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Abstract
The minimum curvature method has emerged as the accepted
industry standard for the calculation of 3D directional surveys.
Using this model, the wells trajectory is represented by a
series of circular arcs and straight lines. Collections of other
points, lines and planes can be used to represent features such
as adjacent wells, lease lines, geological targets and faults. The
relationships between these objects have simple geometrical
interpretations, making them amenable to mathematical
treatment. The calculations are now used extensively in 3D
imaging and directional collision scans, making them both
business and safety critical. However, references for the
calculations are incomplete, scattered in the literature and have
no systematic mathematical treatment. These features make
programming a consistent and reliable set of algorithms more
difficult. Increased standardisation is needed.
Investigation shows that iterative schemes have been used
where explicit solutions are possible. Explicit calculations are
preferred because they confer numerical predictability and
stability. Though vector methods were frequently adopted in
the early stages of the published derivations, opportunities for
simplification were missed because of premature translation to
Cartesian coordinates.
This paper contains a compendium of algorithms based on the
minimum curvature method (includes co-ordinate reference
frames, toolface, interpolation, intersection with a target plane,
minimum and maximum TVD in a horizontal section, point
closest to a circular arc, survey station to a target position with
and without the direction defined, nudges and steering runs).
Consistent, vector methods have been used throughout with
improvements in mathematical efficiency, stability and
predictability of behaviour. The resulting algorithms are also
simpler and more cost effective to code and test. This paper
describes the practical context in which each of the algorithms
SPE 84246
A A2 + B 2 C 2
= 2 tan
B+C
1
2
(1)
V
Fig. 1
SPE 84246
N
p = E
V
(2)
N
sin cos
= E = sin sin
V
cos
N 2 + E 2
= tan
V
1
2
(3)
(4)
= tan 1
(5)
cos cos
h = cos sin
sin
(6)
sin
r = cos
0
(7)
0
v = 0
1
(8)
Dogleg Severity
Dogleg severity is a measure of the change in inclination
and/or direction of a borehole, Fig. 3. The change is usually
expressed in degrees per 100 ft of course length in oilfield
units3 and degrees per 30m in metric units. Dogleg severity is
used to determine stress fatigue in drill pipe, casing wear and
casing design loads. It can also be a limiting factor in casing
running and directional drilling operations. For the minimum
curvature method, the expression for the dogleg severity takes
the form (18000* /)/(D2D1) in oilfield units. The
difference in measured depths D2 D1 between the points is
referred to as the course length S12.
1
E
t1
t2
-b
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
1
1 2
= 2 sin sin 2 2
+ sin 1 sin 2 sin 2 2
2
2
(9)
SPE 84246
1 *
= =
=
R S12 S *
(10)
Survey Calculation
Accurate determination of wellbore position is critical to well
placement, collision avoidance, reservoir modeling and equity
determination. Though the accuracy of the minimum curvature
method is acknowledged, Stockhausen and Lesso11 showed
that modern drilling practices could introduce systematic
errors even with survey intervals as frequent as 100ft.
n12
b1
po
p1
b2
t1
p1
Fig. 5
Interpolation
It is often required to identify the coordinates of a particular
point, say p* on a trajectory Fig. 6. In all cases, the problem
reduces to one of interpolation or extrapolation on an arc
defined by the positions p1 and p2 and directions t1 and t2 of its
end points. The algorithms presented here may be used for
both functions. The interpolation may be driven by one of
several parameters such as measured depth, subtended angle,
inclination, azimuth, northing, easting or vertical ordinate.
n12
S12
p2
Fig. 4
t2
p1
t1
p 2 = p1 +
sin 1 sin 1 + sin 2 sin 2
2
cos 1 + cos 2
(11)
Straight Hole Conditions When equals zero the shape
factor is mathematically indeterminate, so for < 0.02 radians
the series expansion (12) should used instead12. The series is
presented in Horner13 form to minimise both the number of
arithmetic operations and the propagation of errors.
f ( ) 1 +
p2
2
12
1+
2 31 2 (12)
1 +
1
+
10 168
18
p*
t* p2
t2
Fig. 6
SPE 84246
t =
sin *
sin *
t1 +
t2
sin
sin
(13)
c
2 1
+ 2 c
360 + c 36 + 120
31
7
1
c
+ 2 c
+ c 2
+ c 2
15120
720 5040
2160
2
127
31
7
1
c 2
+ c 2
+ c2
+ c 2
+ c 2
+
90720
604800
30240 362880
43200
(14)
It should be noted this interpolation mode is impossible when
the subtended angle is identically zero, unless the constant c
can be defined in some other way, such as by using the ratio of
the measured depths.
Interpolation on Azimuth Occasionally, it is necessary to
truncate a well plan trajectory at a depth so that it is lined up
with some specified direction. Firstly check the condition
sin 1 sin 2 sin ( 2 1 ) 0 to determine that the arc does
not lie in the vertical plane and that a solution exists. The
subtended angle is then determined using (15).
*
*
sin 2 sin 2 + sin 1 sin 1 cos
* = tan 1
(15)
In the appendix it is shown that the expression (A-29) used to
calculate the inclination * from * and * is of the form C =
A sin(*)+ B cos(*). The solution for * is determined using
(1). In this case the constants A, B and C are given by (16),
(17) and (18). Choose the smallest root unless it is less than or
equal to both 1 and 2 when the largest root should be chosen.
A = sin 1 cos * 1
(16)
B = cos 1
(17)
C = cos *
(18)
* 1
S * S12
2 1
(19)
(20)
B = sin cos1
(21)
C = sin cos *
(22)
(
(
)
)
* = tan 1
(23)
Straight Hole Conditions Inclination varies linearly with
measured depth in near straight hole conditions. For the
subtended angle < 10-4 radians, expression (24) should be
used to determine the course length. The remaining properties
can be determined by interpolating on this depth.
SPE 84246
* 1
S S12
2 1
*
(24)
t1
p1
px
p2
t2 p*
S*
Fig. 7
A = (m t 1 )sin
(25)
B = (m t 1 )cos (m t 2 )
(26)
C=
m p x p 1 sin
S12
(27)
) [(m t
S12 (m t 1 )
) (m t 1 )]
2
m p x p1
1 (1 )
(m t1 ) 2
(28)
(29)
sin cos
m = sin sin
cos
(30)
px
m
+ (m t 1 ) cos (m t 2 )
m p x p1
North
East
Vertical
N *
0
0
1
0
0
0
E *
0
0
0
V *
0
1
0
0
0
1
SPE 84246
t2
p2
t*
n12
p3
p1
p*
t1
p1
v
Fig. 8
* = tan 1
(31)
In deriving (31), it is assumed that 1 < 2 and so represents a
minimum inclination. Should 1 > 2 then the inclination is a
maximum. In this case the direction of t* will change by and
the azimuth becomes (* + ). The course length S* to the
turning point can then be calculated from the relationship S* =
S12*/ using (13). Finally, its position vector p* can be
calculated using the t1 and t* vectors with the minimum
curvature equation (11). See the appendix (A-45 to A-47).
Fig. 10
p1
R
F
p1
p2
t1
t2
E
A
Fig. 11
p3
Fig. 9
t1
t3
SPE 84246
t1
Rc =
p3
(38)
2( 2 2 )2
1
2 2
c = 2 tan
p1
1
2
(39)
Fig. 12
2
2 = p 3 p1
(32)
= p 3 p1 t 1
(33)
= ( 2 2 )
(34)
1
2
2
= 2 2 R 2 2 2
(35)
1
2 R 2 2 2
= 2 tan 1
(36)
t2 =
p 3 p1
S12 f ( )
t1
2
R1
t1
p2
t2
2
p3
(37)
S12 f ( )
+
2
t3
R2
p4
t4
Fig. 13
SPE 84246
p1,1
p1,2
t2
p2
p1
t*
px
2
3
p4,1
b*
p4,0
t 1
(40)
The subtended angle 2,0 is now calculated for the second arc
using the points p4 and p1,1. When performing the calculation,
the direction of the borehole at p4 must be set to t4 in order to
calculate the correct angle. This corresponds to the trajectory 2
in Fig. 14. A new target p4,1 is calculated using expression (41)
which completes the first iteration.
t 4
(41)
> ( 1, j +1 1, j )2 + ( 2, j +1 2, j )2
p*
t1
b1
2, j
p 4, j +1 = p 4 R2 tan
2
n12
Fig. 15
Fig. 14
1, j
p1, j +1 = p1 + R1 tan
2
p1
p4
po
1
2
(42)
(
= (p
)
p ) t
1 = p x p1 t 1
(43)
(44)
cos 2 S12
* = tan 1 1 1
+
sin
(45)
S*
S12 1
1 2 + S12
(46)
10
SPE 84246
tan * =
) (
)]
(47)
At the ends, this expression reduces to those presented by Liu
and Shi. The forms (48) and (49) have a small advantage
because they are not singular when the inclination at either of
the ends is zero. Dividing both numerator and denominator by
a factor that can be zero causes the singularity.
(48)
sin 2 sin ( 2 1 )
1 = tan 1
(49)
sin 1 sin ( 2 1 )
2 = tan 1
tan sin 1 2
2 1
*
(50)
Curvature
The total curvature is a constant 1/R on a circular arc, Fig.
16. Liu and Shi presented expressions for the inclination and
azimuthal components of the curvature at any point on an arc
in terms of the toolface angle at its start.
p*
S
r* t*
b*
S sin
Fig. 16
* = cos *
* =
(51)
sin *
sin *
= ( *2 + *2 sin 2 * )
(52)
1
2
* =
* =
(54)
) (
* 1
S
* 1
S
2 1
S12
2 1
S12
(56)
(57)
h*
(53)
SPE 84246
11
= A difference in a parameter
= Dip angle, radians
= Dip azimuth, radians
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
12
SPE 84246
a b = a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3b3
= a b cos
(A-1)
(A-2)
a b = a b sin n
(A-3)
a (b c ) = (a c ) b (a b ) c
(A-4)
sin 2 cos 2
t 2 = sin 2 sin 2
cos 2
t1 t 2
sin
(A-5)
(A-6)
(A-9)
b 2 = t 2 n12
(A-10)
Substituting n12 from A-8 into A-9 and A-10 and using the
expression A-4 for the vector triple products gives A-11 and
A-12.
b1 =
t 1 cos t 2
sin
(A-11)
b2 =
t 1 t 2 cos
sin
(A-12)
p 2 = p1 + R(b 2 b1 )
p 2 = p1 + R
The binormal vector n12 and vectors b1 and b2 at the arcs ends
are given by the expressions A-8, A-9 and A-10.
(A-13)
(1 cos ) (t
sin
+t2)
(A-14)
Finally, recalling the trigonometric identity tan(/2) = (1cos)/sin and that S12 = R we obtain the now familiar
expression for the minimum curvature equation A-15.
p 2 = p1 +
tan (t 1 + t 2 )
S12
(A-15)
tan
z 3 2 z 5 17 z 7 62 z 9
+
+
+
+ ...
3
15
315 2835
2 1+
12
2
2
2
1 +
10
2 31 2
1 +
168 1 + 18
(A-16)
(A-17)
For small angles the shape factor can be treated as unity and
A-15 reduces to A-18, which is recognised as the balanced
tangential3 survey calculation method.
p 2 p1 +
(A-7)
(A-8)
b1 = t 1 n12
tan ( z ) = z +
Minimum Curvature
Zaremba2 presented the following derivation. Refering to Fig.
4, the direction vectors t1 and t2 at the arcs ends are given by
A-6 and A-7.
sin 1 cos 1
t 1 = sin 1 sin 1
cos 1
n12 =
S12
(t 1 + t 2 )
2
(A-18)
Interpolation
Refering to Fig. 6, interpolation involves determining the
position p* at some point on the arc given a criterion. The
corresponding direction vector at the point is t*, A-19.
sin * cos *
*
t = sin * sin *
cos *
(A-19)
SPE 84246
13
n12 =
t1 t
sin *
(A-20)
Equating A-8 and A-20 and taking the cross product of both
sides of the equality with t1 gives A-21.
t1 t1 t
sin *
)= t
(t 1 t 2 )
sin
(A-21)
t = t 1 cos *
*
sin * (t 1 cos t 2 )
sin
(A-22)
Multiply the numerator and denominator of the first term in A22 by sin and collect terms in t1 and t2. After simplification,
this gives the important relationship A-23 that is the
foundation for all the interpolation formulae.
*
t =
sin *
sin *
t1 +
t2
sin
sin
(A-23)
sin * cos *
sin *
*
*
=
sin
sin
sin
cos *
sin 1 cos 1
1 sin 1 +
cos 1
) sin
sin 2 cos 2
sin *
sin 2 sin 2
sin
cos 2
(A-24)
(A-25)
(A-28)
Next, expand the terms sin(-*) in both numerator and
denominator of A-26 using the trigonometric identity sin(*) = sin cos* - sin* cos. The terms involving sin* are
then collected on the left hand side of the equals sign and
terms involving cos* are collected on the right hand side.
The azimuth terms are then combined using the same
trigonometric identity to give the expression (15) for * used
to interpolate on azimuth in the body of the paper. The
traditional form of the dogleg severity equation3 A-29 can be
used to determine *. This is of the form C = A sin(*)+ B
cos(*).
p = p1 +
(A-27)
)(
S12 1 cos *
*
t1 + t
sin *
(A-32)
(A-26)
(A-31)
S*
S*
*
t 2
t 1 +
t 1
S12
S12
)
)
Substituting * from A-25 into A-23 gives the expression A26 for t* in terms of the course lengths.
S *
S*
sin 1
sin
S12
S12
*
t =
t1 +
t2
sin
sin
(
(
* S*
=
S12
p = p1 +
) (
S12 1 cos *
1 + cos * t 1
sin *
sin
Now take the dot product of A-33 with the normal vector m of
the plane and rearrange slightly.
14
SPE 84246
m p p1 =
) (
S12 1 cos *
1 + cos * (m t 1 )
sin *
sin
(A-34)
m px p = 0
(A-35)
m p x p1 sin
S12
+ (m t 1 ) cos (m t 2 ) =
p = p1 +
S
*
t1 + t
2
(A-37)
(A-38)
(m t 2 ) (m t 1 ) S *2 + (m t )S * m ( p p ) = 0
1
x
1
2 S12
(A-39)
2m (t 2 t 1 ) m p x p1 2
2
(m t 1 ) (m t 1 ) +
S12
S* =
m (t 2 t 1 )
S12
(A-40)
To simplify the manipulation, define a variable according to
A-41. Expression A-40 can then be written as A-42.
S12 (m t 1 )
) (m t 1 )]
2
(A-41)
(A-42)
(1 + z )
1
2
= 1+
z z2 z3 z4
+
+L
2 8 16 128
2 3
(m t 1 ) (m t 1 )1 +
+
2
2
*
S
(m t 2 ) (m t 1 )
S12
(A-43)
(A-44)
(m t 1 ) (m t 1 )(1 + 2 ) 2
S =
(m t 2 ) (m t 1 )
S12
) [(m t
t =
S *2
(t 2 t 1 ) + S * t 1 p * p1 = 0
2S12
m p x p1
n12 v
sin
(A-45)
Using A-8 for n12 and expanding the resulting vector triple
product gives A-46.
*
t =
(v t 2 ) t 1 + (v t 1 )t 2
sin sin
(A-46)
Note that (v t2) equals cos2 and (v t1) equals cos1 and that
* equals /2 at the turning point. Using these values and
expressions A-19, A-6 and A-7 for t*, t1 and t2 in A-46
gives A-47.
cos *
cos 1
*
sin = sin sin
0
sin 2 cos 2
sin sin
2
2
cos 2
sin 1 cos 1
cos 2
sin 1 sin 1 (A-47)
sin sin
cos 1
Dividing the easting by the northing components gives
expression (31) in the body of the paper for the azimuth * of
the turning point.
SPE 84246
15
p 3 = p1 + R tan (t 1 + t 2 ) + t 2
2
(A-48)
2 =
2 2 R sin + R 2 sin 2
cos 2
2 = 2 R 2 (1 cos ) +
Taking the dot product of A-48 with t1 and also with itself
gives A-49 and A-50 respectively.
(p
p1 t 1 = R sin + cos
(A-49)
Let
2
2 = p 3 p1
(A-52)
= R sin + cos
(A-53)
2 = 2 R 2 (1 cos ) + 2 R sin + 2
(A-54)
2 R 2 sin + 2 R cos = 2 R
(A-55)
2 R sin 2 R cos = 2 R
2
(A-56)
4 2 2 2 + ( 4 4 R 2 2 + 4 R 2 2 ) = 0
= 2 2 R ( 2 2 )
1
2
1
2
(A-57)
(A-58)
Rc =
2
2
1
2
(A-59)
To find the angle , rearrange A-53 for and square the result
to give A-60.
2 R sin
( R sin ) +
cos
2 2 R sin + R 2 sin 2
cos 2
(A-61)
Multiplying through by cos2 and rearranging terms gives A62. Completing the square on the right hand side of A-62
gives A-63.
R 2 1 + cos 2 2 R 2 cos
(A-51)
= p 3 p1 t 1
(A-60)
(A-62)
(A-63)
R = sin + R 2 2 2 cos
(A-64)
tan =
2
2 R 2 2
1
2
(A-65)
( b
( b
)
r ) = sin
h = cos *
*
(A-66)
(A-67)
b* r *
tan * = * *
b h
(A-68)
16
SPE 84246
r =
vt
sin *
(A.69)
h = r t
(A-70)
t cos * v
h =
sin *
*
(A-71)
b = t n12
*
(A-72)
(A-73)
) (
t * t 2 t 1 t * t 1 t 2 t * cos * v
b h =
*
sin
sin
( b
h =
(A-74)
( b
r =
[ (
cos * t 2 v t
)] cos( ) [t (v t )]
*
sin sin *
Using A-5, the scalar triple products become A-77 and A-78.
( )
(v t ) = sin
) = sin
sin * sin 2 *
) (
(A-77)
(A-78)
(A-79)
The general expression (47) given in the body of the paper for
toolface angle * is obtained by substituting A-75 and A-79
into A-68. For straight hole conditions, small angle
approximations must be used.
Curvature
Refering to Fig. 16, Frenets20 formula for total curvature
gives A-80.
*
dt
*
= b
*
dS
(A-80)
dt
*
= * h
dS *
(A-81)
1 dt
*
= * r
*
*
sin dS
(A-82)
Using A-66 and the expression A-75 for (-b* h*) gives the
expression (54) in the body of the paper.
* = cos *
(A-83)
* .
Using A-67 and the expression A-79 for (-b* r*) gives
expression (55) in the body of the paper.
* =
sin *
sin *
(A-84)
MD
Inc.
Azi.
N
E
V
DLS
(ft)
(deg)
(deg)
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
(deg/100ft)
(deg)
(deg/100ft) (deg/100ft)
1
702.55
5.50
45.00
40.00
40.00
700.00
38.14
1.57
12.89
2
1964.57
29.75
77.05
154.78
393.64 1895.35
2.00
6.85
1.99
0.48
2a
4250.00
29.75
77.05
408.84 1498.82 3879.60
0.00
3
5086.35
29.75
77.05
501.82 1903.25 4605.73
0.00
-135.72
2.15
4.22
3a
8504.11
80.89 300.71 1967.04 1033.30 7050.00
3.00
-20.54
2.81
1.07
3b
8828.04
90.00 297.31 2123.40
751.22 7075.71
3.00
-20.27
2.81
1.04
3c
9151.97
99.11 293.92 2262.88
460.41 7050.00
3.00
-20.54
2.81
1.07
4
9901.68 120.00 285.00 2500.00
-200.00 6800.00
3.00
-23.58
2.75
1.39
Table 2. Test case based on a trajectory with both its position and direction defined at the target
No.
( b
cos * t 1 cos * t 2
*
b =
sin
(deg/100ft)
2.00
2.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
3.00
R
(ft)
2864.78
2864.78
1909.85
1909.85
1909.85
1909.85
1909.85