning Style

People with the kinesthetic learning style learn best by doing: moving
around and handling physical objects. They like to explore the outdoors,
are often very coordinated, may excel in athletics and performing arts,
and usually express their feelings physically, such as with hugging and
hitting. They prefer trying new skills for themselves rather than being
given directions or shown a demonstration.
They may find it hard to sit still for long periods of time and struggle
with reading and spelling. They are often considered difficult and
misdiagnosed with ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). In
recent years, more educators have accepted that they simply learn
differently and have urged educators to consider more kinesthetic
learning activities.

Read/Write Learning Style

Auditory Learning Style

The read/write learning style was added to Flemings model after the
initial three. Read/write learners specifically learn best through the
written word. They absorb information by reading books and handouts,
taking lots of notes (sometimes word-for-word), and making lists. They
prefer lectures, diagrams, pictures, charts, and scientific concepts to be
explained using written language. They are often fast readers and
skillful writers.

Verbal language is the prime form for exchanging information for those
within the auditory learning style. They learn best by hearing and
speaking. They often talk more than the average person, are very social,

Similar to visual learners, read/write learners may struggle with verbal

directions and are easily distracted by noise. Some may be quiet and
struggle to detect body language and other social cues.

They tend to struggle with verbal directions and are easily distracted by
noise. They remember peoples faces better than their names, and they
often need to maintain eye contact with a person to concentrate on a
conversation.

The Complexities of Learning Styles

Many other models for learning styles exist, most notably David Kolbs
Experiential Learning Model and Learning Style Inventory, which are
used to categorize adults more so than children.
Whichever model of learning styles is used, psychologists agree that
almost no one falls neatly into only one learning style. People may be
categorized into one, but their various traits can apply to othersor
they may have a secondary learning style that works for them
significantly better than another. For example, a student may be
primarily a visual learner, have some skills for auditory learning, and have
no skill for learning kinesthetically.
Additionally, some psychologists have proposed that all children are
primarily kinesthetic learners until second or third grade, only developing
other learning styles when their education becomes more rigorous.

practice exercises, and the highly structured key concepts approach will
capture and hold your students' attention, and make it easy for them to
stay motivated. For the same reasons, instructors should find our
courses almost fun to teach - and it is easy to stay motivated with tasks
you enjoy.
Aptitude will determine how quickly and easily learning will be. The
aptitude of the instructor for making attention holding presentations,
giving pertinent analogies, preparing illustrative visuals, designing
realistic practice exercises, and in general, keeping the students
interested level high will contribute to determining how quickly and
easily students catch on to new material. Instructors with high aptitude
make it easy for students to learn. In similar fashion, the students'
aptitude for learning manufacturing related functions and specifically
CNC also contribute to how quickly and easily learning takes place.
Students with high aptitude make it easy for the instructor to teach.
Our curriculums pay particular attention to trouble spots. From our own

Five Factors That Contribute To A Good Learning

Environment
Motivation is the most important factor in any learning environment.
First and foremost, students must be highly motivated to learn.
Motivation will be the driving force that makes students stick with it
even when they are having trouble understanding information being
presented during training. Indeed, any problem with learning can be
overcome if the student's motivation is high enough. But just as
important, the instructor must also be highly motivated to teach. They
must have a burning desire to relate information during training in a way
students can understand. When student are having problems, the
instructor must be motivated enough to spend the extra time it takes to
ensure that the student eventually understands presented material. This
can be very challenging since students' aptitude levels vary. Our course
curriculums inspire motivation on both counts. The colorful and

teaching experience, we know where students with minimal aptitude tend

to have the most problems and make ample analogies to keep even the
most complex topics of CNC as simple as possible to understand. This will
also help instructors with minimal CNC aptitude look like experts in the
field!

Presentation is the heart of training. The better the instructor

prepares and delivers the presentation, the easier it will be for students
to learn. Presentation can consist of many things, including the
instructor's orations, demonstrations, simulations, overhead and
projector slides, videos, and anything else that helps to convey an idea.
This is the strongest point of our curriculums. You will find it very easy
to get your ideas across with but a small amount of preparation time
before delivering each lesson. While you still have to talk, the slide show
and instructor notes will make sure you know what to say - and they'll
help you keep on track!

illustrative slide show, the tutorial nature of the manual, the pertinent

Repetition

reinforces

student's

understanding

of

learned

information. Even students with extremely high aptitude will find it

difficult to learn from presentations made only once. All training
sessions should begin with a review of recent presentations. Depending
upon the frequency and duration of each training session, entire sessions
should, at times, be devoted to reviewing what students should already
know. Reviews also help the instructor limit how much complex subject
matter is presented during each session. Knowing that certain
information will be reviewed, the instructor can avoid getting too deep
into complicated topics during the first time the information is
presented. Only after students have a firm grasp of the basics will the
instructor dive deeper and introduce more complicated variations. The
slide shows really help with review. As you begin each session, you can
easily call up the presentation/s made recently and quickly skim material
to ensure comprehension. For review purposes, you can even hide slides
during reviews (within PowerPoint) to keep from having to go through all
but the most important slides.

Practice with reinforcement acts as the gauge to judge the success

of training. Well designed practice exercises should be realistic, forcing
the student to do things in the same way they must when training is
completed. Reinforcement must come as the result of the students'
practice. If the student demonstrates a firm understanding of the
presented information, reinforcement should praise the success. On the
other hand, if practice exposes a student's lack of understanding,
reinforcement should come in the form of repeated presentations,
review, and more practice, ensuring that the student eventually catches
on. This course curriculum include a comprehensive set of practice
exercises, as well as a final test, to confirm understanding each step of
the way. And of course, answers are provided.

How to Improve Your Study Skills

Part 1 of 3: Creating the ideal study space

Create an appropriate study environment. You will need limited noise, a

lot of sunlight, a tidy surface, and comfortable furniture. Find a quiet
place to study where you won't be bothered. This is very important and
should be given great care in doing.
Get everything you need before you sit down to study. Pencils, pens,
notebooks, college ruled paper, textbooks, etc.
Avoid distractions. If you have family members that distract you,
politely ask them to leave so you can continue with your assignments. If
you have kids, this might not be possible. Make sure the TV and radio are
off. If you need background noise, classical music might be of interest.
Part 2 of 3: Making it easier on yourself
Develop a calm attitude. Be calm and patient with yourself. Nobody
learns anything straight away.
Make sure you get enough sleep. Staying up late studying is not a good
idea. Lack of sleep prevents you from concentrating and reduces your
ability to remember what you have learned.
Develop a schedule. All students should keep a schedule of classes,
assignments and other key dates. As part of that schedule, they should
set aside specific time for studying and project work. That way, they're
less likely to find themselves scrambling to complete a project at the
last minute or cramming the night before a big test. The schedule should
also set aside time for non-school activities like sports. In fact, the
more comprehensive the schedule, the more efficient most students will
be in completing their schoolwork.
Take notes in any classes that you have. You can even take notes at work.
It may be easier to use abbreviations for common words, only record
important information (and/or key words), use clear headers to organize
information and use pictures/diagrams to demonstrate. Highlight or
underline key points in your material.

Develop a study group. This way you can quiz each other and learn things
from each other.

Focus on the areas that require the most attention. Study things more if
you have a hard time doing them.

Take frequent breaks. Go for a walk, ride your bike, or be with family.
When you take frequent breaks, you find that you aren't boggled with

Improve test-taking strategies. A poor test result doesn't always mean

that the student doesn't have a good grasp of the academic material or

the stress of homework and you can't wait to get back to your
assignments later.Hear music it helps your brain to relax.

skill gaps. It's possible that the student understands the material, but
doesn't take tests well. An effective test-taking strategy includes:

Part 3 of 3: Developing good study habits

learning how to prioritize material when studying for a test; preparing

for a test over a number of days and not just the night before; coping

Start with the homework that is hardest to you. For example, if you're
taking chemistry, math, English, and Spanish. Start with Chemistry and
end with English. If you start with the hardest subject, your brain will
be fresh.
Develop effective memorization techniques - You can use lists when
having to memorize several things eg. (formulae). Flash cards are good
for memorizing large amounts of grouped information.
Develop critical reading skills. As students move into higher grades,
they're assigned larger and more complex reading assignments. Poor
reading skills or an inability to read for important information will make
these assignments a burden and undermine overall academic success.
Students need to deliberately learn to read for key information. If
reading skills are weak, it's important for the student to seek help

with stress during the test; and managing time during a test so that all
sections or areas are completed.
Ask yourself questions. Asking questions should lead to emphasis on the
what, why, how, when, who and where of study content. Ask yourself
questions while you read or study. Answering them will help to make
sense of the material, and aid you in remembering it, because the
process will make an impression on you. Those things that make
impressions are more meaningful, and therefore more easily
remembered.
Get help. When you don't know what to do when you have to study for
something. Don't give upgo and talk to someone about it; don't just
keep it to yourself.

improving them; otherwise performance in many subjects would be

impacted.