Question: How lenses and mirrors work?

How do lenses and mirrors change the path

of light - and what effect do their shapes have?
Answer: A surface which is the same shape as a small portion of a sphere is called a
spherical (or more correctly spheroidal) surface. Surfaces with this shape have a
special optical property which makes them highly valuable: their ability to bring light
to a focus. Actually, the focusing properties of a spheroidal surface are not perfect, as
we shall see later, but the imperfection is often more than compensated for by the
purely practical consideration that a precise spheroidal optical surface can be
produced much more easily and hence at much lower cost than a precise
aspheroidal (non-spheroidal) optical surface.
Three important focusing properties of spheroidal surfaces are described in the three
following statements. Unfortunately, neither of the first two statements is exactly true
for any real optics, but they are extremely valuable approximations to the truth and
will greatly aid your ability to understand the layouts of optical instruments such as
telescopes and spectrographs.
1. When parallel rays of light pass through a lens with convex spheroidal
surfaces, or reflect from the surface of a spheroidal concave mirror, they are
brought to a focus. The distance of the focal point from the lens (or mirror)
is called the focal length, f. This is a single quantity that characterises the
optical performance of the lens or mirror in question.
2. Light rays passing through the centre of a lens do not deviate from their
original path.
3. Light paths do not depend on the direction in which light is travelling. So, for
example, since parallel rays of light are brought to a focus by a convex lens
at a distance f from the lens, then rays of light emanating from a point a
distance f away from the lens will be converted into a parallel beam. A lens
which is used in such a way is called a collimator and the beam of parallel
light that is produced is said to be collimated.
Broadly speaking there are two sorts of lenses and mirrors used in optical systems.
Converging (convex) lenses and converging (concave) mirrors each cause parallel rays
of light to come together at the focal point, or focus, of the lens or mirror as shown
below. In contrast, diverging (concave) lenses and diverging (convex) mirrors each
cause parallel rays of light to spread out as if emanating from the focal point situated
at a distance of one focal length from the centre of the lens or mirror concerned.

(a) A convex lens will cause parallel rays of light to converge to the focal point.
(b) A concave mirror will cause parallel rays of light to converge to the focal point.
(c) A concave lens will cause parallel rays to diverge as if from the focal point.

(d) A convex mirror will cause parallel rays to diverge as if from the focal point. The
reflecting surface of the mirror is shown by a thicker black line

Lenses

Microscopes let us peer inside invisible worlds our eyes could never see, telescopes
take us far beyond the Earth to the stars and planets of the night sky, movie
projectors throw enormous images onto screens and lighthouses cast reassuring
beams of light far across the ocean. Amazing curves of glass or plastic called lenses
make all these things possible. Let's take a closer look at what they are and how they
work!

What are lenses?

A lens is a transparent piece of glass or plastic with at least one curved surface. It gets
its name from the Latin word for "lentil" (a type of pulse used in cooking), but don't let
that confuse you. There's no real reason for this other than that the most common
kind of lens (called a convex lens) looks very much like a lentil!

A lens is a transmissive optical device that affects the focus of a light

beam through refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of material, while
a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually along a
common axis. Lenses are made from transparent materials such as glass, ground and
polished to a desired shape.

How do lenses work?

A lens works by refraction: it bends light rays as they pass through it so they change
direction. (You can read a full explanation of why this happens in our article on light.)
That means the rays seem to come from a point that's closer or further away from
where they actually originateand that's what makes objects seen through a lens
seem either bigger or smaller than they really are.

Types of lenses

Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. There are two main
types of lenses, known as convex (or converging) and concave (or diverging). A lens
is biconvex (or double convex or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both
surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equi-convex. A lens with
two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the
lens is Plano-convex or Plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other
surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.

Convex lenses

In a convex lens (sometimes called a positive lens), the glass (or plastic) surfaces
bulge outwards in the center giving the classic lentil-like shape. A convex lens is also
called a converging lens because it makes parallel light rays passing through it bend
inward and meet (converge) at a spot just beyond the lens known as the focal point.

If the lens is biconvex or Plano-convex, a parallel beam of light passing through the
lens converges to a spot (a focus) behind the lens. In this case, the lens is called
a positive or converging lens. The distance from the lens to the spot is the focal
length of the lens, which is commonly abbreviated f in diagrams and equations.

Convex lenses are used in things like telescopes and binoculars to bring distant light
rays to a focus in your eyes.

Photo: A convex lens makes light rays converge (come together) at the focal point or
focus. The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point is the focal length of
the lens.

Concave lenses

A concave lens is exactly the opposite with the outer surfaces curving inward, so it
makes parallel light rays curve outward or diverge. That's why concave lenses are
sometimes called diverging lenses. (One easy way to remember the difference
between concave and convex lenses is to think of concave lenses caving inwards.)

If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through

the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens. The
beam, after passing through the lens, appears to emanate from a particular point on
the axis in front of the lens. The distance from this point to the lens is also known as
the focal length, though it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging
lens.

Concave lenses are used in things like TV projectors to make light rays spread out into
the distance. In a flashlight, it's easier to do this job with a mirror, which usually
weighs much less than a lens and is cheaper to manufacture as well.

Photo: A concave lens makes light rays diverge (spread out).

Compound lenses

It's possible to make lenses that behave in more complex ways by combining convex
and concave lenses. A lens that uses two or more simpler lenses in this way is called
a compound lens.

What is refraction?
When light moves from one substance to another it changes speed and direction.
That change in direction is called refraction. Light is refracted only when it hits a

boundary at an angle, so if light goes straight down into a substance it will continue to
move straight down. You need to understand that the speed of light changes in
different substances. If a light ray slows down when it hits a substance, it bends
towards the normal. The normal is the line that is perpendicular to the surface of the
substance. If a light ray speeds up when it hits a substance, it moves away from the
normal.
Refraction is the bending of light (it also happens with sound, water and other waves)
as it passes from one transparent substance into another. This change of direction is
caused by a change in speed. For example, when light travels from air into water, it
slows down, causing it to continue to travel at a different angle or direction.
Refraction is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium where its speed is
different. The refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium
bends the light ray toward the normal to the boundary between the two media.
Why do Cameras need Lenses?
A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is
an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media
capable of storing an image chemically or electronically.
Describe what the Lens does to the Light rays that travel through it.
How can you investigate how different Lenses bend Light?