Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Volume 73
Number 1
United States
Department of Justice
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Washington, DC 20535-0001
The attorney general has determined Preparing for the Futures research can provide the law
that the publication of this periodical is
necessary in the transaction of the
public business required by law. Use
Challenges Ahead 2 enforcement profession with alternative
outcomes to future situations.
By Sandy Boyd, Alberto Melis,
of funds for printing this periodical has
been approved by the director of the and Richard Myers
Office of Management and Budget.
The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Improving the View As an emerging technology, augmented
(ISSN-0014-5688) is published
monthly by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, 935 Pennsylvania
of the World 12 reality holds promise for future law
enforcement application.
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. By Thomas Cowper
20535-0001. Periodicals postage paid
at Washington, D.C., and additional
mailing offices. Postmaster: Send Educating and Training The future challenges facing the law
address changes to Editor, FBI Law
Enforcement Bulletin, FBI Academy, the Future Police Officer 26 enforcement profession can spark
the integration of academic study and
Madison Building, Room 209, By Michael Buerger on-the-job training and experience that
Quantico, VA 22135.
will culminate in improved service to
Editor the public.
John E. Ott
Associate Editors
Cynthia L. Lewis
David W. MacWha Departments
Bunny S. Morris
Art Director
Denise Bennett Smith
Assistant Art Director
1 A Look Forward 19 Perspective
Stephanie L. Lowe The Future of Simulation
Staff Assistant Technology
Linda W. Szumilo 7 Police Practice
This publication is produced by
The Future of Public/Private 24 Book Review
members of the Law Enforcement Partnerships Private Investigation
Communication Unit, Training and Process Serving
and Development Division.
Internet Address
leb@fbiacademy.edu
Cover Photo
© John Foxx Images
A Look Forward
January 2004 / 1
Preparing
for the
Challenges
Ahead
Practical Applications
of Futures Research
By SANDY BOYD, Ed.D., ALBERTO MELIS, and
RICHARD MYERS
© Digital Juice
Dr. Boyd is a professor at the College Chief Melis heads the Waco, Chief Myers leads the Appleton,
of Marin and an adjunct faculty member Texas, Police Department. Wisconsin, Police Department.
at the University of San Francisco and
St. Mary’s College in California.
January 2004 / 3
Despite working in a dynam-
ic environment, law enforcement
professionals traditionally resist
change, particularly organiza-
tional change. At a time when
most of society struggles to keep
pace with changes in technologi-
cal and demographic areas, cru-
cial institutions, such as law en-
forcement, must prepare for
change not only to simply toler-
ate it but also to view it as an
opportunity to make future com-
© Dynamic Graphics munities safe. “Futures research
offers both philosophical and
methodological tools to analyze,
Monday. Luckily for the chief, transplants would have quicker forecast, and plan in ways rarely
the system, organized in order of access to these life-saving mea- seen in policing in the past.”3 To
importance, enabled him to re- sures than those waiting on the this end, agencies can employ
view the incidents that the media medically generated priority list. these techniques of futures re-
had accessed previously. He read How many agencies are prepared search to help them determine
about the latest report of “cyber for such future challenges? organizational capacity, apply
road rage,” where the suspect, technologies, develop potential
incensed at a string of e-mails on ENVISIONING officers, identify and obtain nec-
a list serve, hacked into another THE FUTURE essary resources, and explore the
citizen’s personal computer The remedy to the questions profession’s direction.
through a broadband Internet posed by these scenarios lies in
hookup. This effectively as- futures research and in preparing Determining
saulted the victim’s computer law enforcement officers to have Organizational Capacity
and financial records. The the capacity not only to manage Forecasting can be as simple
department’s system mined and change but also to thrive on it. A as analyzing emerging trends
gathered information from the world exists beyond traditional and thinking about their poten-
Internet, based on keywords that police exercises of annual bud- tial outcomes. Law enforcement
the chief input, and organized the geting, strategic planning for 3- organizations are surrounded by
data in a short, abridged format. to 5-year periods, and critical in- data sources that readily feed
The last item that the chief saw cident debriefings. Futures re- into trend analysis. In their pri-
was a bulletin about the latest search leads to the examination mary mission to preserve life,
organized crime ring stealing of the probable, possible, and protect property, and prevent
stored harvested human organs preferable outcomes of the future crime, law enforcement agencies
and selling them on the black and provides a basis for decision rely heavily on information man-
market. This meant that people making today that will lead to a agement, while the resultant data
who can afford it and need preferable future. provide a rich basis for trend
“
ous such experts daily participate pace of change ranks as a neces-
in a dynamic environment to sity if law enforcement organiza-
carry out the police mission. Futures research tions are to prove effective in the
leads to the future. Understanding where
Applying Technologies examination of the change may take them will help
Overall, government and law probable, possible, law enforcement leaders illumi-
enforcement seem to lag behind and preferable nate the pathways of change for
the private sector in both the use outcomes of the their officers into the future.
of technologies and the devel- future....
opment of expertise in such ap- Identifying and Obtaining
”
plications. A common theme Necessary Resources
among members of the Society Most governmental budget
of Police Futurists International4 technology in the immediate fu- processes operate 1 to 2 years
is the fear that the law enforce- ture. Policing, therefore, must in- ahead, with some potential 5-
ment profession will never sert itself at the beginning of the year capital expenditure plans in-
“catch up” with the necessary creative processes that develop cluded. New human resources
computer-based investigative new products and techniques, in- often are created in reaction to
skills to keep pace with criminals stead of relying on the hand-me- changes in the local environ-
who use computer technology. down obsolescence from mili- ment, and, with the lag time to
But, technology involves much tary and private sector sources. implement trained personnel,
more than using computers to agencies always must play
hack into systems or commit Developing Potential Officers “catch up.” Futures research may
identity theft. Whether through By using forecasting and fu- help law enforcement leaders
nanotechnology, augmented re- tures research methods, or even identify what they will need in
ality, or biometrics, criminals al- by simply scanning the literature the future. It also may make a
ways will attempt to steal, mis- of futurists, law enforcement ad- case for them proactively lining
use, exploit, or employ technol- ministrators can develop profiles up those resources so that these
ogies as an instrument of their of the skills needed by officers of leaders can contribute to the
January 2004 / 5
preferred outcomes, rather than trying to accurately predict how 2
“Futures research encompasses both
reacting to the sudden realities. to prepare for the challenges that an evolving philosophy and a range of
techniques. Its primary objective is to
lie ahead in today’s ever-chang- assist decision makers to understand better
Exploring the ing and increasingly fast-paced the potential consequences of present and
Profession’s Direction world. future decisions by developing images of
One of the most often dis- No one is immune to these alternative futures. It has strong and sound
cussed items within the law en- challenges, particularly those in historical origins in sociology, more
forcement community centers on the law enforcement profession. recently in political science, and in the
other social sciences. It has independent
where the profession is headed. Advances in technology have origins also in corporate and institutional
What will transcend its current created enormous changes in the planning, in strategic and long-range
efforts? In short, what comes af- types of crime perpetrated planning, and has significant contemporary
ter community policing? Futures against society and in the way roots in government, particularly in
research may constitute the only national security. Successful practice of
futures research requires contributions
hope to predict with any degree
“
both from established academic disciplines
of accuracy what is coming, and from such cross-disciplinary fields as
rather than to guess haphazardly technology assessment, policy analysis,
and only hope for something ...law enforcement operations research, issues management,
and many more.” For additional informa-
close to a correct assessment. professionals must tion, see World Future Society, Futures
“While not claiming to be pre- understand the Research Quarterly; retrieved on February
dictive, futures research can de- importance of 3, 2002, from http://www.wfs.org/frq.htm.
velop intelligent forecasts con- futures research. 3
The Society of Police Futurists
cerning what is possible while International; retrieved on February 3,
2002, from http://www.policefuturists.org.
”
indicating strategies for working 4
“The Society of Police Futurists
toward desired goals. In a time of International (PFI) is an organization of
accelerating change, these meth- law enforcement practitioners, educators,
odologies can help...managers to that law enforcement agencies researchers, private security specialists,
cope successfully with uncer- must respond to protect their technology experts, and other profession-
als dedicated to improving criminal and
tainty and move confidently into communities. Officers and ad- social justice through the
tomorrow.”5 ministrators alike must prepare professionalization of policing. Futures
for even more diverse threats to research (long-range planning and
CONCLUSION the public’s safety, many from forecasting) is the pivotal discipline that
“My interest is in the future yet-to-be invented sources. But, constitutes the philosophical underpin-
because I am going to spend the by planning for the risks, as well nings of PFI”; retrieved on February 3,
2002, from http://www.policefuturists.org.
rest of my life there.”6 These as the benefits, of modern ad- 5
Darlene E. Weingand, “Futures
words provide strong evidence vances, the law enforcement Research Methodologies: Linking Today’s
of the importance of futures re- community can help ensure that Decisions with Tomorrow’s Possibilities,”
search. By examining a variety those seeking a peaceful exist- in 61st IFLA General Conference
of alternative outcomes to future ence will triumph. Proceedings, August 20-25, 1995;
retrieved on February 3, 2003, from http://
situations, people can more www.ifla.org/IV/ifla61/61-weid.htm.
readily see the consequences of Endnotes 6
Charles F. Kettering, a well-known
their decisions. 1
Retrieved on February 19, 2003, from inventor, held over 200 patents; retrieved
Futures research can aid http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/ on February 3, 2003, from http://
those facing the daunting task of Albert_Einstein. www.quotemeonit.com/Kettering.html.
D
security, as illustrated by increases in the use of
octors and nurses, attorneys and parale- corporate security and the number of gated
gals, parents and day care providers, pres- communities.
idents and aides—all people need support and
assistance to accomplish their goals. Why should Lower Crime Rates, Higher Costs
public law enforcement agencies be different? In the late 1990s, serious crime continued to
Today’s police departments are under monu- fall in the United States,4 reaching a 25-year low.
mental pressure to perform, keep crime rates low, The potential that criminals will receive punish-
and do it all with fewer resources. Agencies can ment and that they will serve a longer amount of
accomplish this seemingly impossible mandate time both are higher today than in the last 30
by forming supportive partnerships with private years.
security providers.1 The economic boom of the late 1990s, which
increased wages and rates of employment, im-
A Historical Perspective pacted the reduction of crime. But, on the other
Privatization of law enforcement activities is hand, criminal punishment also increased. Com-
not a new concept. Perhaps, the monopolization pared to 1996, the probability of going to prison
of policing by government is an aberration.2 Only in 1997 for murder rose 13 percent, while it
in the last 100 to 200 years has government increased 1 percent for rape, 7 percent for rob-
effectively monopolized policing, which is not bery, and 11 percent for aggravated assault.5
uniform across all countries. In Europe, for Once convicted, prisoners now stay incarcerated
example, France led the way in the systematic longer. Compared to the 1980s, the median
January 2004 / 7
sentence served by prisoners has risen for every raising taxes are driving the privatization trend.10
category of serious crime except aggravated Some federal agencies have saved as much as
assault.6 50 percent by hiring contractors to provide
Potential criminals respond to incentives.7 services.11
Crime decreases when expected punishment Police in today’s environment typically spend
increases, and the reverse proves true as well. To less than 20 percent of their time on crime-related
achieve an even lower crime rate, law enforce- matters. In California, a police officer may cost
ment must continue to make crime less profitable $100,000 a year, taking into account salary,
by further increasing expected punishment. But, benefits, and such overhead expenses as squad
higher arrest rates require more money for police cars.12 Faced with rising calls for service, this
staffing, equipment, and procedures.8 Higher proves expensive for tasks, such as transporting
conviction and sentencing rates require more prisoners, providing court security, conducting
resources for prosecution and traffic control, and serving
criminal courts. The need for summonses. The real trend in
more prison space also in- the future will be contracting
creases, and, although the cost
of building and maintaining
more prisons is high, the cost
of not doing so appears to be
“ ...privatization
of certain police
department functions
out the functions of public
police that do not involve
crimes or emergencies.
For example, the Fresno,
higher. has proven a California, Sheriff’s Depart-
powerful solution.... ment reaped savings by
The Time for Privatization outsourcing its transport of
The hope of the public, prisoners. The total cost for
as well as the goal for police
departments, is to continue
lowering crime rates. However,
” the department to transport a
prisoner from San Diego to
Fresno was $284 using a private
achieving this requires more policing and more firm. The same trip using sheriff’s department
cost precisely when law enforcement agencies personnel and equipment would cost three times
face serious recruitment problems, additional as much.13
equipment costs, a decrease in tax revenues, and Police departments in 18 states currently
legislative restrictions denying access to any use, or plan to use, private security guards to fill
surpluses. “Many municipalities and counties support roles.14 One firm provides security for six
lack the necessary funds due to legislated limits major public transit systems around the country,
on taxation and spending, inadequate bonding, transports prisoners, maintains booking and
capacities and voters’ reluctance to approve security for a juvenile assessment center, and
special bonding obligations or other spending supplies security for court houses in 40 states.
measures.”9 Other public-private partnerships exist coast to
Fortunately, privatization of certain police coast.
department functions has proven a powerful Just as corporations outsource many services
solution to the problem. The steady decline of to enable them to concentrate on core competen-
governments’ capital resources and their increas- cies, the use of private firms by law enforcement
ingly urgent search for ways to continue provid- agencies frees them to concentrate their efforts on
ing the services that citizens demand without duties that only trained police officers can, and
January 2004 / 9
progressive approach to public-private partner- purposes, background investigations have been
ships in law enforcement is demonstrated by its completed on each of these officers.
track record—the city has contracted with outside In Lakewood, the cost of an off-duty police
firms for police department assistance for nearly agent is $37 per hour, including vehicle. Many
10 years. As a result, the Lakewood Police crime scenes take an average of 2 days to process.
Department considers the public-private partner- Because 24-hour protection is required, using
ship beneficial. It helps in terms of deployment, private security at $29 per hour for this assign-
as well as economically. “Paying a private secu- ment, a savings of nearly 22 percent, makes
rity officer an hourly rate to guard a prisoner or a economic sense. Furthermore, the partnership has
crime scene frees up police officers. Police don’t strengthened the lines of communication and trust
have to call in an officer on overtime or pull between police and private security personnel. “In
someone off patrol duty.”17 this partnership, everyone’s a winner. The police
Lakewood’s current privatization efforts department is a winner in that we are providing
include the use of trained citizen volunteers for essential services at a reduced cost. Through the
police administrative work, such as fingerprinting private portion of it; it’s good for business; it
citizens and issuing parking tickets to violators of employs people; it’s good for our economy.”18
handicapped parking. Graduates of its citizen Such moves to privatization are substantiated
police academy volunteer with the Lakewood by the numbers. Private security guards outnum-
Police Department and serve as a surveillance ber public law enforcement officers by 3 to 1
unit regarding specific crimes, nationally, and 4 to 1 in Califor-
such as graffiti. Civilian investi- nia.19 The trend is not confined
gative technicians conduct to the United States; Canada, the
follow-up, question victims and
suspects, and prepare affidavits.
Further, the Lakewood
Police Department contracts
“ Public-private
partnerships can
United Kingdom, and Australia
have approximately twice as
many private guards as public
police.
provide many
with a private security firm to benefits....
guard prisoners hospitalized in Conclusion
facilities in the Denver metro- Today, law enforcement
politan area and to provide
assistance in protecting crime
scenes. These private security
officers are specially selected for crime-scene
” agencies have fewer resources to
accomplish their goals. Depart-
ments can form partnerships
with private security firms to save money, as well
detail based on their background and experience, as to free trained police officers to conduct duties
and they often attend Lakewood Police Depart- that only they should address.
ment roll calls for training (similarly, members of Public law enforcement entities can gain
the Lakewood Police Department attend the more efficient use of funds and personnel in
security roll calls). These private security firm public-private partnerships, in addition to extend-
officers know the rules of evidence, and, in fact, ing their reach and effectiveness. Properly de-
many are certified police officers in the state of fined and managed, a partnership with a private
Colorado. They provide 24-hour assistance and enterprise can make the job of police officers
typically respond with officers within 4 hours of more effective and rewarding and the results
the department’s request. In addition, for security reported to voters more positive in the long run.
7 Ibid.
cript of the presentation to the
8 Ibid.
Bulletin for consideration.
9 Wantland J. Smith, “Private Sector Development: A Winning As with article submis-
Strategy for New Police Stations, Sheriff’s Stations, and Jails,” sions, the Bulletin staff will
The Police Chief, August 1991, 29-33. edit the speech for length and
10 Elizabeth Moore, “Doling out Services: The Push for clarity, but, realizing that the
Privatization is Strong, But Will Unions, Taxpayers, Stand information was presented
for It?” Newsday, April 15, 1996, sec. C, p. 1. orally, maintain as much of
11 Ibid.
the original flavor as possible.
12
Supra note 4. Presenters should submit their
13
Marty L. West, “Get a Piece of the Privatization Pie: Private
transcripts typed and double-
Security Agencies,” The American Society for Industrial Security,
Security Management 37, no. 3 (March 1993): 54.
spaced on 8 ½- by 11-inch
14
http://www.ncpa.org/pi/crime. white paper with all pages
15
Bruce L. Benson, “Privatization in Criminal Justice,” numbered. When possible, an
Independent Policy Report, Independent Institute (Oakland, CA, electronic version of the tran-
1996), see http://www.ncpa.org. script saved on computer disk
16
Erwin A. Blackstone and Simon Hakim, “Police Services: should accompany the docu-
The Private Challenge,” Independent Policy Report, Independent ment. Send the material to:
Institute (Oakland, CA, 1996), 10-33.
17
Russell Ruffin, reporter, “Lakewood Police Utilize Private
Editor, FBI Law
Security,” Law Enforcement Television News (Denver, CO:
Cherokee Productions).
Enforcement Bulletin
18
Ibid. FBI Academy
19
http://www.ncpa.org. Madison Building,
Room 209
Quantico, VA 22135
Chief Youngs heads the community resources division of
the Lakewood, Colorado, Police Department and serves as
telephone: 703-632-1952,
the acting assistant dean of the criminal justice program at e-mail: leb@fbiacademy.edu
the University of Phoenix in Lakewood.
January 2004 / 11
Improving the View
of the World
Law Enforcement
and Augmented
Reality Technology
By THOMAS COWPER
© Digital Juice
January 2004 / 13
incorporate a wide range of other eyes. A video see-through HMD user’s field of view, correctly as-
components adapted for specific has an opaque display and uses sociated with relative real-world
operational functions.2 head-mounted video cameras to objects. For virtual images to be
AR is a mobile technology provide the real-world view, in- correctly and accurately overlaid
designed to improve situational corporating both the video and or “registered” on the HMD, the
awareness and speed human de- virtual data onto the opaque AR system must have the capa-
cision making. To accomplish screen. Each approach has ben- bility to continuously track the
this, the human-machine inter- efits and drawbacks for law en- user’s head movements, exact
face must streamline the process forcement use, depending on the position, viewing direction, and
of input and output so that the application and operational envi- real-world orientation.3
user can maintain focus on the ronment where used. AR systems employ a variety
task at hand with minimal dis- of mechanisms to accomplish
traction. Traditional methods of this tracking, such as mechani-
“
computer input control (key- cal, magnetic, acoustic, inertial,
board, mouse, and trackball) and and optical sensors or a hybrid
output receptors (monitors and AR is a mobile combination of several of these
flat-panel displays) prove diffi- technology designed technologies. Of particular con-
cult, if not impossible, to use in a to improve situational cern to law enforcement is the
dynamic mobile environment. awareness and speed need for the tracking system to
AR system development re- human decision function accurately outdoors in
volves around the use of modern making. open terrain, as well as indoors.
interface devices, features, and Outdoor tracking proves a much
”
methodologies that allow the more difficult problem for AR
user to concentrate on real-world systems and depends heavily on
tasks while seamlessly enhanc- Another option for both opti- GPS (the U.S. Department of
ing the real-world experience cal and video see-through HMDs Defense’s Global Positioning
with useful data. is a one-display configuration System), dead-reckoning tech-
The coherent integration of that mounts a single display over niques,4 compasses, and gyro-
supplemental visual data to the one eye, leaving the other eye scopes to achieve accurate image
user via a see-through HMD completely unobstructed. The registration in unprepared envi-
constitutes the principle means latest development in HMD ronments.5 Sensing the entire en-
of achieving an enhanced hu- technology, the virtual retinal vironment in real time using a
man-machine interface. High- display (VRD), uses low-pow- hybrid tracking system to accu-
quality HMDs for AR use are ered laser light projected directly rately determine the location of
still under development, and sev- on the retina to display informa- the user, as well as natural and
eral different approaches to ac- tion. Providing the benefits of manmade terrain features, is a
complishing the display of visual the optical see-through display, necessity and a hurdle that tech-
data exist. An optical see- the VRD can exhibit high-reso- nology has yet to fully overcome.
through HMD is a semitranspar- lution graphics, even in bright Voice-activation, speech-
ent display that allows the user to sunlight. recognition, and text-to-speech
see the real world directly, pro- To be effective, such devices technologies take advantage of
jecting visual data on the inside must overlay textual and graphi- the most natural form of human
of the screen in front of the user’s cal data precisely within the communication. The use of
January 2004 / 15
take for themselves and the • Identification friend or foe • Speaker-recognition technol-
public. (IFF) technology, worn by ogy, under development,
• The accessibility of scalable, every law enforcement will give investigators the
three-dimensional maps officer, could reduce or ability to accurately match
(complete with building eliminate friendly fire voices against known
floor plans, sewer system casualties by visually, criminals.7
schematics, public utility audibly, or haptically high- • With advanced optics,
information, and public lighting fellow officers. investigators could lip-read
transportation routes) • The human-machine inter- from great distances in
could improve situational face could expand to include situations where listening
awareness and response to robots and other mechanical devices would prove
problems. devices that could extend impractical.8mm
• The availability of patrol car human capabilities to • Thermal imaging might
operator data and regional remote locations through improve interrogations
traffic management infor- physical, virtual, and haptic by helping to indicate the
mation could make driving interfaces.6 truthfulness of subjects’
safer and more efficient, statements.9
“
especially in pursuit and • AR video, audio, and sensing
rapid-response situations. devices used to visualize
Of particular concern blood patterns, blood stains,
SWAT Operations and other sensor-detectable
AR could make SWAT op- to law enforcement
is the need for forensic data could enhance
erations safer and more effec- crime scene investigations.
tive. Basically, it could improve the tracking system
to function accurately • Forensic pathology could
situational awareness during dy-
outdoors in open benefit from various ad-
namic and dangerous incidents,
terrain, as well vanced medical imaging
enhance communication be-
techniques to visualize
tween team members, and pro- as indoors. traumatic penetrating
vide better coordination with
”
wounds before physical
command personnel.
autopsy.10
• Advanced audio could
moderate the audible inten- • The coordinated use of
Investigative Situations robots, unmanned ariel
sity of gunshots and explo- AR could enhance investiga-
sions, but provide superior vehicles (UAVs), and law
tors’ abilities to gather informa- enforcement officers man-
hearing capabilities over tion, follow leads, and visualize
long distances. aged through an AR net-
large amounts of data. In turn, it work could enhance
• Advanced optics could would lead to an increase in the lsurveillance operations.
provide zoom, thermal, and number of crimes solved and to
infrared imaging for the the quicker identification and Training Efforts
location and apprehension capture of dangerous criminals Training programs could use
of fleeing criminals. and terrorists. AR to simulate dangerous law
January 2004 / 17
to work both faster and smarter Endnotes “Recent Advances in Augmented Reality,”
and in full control of technology, 1
W. Robinett, “Synthetic Experience: IEEE Computer Graphics and Applica-
A Proposed Taxonomy,” Presence: tions (November/December 2001); re-
instead of it controlling them. trieved February 9, 2002, from http://
Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 1,
AR could give law enforce- no. 2 (Spring 1992): 229-247. www.computer.org/cga/cg2001/g6toc.htm.
ment officers tremendous physi- 2
D. McAllister, L. Nyland, V.
6
J. Colgate, W. Wannasuphoprasit, and
cal and sensory enhancement Popescu, A. Lastra, and C. McCue, Real- M. Peshkin, “Cobots: Robots for Collabo-
that remains completely under Time Rendering of Real-World Environ- ration with Human Operators,” in
ments (1999); retrieved February 10, 2002, Proceedings of the International Mechani-
the user’s control and responsi- cal Engineering Congress and Exhibition,
from ftp://ftp.cs.unc.edu/pub/publications/
bility. In this post-September techreports/99-019.pdf. in Atlanta, Georgia, 1996, DSC-Vol. 58,
11th age, characterized by the 433-39; retrieved February 15, 2002, from
criminal and terrorist exploita- http://lims.mech.nwu.edu/publications/
“
tion of existing technologies and jecolgateIMECE96.Colgate.
Wannasuphoprasit.Peshkin.html.
the serious threat that they pose 7
Q. Jin and A. Waibel, “Applications
to free societies, AR could be- Preliminary research of LDA to Speaker Recognition,”
come a potent tool for improved presented at the International Conference
policing. The future prevention
indicates a number on Speech and Language Processing,
and timely termination of crimes of likely law Beijing, China, October 2000; retrieved
and terrorist attacks may depend enforcement February 10, 2002, from http://
www.is.cs.cmu.edu/mie/.
on the individual law enforce- applications where 8
U. Meier, R. Stiefelhagen, J. Yang,
ment officer’s ability to rapidly AR technology could and A. Waibel, “Towards Unrestricted
process and analyze available advance officer Lipreading,” International Journal of
data and take immediate action performance well Pattern Recognition and Artificial
Intelligence 14, no. 5 (2000): 571-785;
in an extremely short time frame, beyond current levels. retrieved February 16, 2002, from http://
precisely the kind of potential ca- www.is.cs.cmu.edu/mie/.
”
pability offered by AR. Research 9
K. Patch, “Hot Spots Give Away
and development efforts are un- Lying Eyes,” Technology Research News,
January 23, 2002; retrieved February 23,
derway that dramatically will 3
M. Bajura, Merging Real and Virtual 2002, from http://www.trnmag.com/
improve the underlying technol- Environments with Video See-Through Stories/2002/012302/Hot_spots_give_
ogy in a few years. To take full Head-Mounted Displays (Ph.D. diss., away_lying_eyes_012302.html.
advantage of the enhanced capa- University of North Carolina, 1997); 10
E. Viire, H. Pryor, S. Nagata, and
bilities when they occur, the law retrieved February 1, 2002, from http:// T. Furness, “The Virtual Retinal Display:
citeseer.nj.nec.com/cache/papers/cs/ A New Technology for Virtual Reality and
enforcement profession should 1615/ftp:zSzzSzftp.cs.unc. Augmented Vision in Medicine,” in the
understand these efforts fully so eduzSzpubzSzpublicationszSztechreportszSz98- Proceedings of Medicine Meets Virtual
it can develop the policies and 036.pdf/bajura97merging.pdf. Reality in San Diego, California, January
strategies necessary for effective 4
“The determination without the aid of 28-31, eds. J.D. Westwood, H.M.
implementation. The Futures celestial observations of the position of a Hoffman, D. Stredney, and S.J. Weghorst
ship or aircraft from the record of the (Amsterdam, Berlin, Oxford, Tokyo, and
Working Group AR project, in courses sailed or flown, the distance made, Washington, DC: IOS/Ohmsha Press,
partnership with the Naval Re- and the known or estimated drift.” 1998), 252-257.
search Lab, will study the poten- Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary 11
S. Mann and H. Niedzviecki,
tial of AR and help foster the 10th ed. (1996), s.v. “dead reckoning.” Cyborg: Digital Destiny and Human
5
effective implementation of such R. Azuma, Y. Baillot, R. Behringer, Possibility in the Age of the Wearable
S. Feiner, S. Julier, and B. MacIntyre, Computer (Canada: Doubleday, 2002).
systems for law enforcement
use.
January 2004 / 19
expectations. Researchers have documented synthetic humans used to populate most current
several problems and, in general, these technolo- simulations do not provide a sufficient level of
gies tend to promote disengagement by the behavioral realism.2
human decision maker. Humans step aside and let For many years, within the simulation and
the technology take over, sacrificing situation computer-gaming industry, researchers have
awareness and, most alarmingly, sometimes placed a heavy emphasis on accurately modeling
doubting their own expertise in favor of the the characteristics of equipment and providing a
technology. Thus, the law enforcement profession high degree of realism in computer graphics,
must use caution when adopting any technical sound, and other sensory experiences. Substan-
solution that removes the human decision maker tially less emphasis has been placed on the
from the process. behavioral realism of simulated humans. In many
Experts have experience that covers a suffi- cases, synthetic humans have been provided
cient number of events to allow them to recog- simplistic and predictable behavioral routines that
nize subtle patterns of cues and are highly susceptible to gam-
see similarities between ongoing ing (i.e., once the behavioral
“
and past events. With this routine is recognized, players
recognition, experts anticipate exploit this knowledge of the
what to expect next, and what ...simulated humans underlying software to their
actions will, or will not, be
successful.
Simulation-based trainers
have become commonplace
“ may be attributed
experiential knowledge
comparable to a life
advantage).
In other cases, sophisticated
artificial intelligence and
machine learning have been
history.
tools for enabling individuals to employed to create simulated
acquire experience operating entities with a broad repertoire
equipment, ranging from auto-
mobiles and aircraft to the
control stations of nuclear
power plants. However, in training law enforce-
” of behavior and flexibility to
adapt behavior during the
course of a single or multiple
simulations. Behavioral breadth and flexibility
ment personnel, the requirements for simulation- are only two of many factors that contribute to the
based training are somewhat different. Law realism of simulated humans. Probably, the most
enforcement personnel need experience making important attribute missing with nearly all current
decisions in situations in which other people, artificial intelligence-based simulator entities is
whether suspects, bystanders, or team members, the ability to think like humans. Granted, count-
are primary features. In these areas, future simu- less illustrations of machine reasoning exist.
lation technologies stand to have the greatest However, human experts prove extremely compe-
impact for law enforcement personnel. tent without much reliance on the logical opera-
Many current simulations, as well as com- tions that characterize typical machine reasoning.
puter games, incorporate human entities and In contrast, realistic, human-like entities should
allow participants to interact with those entities. use the knowledge and experiences unique to
It might seem that the ability for trainees to gain them to extract patterns from cues present in the
experience in a law enforcement role already environment, resulting in their recognition of
exists. Many people are concerned that the “situations.” People base everyday interactions on
January 2004 / 21
equally salient or important cues are neglected. of simulated entities, certain personality traits
Given simulated humans that respond in this (e.g., extroversion/introversion) may be mani-
manner, trainees may explore the use of tactics fested. Similarly, other adjustments may produce
that seek to intentionally evoke an emotional cognitive behavior typically observed with certain
response. psychopathological conditions, such as schizo-
At an even more sophisticated level, simu- phrenia. In addition, it also should be possible
lated humans may be attributed experiential to simulate the effects of fatigue and certain
knowledge comparable to a life history. This psychogenic substances (e.g., amphetamines).
is believed particularly important because, argu- Other developments focus on creating the
ably, how people interpret a situation is as much ability to represent, in a simulated entity, the
a function of their unique life experiences as knowledge and, to some extent, experiences
other knowledge that they might possess. In the typical of individuals from specific cultures or
course of a simulation scenario, various events groups. Taking these capabilities a step further,
may trigger the recall of past it becomes possible to create
experiences, including emo- entities representative of spe-
tional associations, with the cific high-profile individuals.
simulated entity interpreting
ongoing events relative to those
past experiences. Furthermore,
trainees may be provided full or
“ ...simulation may be
employed in a
For example, this technique
may be used with cult leaders
for whom a vast record exists of
their past experiences, writings,
partial knowledge of these past mission rehearsal correspondences, and speeches.
experiences, or even erroneous capacity.
information, and allowed to use Other Applications
this information in their interac- for Simulation
tions with simulated entities.
Researchers are developing
tools that will automate the
process of creating simulated entities. Thus,
” While future capabilities for
simulation technology primarily
address the needs for law en-
forcement training, two other applications also
unlike most current systems in which a single or may prove useful. First, simulation may be
a small collection of simulated entities exists, the employed in a mission rehearsal capacity. Before
number of simulated entities will be unlimited being sent to clear a building, trainees may
with each entity possessing unique knowledge, conduct the operation, including potential inter-
emotional associations, and life histories. Conse- actions, using simulation. This would expose
quently, trainees may interact with a variety of personnel to a wide array of various contingen-
individuals. cies that might arise during the course of an
An even greater diversity of experience may operation. Furthermore, in high-profile cases,
be attained by presenting simulated entities that this same capability also may allow negotiators
exhibit cognitive and behavioral characteristics to explore various approaches in dealing with
consistent with various psychopathologies, as known individuals and to see the range of po-
well as basic personality traits and degrees of tential reactions certain tactics may produce.
intelligence. For example, by manipulating Second, simulation may be used as an analy-
parameters underlying the cognitive operations sis tool. In this capacity, alternative tactics and
Subscribe Now
January 2004 / 23
Book Review
The Bulletin’s
E-mail Address
January 2004 / 25
Educating
and
Training
the Future
Police
Officer
By MICHAEL BUERGER, Ph.D.
T he vision of a college-
educated police profes-
sion is a dream almost a
century old and, moreover, a
dream still unrealized. Both po-
licing and higher education are
tradition-bound institutions with
divergent interests. The internal
concerns of each occupation has
had greater immediacy than a
discussion of how to build an
educational curriculum with
common purpose and benefit.
Though advancements have
© K. L. Morrison
been made since the 1960s, the
old issues remain salient, even as agencies. By cooperatively iden- the law enforcement profes-
current events and rapidly evolv- tifying current and future needs, sion can offer some guidance
ing technology add new ones. police professionals and acade- for creating a stronger link be-
As new challenges present micians may develop tools to ad- tween education, training, and
themselves, policing still is dress both lingering promises an end result of improved police
struggling to realize the benefits and emerging challenges. To this services.1
of older commitments and re- end, a look at the existing system
forms. It is time for a new dia- of criminal justice education, the A THREE-TIERED
logue between the law enforce- history of the uneasy alliance of SYSTEM
ment and academic communities policing and education, the dif- Over the years, criminal jus-
to better integrate education with ferences between education and tice education has developed
the training and service needs of training, and the future needs of three distinct types of programs,
“
range of topics, most of which “education” seems to remain tied
the state Police Officer Stan- in an abstract way to profes-
dards and Training (POST) The future will create sionalization and more optional
Board or equivalent body has new training needs than necessary. For example, the
mandated. Topics covered in- not currently degree from the substandard in-
clude domestic violence, defen- standard in either stitution can carry as much
sive driving, multiculturalism, college programs or weight as that from a flagship
interpersonal communications, police training university; professional develop-
firearms retention, the criminal ment through additional training
code, basics of forensics, intro-
academies. can count as much or more in
”
duction to weapons of mass de- promotional processes than mere
struction, and many others com- education; and training itself still
pressed into as short a program begins at the level of the least
as possible. justice from a systems perspec- skilled, rather than the more edu-
The associate degree, a 2- tive and generally are taught cated. In addition, the assertion
year program, constitutes the skills in research methods and that the credential indicates a
middle rung on the higher educa- statistics, rather than interview- more rounded person, of broader
tion ladder. Some programs offer ing or managing problem indi- vision, who can be molded into a
purely academic courses; others viduals. Bachelor of arts and superior police officer remains
incorporate basic law enforce- bachelor of science degrees are difficult to prove in more than
ment certification into their 2- awarded either by an indepen- anecdotal terms. Nor has the
year curricula. Many states have dent criminal justice depart- criminal justice degree necessar-
integrated their mandate-based ment or from programs within ily proven itself valuable as a
police training into their 2-year another discipline, typically so- preparation credential; after all,
programs on a preservice basis. ciology, public affairs, or politi- many of today’s college-edu-
Students who complete criminal cal science. The 4-year programs cated officers hold degrees from
January 2004 / 27
other disciplines, ranging from quarters. Experience even has a Criminal justice education
English literature to chemical toehold in the hiring queue, as grew out of the handful of police
engineering. many agencies accept 2 years of science programs that existed at
On the other hand, higher military service in lieu of 2 years the time. It expanded rapidly
education has taken great pains of college, apparently on the with the availability of Law En-
to distinguish itself from “train- grounds that the experience is forcement Education Program
ing,” even though a portion of somehow equivalent to a formal (LEEP) funds from the Omnibus
police academy training already education.2 Crime Control and Safe Streets
falls under the guise of the liberal Act of 1968. The creation and
arts discipline in some states. rapid expansion of those pro-
“
Many programs rightfully boast grams proved erratic, as practi-
of widening their students’ per- tioners often were thrust into fac-
ceptions and ability to think criti- ...both training and ulty roles to meet demand. This
cally about topics, but most education compete led to criticisms that the educa-
criminal justice curricula focus tional component was weak,
on understanding criminal jus-
with a cultural view with credit given for training (or,
tice theory and practice through that experiential worse, for “war stories”) con-
the lens of social science re- learning constitutes taining no thinking component
search. In turn, the best students the only real comparable to the established
possibly may leave educational preparation for collegiate majors.
institutions with well-honed police work. As a result, the criminal jus-
skills of analysis more suited for tice discipline continues to fight
”
academia than for their chosen a battle for legitimacy within the
occupation. If they present them- educational community, seeking
selves for employment with to shed the early stigma of
abilities that their employers will A SHORT HISTORY “Handcuffing 101.” The antidote
never ask them to use but with- The awkward marriage of within higher education has
out those with direct application policing and education is a involved replicating the meth-
to their professional lives, then legacy of the 1967 Report of the ods and standards of criminal
the net result is the “educated President’s Commission on Law justice’s parent disciplines—so-
individual” whose professional Enforcement and the Adminis- ciology, psychology, and politi-
development begins only after tration of Justice, which forced a cal science—emphasizing re-
being hired. formerly insular profession to search methods and statistical
In the end, though, both confront the weaknesses in its analysis as a way of understand-
training and education compete structure. In the wake of wide- ing system outcomes. Except in
with a cultural view that experi- spread dissatisfaction over crime rare cases, the 4-year programs
ential learning constitutes the rates, police relations with mi- have not developed personal
only real preparation for police nority citizens, and police han- skills components comparable to
work. The platitude of “Listen, dling of civil rights and antiwar the clinical portion of medical
kid, forget all that stuff you protests, the report proffered training. Overall, graduates may
learned in college or at the acad- “better-educated police officers” appear better prepared to become
emy” still can be heard in some as a vehicle for change. social scientists, rather than
January 2004 / 29
process would feed well-pre- education sphere has forced officer safety. Historically, few
pared individuals into a police them to hew close to the doctri- practitioner instructors met (or
training process that capitalizes nal requirements of the parent even understood) the levels of
on their education, thus creating disciplines: sociology, psychol- scholarship demanded by col-
a complementary approach to ogy, and public administration. leges and universities, though
improving police services. Doctoral-level faculty come that has changed dramatically in
from those disciplines and may recent years. Practitioners able to
DIFFERENT STRENGTHS, model their programs on their integrate macro-level social sci-
DIFFERENT WEAKNESSES own courses of study. ence knowledge with street-level
The future will create new The social scientists who experiential learning remain a
training needs not currently stan- teach how to draw valid conclu- scarce commodity.
dard in either college programs sions by analyzing databases do That said, there should be no
or police training academies. not have the skills to teach stu- reason that a preferred college
New developments in technol- dents to deal with distraught, in- education cannot be an interdis-
ogy will create a need for investi- toxicated, scared and aggressive, ciplinary course of study that en-
gators who can cope with the compasses both understanding
criminal uses of those technolo- and a usable skill set that
“
gies. The sheer volume of finan- undergirds subsequent training.
cial crimes perpetrated via com- A variety of baccalaureate pro-
puter hacking and identity theft Education and training grams have a clinical component
will exceed the capacity of fed- are fundamentally that involves developing skills
eral agencies to investigate. If lo- different tasks, with direct application to the job
cal police do not adapt to the though in an ideal market under the tutelage of sea-
need, private resources likely world they should soned practitioners. The medical
will fill the gap or leave local complement and psychological sciences have
jurisdictions and their constitu- such a mix, as do accredited pro-
ents without legal recourse.
each other. grams in social work. Many
”
Most police training cur- criminal justice programs allow
ricula and most traditional social or require internship or prac-
science-based criminal justice ticum experiences, providing a
programs lack the ability to pre- or deceitful individuals. Nor are framework to develop a compa-
pare students to deal with tech- they necessarily the best persons rable “clinical” aspect to crimi-
nology-based crime or with to teach students how to recog- nal justice education.
financial crime. Those skills are nize behavioral manifestations With all of these factors
taught in business and computer of mental illness or emotional in mind, what can the law en-
science programs in universities disturbance; those clinical skills forcement and academic com-
and elsewhere. Originally pro- are taught by nursing or social munities do to improve the
moted as an interdisciplinary work programs. balance between educating and
field of study, criminal justice It also may be that police in- training future police officers?
has narrowed. The struggle of structors do not have those skills Three main models—creating
criminal justice programs for either, preferring norm-driven a new model of interdiscipli-
legitimacy within the higher instruction that focuses on nary criminal justice degree;
January 2004 / 31
concerted voice about the need and it well may be that this third
formal study nor secondhand ex-
for certain skills and emphasizes model might ultimately turn into perience is an adequate prepara-
hiring individuals with those the first, a third-generation tion for the demanding tasks of
skills, then academia will move criminal justice major that is police work. Experience is an
to provide them. For example, it multidimensional. important teacher, to be sure, but
is gratifying—if a bit surpris- the old adage remains that fools
ing—to have police agencies CONCLUSION can learn from their own mis-
complain about the lack of writ- During a coffee-break con- takes. Wise individuals mini-
ing skills of some college gradu- versation at a training session, a mize their mistakes by learning
ates and interns. Given the com- police officer said to the author, from the mistakes and successes
petitive marketplace of higher “No offense, Doc, but I could of others. Both training and edu-
education, “employability of teach the useful parts of your 4- cation share the mandate to make
graduates” remains a selling year program in a day.” His point such learning possible. A future
point for many institutions. in which the two endeavors com-
plement each other can occur,
“
Model 3: Course of but appears unlikely to happen of
Study, Not Major its own accord. A dialogue that
The third option does not By cooperatively explores the needs of the law en-
require institutional change on identifying current and forcement profession and the ca-
the part of academia. Instead, it future needs, police pacities and possibilities of the
places the onus on the aspiring professionals and academic field is needed to fuel
police professional. If the field academicians may such change; the challenges of
signals that it considers proof of develop tools to the future should create the
certain skills, acquired in an aca- address both lingering spark.
demic setting, as a bona fide promises and
occupational qualification, the Endnotes
emerging challenges. 1
The author based this article on his
existing programs will make the
”
experiences as a police officer and
recommendation, and the stu- academician, as well as his close associa-
dents will seek the courses them- tion with numerous law enforcement
selves. Academia already gives professionals.
such direction concerning sec- was essentially correct if the only 2
Such a view is anathema in academic
ond languages and accounting things that counted were the circles. Instead, the value of military
service is recognized as a complementary
skills (for those who aspire to be factoids students could recall 3 process and as a maturing influence, but
federal investigators); it easily years after graduation. The au- not as comparable to formal education.
could do the same for clinical thor countered with the observa- 3
The author acknowledges the
skills. Students will have to sur- tion that he could fill the 4-year probability of local exceptions. It is not
mount institutional barriers, such curriculum with war stories and possible, however, to know the offerings
as the unavailability of pre- the students would leave the pro- of every program in the United States
without an extensive research effort far
requisite courses and those re- gram as ignorant as the day they beyond the scope of this article.
quiring academic major status. arrived.
Nevertheless, if the field pro- Both points were equally Dr. Buerger, a former police officer, is an
vides the signal, an impetus ex- valid and equally off the mark. associate professor of criminal justice at
Bowling Green State University in Ohio.
ists for institutional adaptation, Without integration, neither
While off duty but in uniform, Officer Lee Evans of the West Windsor
Township, New Jersey, Police Department received notification of a motor
vehicle accident in which the car involved had plunged into a 12-foot-deep
canal. Officer Evans immediately arrived at the scene and, observing the
vehicle sinking into the frigid waters with a man trapped inside, entered the
water without concern for his own safety. With the help of four passing
motorists, Officer Evans broke out the rear window of the vehicle and then
remained with the individual, bringing him to the surface of the water.
After helping the victim to the bank of the canal, Officer Evans, with the
assistance of onlookers, lifted the man out of the water. Officer Evans’
Officer Evans
quick and selfless actions under extreme pressure saved the motorist’s life.
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Patch Call
The patch of the Unalaska, Alaska, Depart- The patch of the Mississippi Highway Patrol
ment of Public Safety depicts the southwest features an eagle with extended pinions, holding
portion of Alaska’s coastline and the Aleutian a palm branch and a bundle of arrows in its
Islands along with a crab and a fishing vessel, talons. The red, white, and blue on the eagle’s
which represent the staple of the city’s economy. chest symbolize the American flag. The phrase,
Unalaska’s shipping port, the International Port “Virtute et Armis,” or “By Valor and Arms,”
of Dutch Harbor, is a leading seafood producer. serves as the motto of Mississippi.