International Space Station Project

Cover Letter:

Gallium Arsenide Solar Array Efficiency and

Degradation Experiment

The following document is a proposal, specified by Team A (The Blue

Team), to meet the :-

ESA Announcement of Opportunity

for
Externally Mounted Payloads
during the
Early Space Station Utilisation Period.

Principle Investigator / Project Manager:

Sir Andrew Holmes B.S.c, M.S.c, P.h.d

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International Space Station Project

Cover Page:

Gallium Arsenide Solar Array Efficiency and

Degradation Experiment (G.A.S.A.E.D.E.)

Team A / The Blue Team:

Project Manager:
Sir Andrew Holmes B.S.c, M.S.c.,P.h.d.
Cranfield University.
a.a.holmes@cranfield.ac.uk.

Systems Engineer:
Jayne Fereday B.A.
Cranfield University.
k.j.fereday@cranfield.ac.uk.

Electrical Engineer:
Ridanto Poetro B.S.c.
Cranfield University.
r.poetro@cranfield.ac.uk.

Mechanical Engineer:
Oliver Chameau B.S.c.
Cranfield University.
o.chameau@cranfield.ac.uk

Solar Array Specialist:

Panos Matakidis B.S.c
Cranfield University.
p.matakidis@cranfield.ac.uk

Integration Manager:
David Frew B.S.c.
Cranfield University.
d.p.frew@cranfield.ac.uk

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International Space Station Project

Gallium Arsenide Solar Array Efficiency and

Degradation Experiment (G.A.S.A.E.D.E.)
Abstract:

We propose to attach a Gallium Arsenide Solar panel to one of the two

Express Pallets externally mounted on the International Space Station.
Due to a minimum power requirement of 1kW a necessary array size
required to generate this will be approximately 5 m2. Because of this the
G.A.S.A.E.D.E. will necessitate the inclusion of all six adapters present
on the Express Pallet. The array will be attached to a dummy payload to
allow uncompromised analysis of the experiment.

Offered pallet locations included zenith or nadir facing in the ram or

wake directions. The final chosen fixture position was the zenith, wake
facing. The logic behind this was that the zenith side (as confirmed by
the ESA Review Team) receives the greatest amount of direct sunlight.
The wake direction will experience less debris than the ram view. Since
the expected duration of the experiment is in the order of 3 years we
decided that a ram fitting would experience too much degradation.
Although one of the main drivers for the experiment is array degradation,
along with efficiency, it was felt that a wake view would offer greater
flexibility and a more balanced approach to the investigation.

It was decided that the Gallium Arsenide Solar Array should be

continuously locked in place rather that utilising a sun pointing
mechanism. A sun pointing fairing would not be permitted to operate
during the microgravity research phases, which constitutes 60 days out of
a 92 day station orbit. It would be possible to lock the array during this
time period and only use the sun pointing during the remaining 32 days.
This was considered, however it was decided that a completely constant
environment in which to test the array was more preferable. We believe
that this will offer more consistent, accurate results. Also it offers the
ability of a larger array mass and has the advantage of a reduction in
experiment cost

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International Space Station Project

Why test Gallium Arsenide solar cells?

The conversion efficiency of standard technology silicon solar cells

currently flown is about 14.5 % under standard space conditions. The
advantages for using silicon cells are that large areas cells are available
(8 by 8 cm cells are being manufactured for the Space Station , the array
manufacturing technology is well developed, and the technology is well
characterised for vibration, thermal-cycling, and other environmental
loads of the space environment.

Gallium Arsenide cells offer an increased performance compared to more

conventional silicon cells that are currently used in space. GaAs cells are
currently available on the market with an average conversion efficiency
of 18.5%. It also offers reduced radiation-degradation and temperature
sensitivity. For silicon cells in LEO power production can decrease at
about 2.5 % per year due to radiation damage, while the equivalent
decrease for GaAs cells is 1.5%. The power loss per degree C above the
nominal operating temperature is 0.44% for silicon and 0.16 for GaAs.

However at the moment, GaAs cells, are smaller, heavier, more brittle
and more expensive than silicon cells. Also the behaviour of these cells
in space is not as well understood. It is therefore important to test these
cells in the space environment, to develop the technology even further.
GaAs cells are the next generation solar cells for photovoltaic generation
in space, offering better performance than silicon, thus reducing the size
and consequently the weight of the solar arrays.

Power prediction:

Characteristics of GaAs cells:

Conversion efficiency =18.5%

BOL power generated for different solar array areas, and periods of time

BOL Power = Conversion efficiency * Solar radiation * area of SA.

BOL power (KW) Area of solar array

(m2)
1 5
0.8 3.3
0.7 2.9

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International Space Station Project

Radiation Environment:

The main part of the experiment is to understand and measure the effect
of the natural radiation environment on the performance of the GaAs
cells. The radiation environment will degrade the performance of the
cells, reducing the power output from the array. It is expected that the
power will decrease by 0.15KW per year.

Contamination Environment:

In addition to the degradation due to radiation, the environment induced

by contamination from the Space Station itself and the proximity of the
logistics vehicles will also effect the performance of the solar array.

In orbit test requirements:

It is important to minimise the effect of the induced contamination

environment.
In orbit test requirements:

-The solar panel must be pointed towards the sun

- Minimisation of any shadowing due to the structure of the Space
Station, due to the logistics vehicles in docking periods and due to EVA
for other experiments next to the solar panels.
- Minimisation of the contamination environment around the solar panels
- Predictable periods of quiescence and non-quiescence periods and a
good description of the characteristics of the contamination environment,
and it’s fluctuation with time, must be given for the whole 3 year
mission, to allow us take into account the direct and indirect effects of
the contamination environment on the performance of the solar array.
- Short and long exposure periods will be required. Exposure of one
solar panel will be required for the whole 3 year period, while smaller
panels will be returned to Earth for investigation and replacement every
year.

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International Space Station Project

Mechanical Engineering considerations:

• Pallet interface

The Express Pallet accommodates 6 adapters, each of which must be able

to carry up to 225 kg
The mounting surface is about 1m x 1.2m
The maximum payload height is 1.25m (constraint imposed by in orbit
robotic handling)

Elements of design :
! The interface between the space station and the pallet must take
into account several mechanical parameters :
! The link must be resistant enough to allow correct transmission of
strains without any risk of breaking.
! This link must include a vibration absorption system to prevent the
payload from suffering parasitic accelerations.
! The structure must not be hyperstatic insofar as, with solar
radiation heating, the deformations could provoke the breaking of
the mechanical links.

• Solar array deployment/fixed array

A fixed solar array system has been chosen by the system, because it
provides several advantages that have to be taken into account :
! Great simplicity
! Low cost
! No monitor or control unit required
! Accuracy of the attitude determination

• Electronic boxes

The electronics boxes will contain all the electronic devices required for
the experiments carried out on the express pallets.
As the space environment is very aggressive, some precautions will have
to be taken :
! The electronics cards should be screened against harmful cosmic
radiations.
! A thermal design is also required, insofar as electronic devices
produce a great amount of heat, which has to be evacuated.
Otherwise, components could undergo serious damage.
# First, the heat produced must be evacuated

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International Space Station Project

# Then, the solar radiations must also be avoided

• Mass budget inputs to Systems Engineer

The payload mass capability is about 225 kg per adapter. An Express

Pallet could carry 1350 kg of payload.
A structure of 150 kg (20 kg per adapter + 30 kg of averall structure) is
conceivable to carry out this objective.

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International Space Station Project

Test module for GaAs cell solar array experiment :

Electrical Considerations

• Solar Array Sizing

Assumptions:
GaAs cell efficiency = 18%
Inherent degradation = 15 % loss
Electrical system efficiency = 95%
Incident solar radiation = 1358 W/m2
A sun pointing device is provided (accuracy = 1°)
Power expected = 1 kW

Inherent degradation consists of:

design inefficiencies
shadowing
temperature variations

Without considering the inherent degradation, the solar array will

provide power
1358 x 18% = 244 W/ m2

Including 15% loss of the inherent degradation, the solar array will
provide power
244 x (100-15)% = 207 W/ m2

Power comes to the load and measurement devices (per m2 of solar array)
will be
207 x 95% = 197 W

So, the area of the solar array needed for 1 kW output will be
1000 / 197 = 5.1 m2

• Power Regulation and dummy loads

A dummy load which has been calibrated on ground will be used. Also
all measurement devices and power regulation devices have to be
calibrated on ground.

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International Space Station Project

Basically we need a power regulation to ensure the dummy load is not

passed by excessive current (or power). We have two options for power
regulator.
1. DET (Direct Energy Transfer)
Dissipates excess power.
It is put in parallel to the load.

Solar Array Shunt Reg. Load

2. PPT (Peak Power Tracker)

Extracts the exact power the load requires up to the array’s peak
power.
It is put in series with to the load.

PPT

Solar Array Load

We choose the DET which is simpler and has less weight.

• Power profile with orbital/viewing constraint

(Requires further investigation).

• Power budget inputs to Systems Engineer

(Requires further investigation).

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International Space Station Project

Integration Proposal for International Space Station:

It is proposed to place the solar array experiment on the zenith side of the
module, pointing in the wake direction of the ISS. The experimental
array is ~5m2 and will therefore require an entire pallet site.
Opportunities at the present time are mainly for such class 2 experiments,
no opportunities currently exist in the UK for class 1 payloads. It was
also decided to fix the solar array, therefore the coarse pointing device
(CPD) is not required.

It is intended to attach the experiment to

the ESA Express pallet, mounted at the
starboard side of the Integrated Truss
Assembly (ITA).

As the solar array experiment requires all

Express pallet
of the pallet adapters, the option of using
the station logistics carrier (SLC) is not available. For this reason the
array will be integrated with the pallet at the Kennedy Space Centre
before it is stowed on the shuttle.

The required experimental output is the power received from the array,
and how it degrades over the 3 year lifetime of the mission. As we have
chosen to fix the array the option of sun tracking is not available,
however the attitude information from the ISS allows for the sun’s
inclination, and therefore the solar radiation received, to be calculated. In
order to measure the power output a dummy load is proposed with all the
power required for communications and data handling to be provided by
the ISS.

As the CPD is not required, the array may be up to 225 kg in mass,

however in is not envisaged that it will weigh more than 100kg. The
footprint of the array must fit within the standard pallet envelope
allowing for corner adapters. This allows for dimensions of 3.937m x
2.286m, the allowable height of the array and pallet is limited to 1.25m
by the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator (SPDM).

The payload power can be set at two levels, it is proposed that the lower
28Vdc, 1kW supply is used.

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International Space Station Project

The array experiment will be delivered to the Kennedy space centre for
verification and correct pallet integration on the payload test facility. The
physical integration and experiment testing is carried out on the Express
pallet simulator at the Kennedy space centre. Once ground integration
has been approved the pallet is transferred to the shuttle orbiter cargo bay
as part of a larger overall payload of 16 rack positions within the Mini
Pressurised Logistics Module (MPLM), as the Express pallet has no
cooling mechanism one of the 11 passive positions will be used.

The pallet will be placed on the starboard side of the ITA using the
SPDM, and will remain there for the 3 year mission duration.

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International Space Station Project

Developement Plan Schedule:

This is the entire schedule for the solar array developement and
integration into the overall Early Opportunity External Payload system:

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Payload Design,
developement and
qualifiction
Payload delivery &
integration
Launch and return of
external payloads
In-orbit Operations

This is the developement plan schedule showing the Payload design,

developement and qualification phases which will be undertaken prior to
the payload delivery and integration stage :

1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 2 0 0 0

Preliminary solar array

design.
Initial developement.

Solar array product

testing.
Qualification verification
& validation.

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International Space Station Project

ANNEX 1: Resume of Investigators Experience

All of the principle investigators were heavily involved in the design and
development of ESA’s 2001 Mars Express mission. Systems designed
included:

• Systems Overview.
• Launch and Trajectory.
• Descent.
• Lander subsystems.
• Science and Instruments.

Contact Chief Engineer Ray Turner for individual

commitment and involvement.

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International Space Station Project

Annex 2: Instrument Proposal Data Sheet

Space Station and STS Constraints

Attitude and Orbit

• Inclination = 51.6 °
• Nominal max altitude 450 km
• Orbit decay compensated by periodic reboosts
• Long term variation due to solar cycle
• Velocity vector perpendicular to ITA
• Average environmental torques sum to zero
• Payload sites attitude oscillates around LV/LH by up to 3.5 ° per orbit,
i.e., worst case attitude variation of ±1.5° over 15 minute observation
period

Payload Attachment Sites on ITA

• Accommodated on EPS
• Up to 4 pallets can be installed - 2 facing zenith and 2 facing nadir
• These accommodate up to 6 adapters per EP
• Payload mass < 225 kg
• Payload volume < 1 m3
• Handling and installation achieved with SSRMS or SPDM

Express Pallet

• Dimensions 3.937 x 2.286 m

• Mass capability at launch 1350 kg
• Payload power 28v or 120v
• Total upper limit 2.5 kw
• Upper limit for 28v 1 kw

Express Pallet Adapter

• Allows 6 payload complements on one EP

• Dimensions 1.213 x 1.054 x 0.053 m

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International Space Station Project

• Payload mass capability 225 kg per adapter

• Payload power 120v (2.5 kw) or 28v (500w)
• Actual power to payloads depends on resource allocation
• Attached payloads can face zenith, nadir, Earth limb, ram, wake

Payload Support Equipment

CPD - coarse pointing device- can give pointing accuracy of ±1° about 2
rotational axes, but use may be limited by other microgravity
experiments

Physical interfaces

envelopes

• On orbit
baseline 1.25 m height including support and CPD
1.0 m width
1.0 m width
limited by SPDM

• Transport - shuttle orbiter cargo bay maximises allowable payload

envelope

• Mass requirements - each instrument < 225 kg or 100kg if mounted on

CPD

Structural Interfaces

• Mechanical interfaces
- bolted directly to EPA - must respect EPA mounting hole pattern
- bolted to support plate - for smaller payloads

Environmental Interfaces

• Natural micrometeoroids and debris

radiation
microgravity

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International Space Station Project

• Mechanical loads - strength must be based on flight loads x suitable

design safety factors. Consider stress analysis/stiffness/material
compatibility

• Contamination - from ISS outgassing during non-quiescent periods

• Thermal - EPA doesn’t provide for active cooling and must be done by
passive cooling. Heat flows at EPA interface must be minimised,
hence all power radiatively dissipated. Battery ‘stay alive’ power is
available for in orbit installation.

• EM - must comply to EM requirements of ISS

Power Interfaces

To EPA
• 2 outlets 2.5 kw@120v (total EP allocation)
• 2 outlets 500w@28v (50% of EP allocation)
• one of each (ceiling of 2.5 kw for payloads)

Custom built PDU will provide power distribution - 28v dc or 120v dc

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