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taute ur
t:..UIJtern~
IJJLroductJon
Chapler l \\',1\t> propagallon <tnd \cloctlles
Ch<tpter 2 \t>loCJt}
model~
5 The
1em-ofT~t'L
Zt>ro-oH~t'l
11
53
ln1agmg
or 'rack domam
101
153
211
249
297
Chapter
377
Tttdex
1:1
From
SCISJHIC
4Gl
Jnrroaucuan
poml of\Je'W,
, d greal
111
n.llure IIO\'>TVCT, lht>re do nol appear ro bt> any pubhcalwn~ g!Vmg an overv1ew old!l the mcthod~ imolyt>d m lht> crt>allon of the seismic image ancl, aboYt> al!. lht>tf
lmk w11h a paramt>ler thal 1'> a;, unportant to ~eJSIIlJC proces~ors dS to Jlllt>rpreler'
the propagation velocities of elastic waves within the subsurface.
lhe aun of showing the relationship between imaging and velocity, I ha1e litt>d lo
be exhdustive m sheddmg light on, e1e11 1!- only bridly. the maJority o!- pre'>t>ll!-dd}
methods used m the mdustrv, bm wJthout
mto delab o!- lht> algonlhms
ltiYohed. Recent tools, such dS inversion
or nt>w dJrertJOtiS m the
t>Yolutwn of the prokssJon. whKh St't>JTI lo
o!- mtTt>a,mg nnport,uce m
tht> \t>ars to come. e g anounlmg for anisotropy, hmt> aho bt>t>ll lackkd
Sllllple, somt'llffit'~
rathcr than to
to1llustratc
d pctrttnllar JlOtnt, abs1Jlutt> matlwm.m<al prt><i~ilm not
m\ a1m
Thost>
Wt~hmg for d more ~y~Jt>mafK approach can consult the reft>rt'JKt>~ g1ven at lht' enrl
ol cctch chapter
Wherever
scht>IIMI!(
po~s1ble,
1 have tned
tO
lrt the same Wd}, thc numerous figun.., a1t> oflen g11Cil m tlw form of skeldtt>~ Ht>re
agam, my mtennon was to ,imphfy, theu c\,mty a1dmg the reade1 's understandmg
of thc pht>nomcnd or mcthods concerncd, cven 1[, onct' m a wlnlt>, I hayc had to
1he rt>fcrcnccs atrhe end of each chapter, m partiCumcntJOllt>d, offcr tlw opportumll' of 'tudvmg J"t'al-hfe
exctmples
Thc book tlwreforc IS aunt>d dt two pnnnp,\ audtt>nccs Hnth, 1l should bt> of mtere~t to proces~mg gt>ophp!u.,ts 1,ho l'>'l~h to takt> a look at somt> ofthe nt>w roo\s th.tt
have recendy ht>en dcvelopt>d m R&D, wlulst abo refrcshmg the1r knowlt>dge of tht>
more classicaltoob St>condly, 1t should be of t>lualmtcrt>st to SCISITIIC mterprcten,
~>ho today are workmg mcrea~mgly alongs1dc prorcssors m the constructwn of sei'mJC 1mages, oftt'n m the depth domain The, will find an~wcrs to the many IJUesuons that an~t> when converting maps from the lime domain 10 the depth domain
and calibrating these maps with the well data
Thc book shou\d ,dso be uscful to all thosc workmg 111 ExploratJmJ ~>ho aJ"t' oftt>n
puzzled bv tht> process01s'prgon and who are curious about the more or kss clablht>I'Wdl bt'
Tlus tcxt thm has two m~or objeCtJ\eS that Jnterad ,m\ complt>IHt'nt one another
F1rstly, 1t ,lttempts to lcty out the key 'teps behmd the comtnl(JJOn of a St>J,mic nnage
amito dcscnbe thc rclel<lllt tools and mcthods currcnlly emplol'ed, ~uch as '\JMO,
D:\10, ,nd the Wt>alth of post-stack ,md prcstack mJgr,ttJOJJ approacltt>S urrt>ntll'
avallablc Tlw pro~ and Clm'> ofthe rt>spcct!Vc nugratHlll~ ,re ah1J c[,cu,ed, wht'Lht>r
m the tJmt> domam 01 tlw Jepth domain
SccondlY, we cll~cm~ the links and interactions that exist between seismk imaging
techniq~es and the information furnished about seismk subsurface propagation
velocities dunng thc piocessntg cyde Th1s knowkdgt> 1S t>~sent1al, a~ Jt acts as a
fccdb,Kk mecham'm 10 proYidc
of tht> sc1smic magc. and 1t
allo~>s dtt mmal t>~tnnauon to bt>
target dcpths usmg 'elsmJC
tcchmqucs alonc We a \so tarkle tht> 1mportant topK of the simultaneous use of
well measurements with velocity estimates derived from seismic processing
Tht> hook 15 d1v1dt>d ]])tO four maJor ~ecuom
Chapters 1-J dft' dt><hcated ro thc fundamental conccpls that ht> bt>lnnd t>la~-
tiC "'ave propaganon witlun the subsurface, tht> velocll} of such prop<~g-atwn,
and lhe st>~mlC 1magmg piOCt'~~ nself They should be consldeit>d as a (longl)
mtrodunwn and mm.l of lht> ron(t>pl~ wlil bt> u~ed sub,t>qut>llllv
Chaplers 1-ti ourhnc tht> ~penfic unagmg- prmciplt>~ '\JMO, DMU, 'tark and
post-,tack nugratwns In tht''t> chapters Impoitdnt Ideas such a~ 'nugrauon Hl
unw' and 'migratior1 Ill dt>pth' art' prt>,enled \\'e abo aim lo danh rhc rclanonshqJ ht>tl'.een veloat\ and m1gratmn, gomg on lo show how unproved
ycJonty mformatlon leads to bettcr seisnuc un,gng, 1,hKh 1n turn allows a
beltt>r t'Stunanon ofsubsurfdce propagat10n ycJonnt>s
Chapter 7 gcnera117CS lhe mgraUotl cm1cepl' hum 'post-stack' lo 'prt>~la(k' m
both lhe t1me domam awl the deplh domam.
Ch<~pter 1:1 recapllulales prartKal l~'ue~ m t>~t1matmg dt>pth fwm rhe ~et~lm(
m,ge and lhe St>l,IlliC vt>locitv, and matchmg lht>St> wilh hort>holt> ddta
betwt't'll !lata procc.,smg ,nd arqlii~.HIOJJ m the field Tim.tnb the end ofthe chaplt>r, 1 mtmdurt> a rdtht>r snnpler unagmg otratt>gy wlu(h ha' bt>en the most \'>'Hit>h
med m uulmtry unlll re(t>lltlv ami where tlw (OII,LHJCrion oltlw ,dsmJC
bmken dOI'>'tl uno two maor 'Lagt>'
through 'mo1 t'OUI correctmn' and a '>JJ kmg
dnmam', and (2)
s/ackJmgration
Al-tt>r dl,ru,mg the methodology 111 Chapters 3-ti. Wt' l't'turn 1\l Chaptt>r 7 to thc allunporr.mt relationship between imaging and velocities Jlns chaptt>r IS culu't'll'
dt>chcated to p1T-stark lmgr.ttiOJJ mcthod,, whethcr m nme or m dcpth Thcse tt>chrepldCt' tbc stacktng dnd posl-lmgratiOJJ SCI]Uence Prc~Jack
tlw ITlanon'hl}J bt>twcen unagmg and
\t>loCill'
e~mnarion 1'> mm! obywu' \anous }ll't',ldlk tune-migrdtion
wht'Lher
surh .t, tlw :\1ovc5'" mt'Lhod. or 1-ull dll-hart!OJJ stark prmc"t'', dit'
Tbev allo'W us, m prmciple, to obtaiu 'tackiug velou!le'> m theiJ
m1graiPd po>llloJI TJu, 1' a ~ubjed whme unportall(e lo 't>Jsmc
Th1' handbook , thc rcsull ()f thc cxpt>nence Jlld cxpcrnsc rhar I IJa\C been able [()
,nure in thc tleld of se1~1rnr unagmg and 'dt-pthmg' durmg tht- course ofmy ca1eer
ht-ad ofrt>St>drch tc.tms ,ud techmcal adv1sm 'WHh
10m\ collt-.a.gut-' in the Dpm!mm/ Smmquf amlm pa1 IKuiJr to the tt-.tms from tht- Gt>oSCJt-nct> Rt>search Centre m London I dffi the1t>forc
cxtremely .;rateful to tlw Mau.a.g-t-meut of the Direct10n Geosuenccs ,md the
[)ecnon Re~t><~nh, aud p<~ItJCularll' ro :\1:\1 J YI M.tssct, T Huyglmcs-Dt-spotntcs
dlld H Clt-lllCtl(,Oll lor ,Jiowmg me lo publish th1' tiC~'. Eug!J.,h verswn of the book
1 would parucularly hkc to cxp1e" lll\ grautude to lll} fncnd., ancl colk<~gues f10m
lot<dFmaEifv,ho kt\t> takcn the lllll<- ro review thc Frcuch or tht- English manuscnpt
(',ometJme' bothl), brmgmg 10 llll' atlt-ution thc ncccsSdl)' corrt-ctJOlh, <~nd ah~ays
bcmg- therc to ~ugge't JUdl( 10u~ aud mefulmpro\CIHcnts I would hkc to mennon
m particular jt-an ,\.inaud, Rt>da H.m.a., Wilfik Bt>ydoun. F.nr lit- Ba.-:el;ure, .Jeau-Luc
Hot-llt>, _/.a( que' Blanco, \\cs-Lur Boui!Js. Henn Calandra, Lu\ Lanadds, VuKt>nl de
Cat.a.nmt-, J<~nut-s Dchaux, Plt-rre Esquier, Christi,nt Hamtzsch, Jean-M,ul:Kom,mtsch, Claudt- LafonJ, (;IJe, Lambar, l."mrent Lt'maJstre, Domuuque
Manon, PJul St-xton, Patnck J'urpm and Paul Williamsou. Tlwu comment,, thc1r
the numt-rou~ d1scusswn~ and feedback. as wcll dS tlw tlocumcnts
[ owe
,1
To Francine
lntroduction
The seismic image of the subsurface
In ga' and otl explorauon, l'>'e dre lookmg for those geometncal or strattgr.tplncal tr<lJl' 'Where hydmcarbons h<11e dccumulatt>d and wllH h are pwduuhk A ~t>t>lllH
~une\ .md the 1a1mtc mrage
enabk a gt>ologt~l, gt>ophystu~t or
engmt>er to htghhght, mlerprel
of llltere't
Latcr mt m an 01! or g,ts fit>lcrs hfC, m tht> productmt
ddmt>ate
Jllt>n~ely,
tht>
11
Tndeed,
he or
12
.,
<
: ..
-~.:._,__,__,~
R~cc1~ero
-cabk.\ orhydrophonc>
Processing of data
,\proce\\Ulg 1eqnnur IS ckn,ed to peld thc seJsmK rdlernvlty lffi4ge ofthe sub-
'>Urface
13
14
umtart wllh lhe ~oUJLe undeJgo a ~eond.trv mouun m the upposue duecnon (.1~ the
, thr<~lOr platenses 01 the a1r bubbk co!lap~es undcr hydro~t.tllc prc~<;urc) !'he sct~
mtc ~uun:e m tlus "ay geneJ.ttc~ an o~cillaton movemcnl ol dr1l!lmna wJtlnn the
ne1ghbuunng paittdes, a s1gnal known a~ thc nfar-jidd ll[(Ualure
Jiu~ parnck motion and chang-e m pressur 1egime Clt<tled by the sottn:e \11]1,
u1 tln~ Jashtou, propagare throughout dw subsurftrc, C\Cll afre the ~oUJLe Jt~elfh<t<;
<L,l~ed ennttmg In the Jdeal Gi5l' ol 4 perfectly d<i~lK medmm. thb flGI/lr
would p!Opdgate Jnddimtd)
llw phenomenouJ~ Jiustr<l.ted m hgtne 1 02, Ftgme 1 0~-a shm, mg a ll'ptc~en
l,llton ol the sub~tl!l.le l!ll\5 11Ut1al equihbnum po51t10n
Atttmet=
dt~placement
r, wlatt\e lo the
~ubsurbce
or local
(H)\nittal
equilibrium
ple~;ure
van-
(b)'Snap-sbot'(d)l'artrle
(e)Partcle
att1
displaccmenl pre"urcatt1
15
,,
thc
~ca-floor
1tsclf
(a)Pamclemeqmlibnum
(b)PaniCieunckrsrrcss
~ ~-P~
'rM7::
~uh~urfa(t>''>
17
fll]
Th1s 1s lhe
Velocity of propagation
I1 \\e are annmg for rhe fdl Wdveftdd TJ(7, l) ate\ en deplh 7 and nme t, begmnmg from 411 llllt1al cond1hon, we w]J havt> to tntegrate rhfh.entla.l equation [J 11
As lh!s ts a st.ndard equatton, the gennal ~ohwon5 are Kell known Ftrsy, noll!1g:\lip has tht> dnnen~un ofthe square mot ofveloctty, we can wnte
V=~
[.121
~urEue,
1e
po~1ttoned
Puttmg t, = /. 1/V, \H' note that thc paltKle mouon al 11 wll be exacrly the ~ame a~
that di the ~ource, e'<:tept for a dclay equal to:!: r,
[1
l'he <;gn.J howeyeJ cannol obyJOttslv ai!Wt' bdore 1t ts
ami hence only rhe -l dday ~olutJon \,]] be \ahd f1 pomt H SolutJon
+7.1/Y \\ottld conespond lo a propagat1o!l upwaul~, \dl!ch would only occur f rhe
'(JIU Ce were tndy buned m the mt>dnun Our Simple demonstratlon dot>s not howevei t.Ikc a[(ounl ofthe lact that tlw ~otucc !S al 1he hm11 between two me(ha with
(htferent propertu:s \\'e wtll nol allm, lht~ pomt to bother u~ f01 lhe tune bemg howe\er.
Here, we can ~nnplycomlude lhdl d parucle motwn generated at 7 = wJ] re{ U!
al all deplhs l wllh a delay t = e\' "'amely, there !S a propagauon of the
mouon from the ~ource at <1 vdout) \: the value of dus pwpagatwu
Y
delined by Equatwn [l 21 (set' Ftg111e l 04)
Th1s YdOllt) V dt "lmh the waves propagate 1~ l1nked duntly to two majOJ properues thal are cha!;Ktt>nonc of dw medu.1m through wh1ch lhev llaye]
18
flrllllaty
In our sunpk e'<:ampk, we are abk to mtegrate the \\'ave Equatwn between depth~
?ero and 7. u~mg <Ul rmnhliml ;olntwn .!S the 1nedmm wa~ as~umt>d to be homogcneous. 1 e the pwp.q;atlon \elo[l nmamed conslant throughout the two d<>pth~
(OJ\Ceined
F01 an hetewgeneom med1u1n however. we would have ro 1megrate lhe equatwn
bctwet>n two pomh ~uffiut>ntly dose morder to be able to suppo~e the propagatJOn
\ dontr to be lolally
and lmked only to die lo( al pwpeitte<; of rhe
u~e the ll'1m
01 (a~ Jt\ more !Tllp!Opedy,
\'(A,),l).
inOIIOn
Other types ol wavt> motlon will be mtroduced shortlv
Wavefronts, plane waves and spherical waves
In Ftgure 1 0:!, we statc lh<~t at ume t = t, aH partKk5 bdow depth l. = \' l w11l
be <~l rest, ~mee tht>VJ'ale ha5 yet to wach them So for a g1ven m'tant t, we can define
d rhr<>shold markwg the lumt between rhe pdltule~ snll at 11.'5! anrl tho'c on thc 1erge
of bemg dt~placed hv the omommg W4Vl'. Th1~ surface 1~ known a~ the wavefront
ln out ex4mpk \IIth the vibr4l01-lruck plale. tlu~ 1"11effont 1111l locallv be
appHJX\Inatcly pla!MI, 1duch leads to thc concept of a pfrmf H'rlW:
JI >w as,ume the y1brat01's S!Zt> to be 1nmimal rel,ttlve to the dtstancc tlavelled
1
11{.-:,t)=f{u)v.Ithu=V t-z
(froml.l)
au
2t
::::> v(z,t) =
2t
~=-~=~~
~.1.p(z, t)
(Hooke's)
Equauon r1 G1illusrrate' that for the spectal caM.' of plana compresswnal Wa\e~,
panide \elontv v(z, t) and prcssure variatiom tl.p(z. t) are pmponional, 1 e are m
phase Th1s 1S nota Jesult exact m the gene1al case though.
lll the Vllllllty of the soune Care musl therefore be wken before usmg a
recorded as a
parude velocity to
SC\SilliC data IecOidcd 111 pn'ssure In pra1 tae nonethek~s. 1f a record1ng
a 'uft!Cient dJstanu' lrom the soune, for a loc,dl)
homogeneouo JneduJm,
appiOximation holds ,nd, m thl' re~pecl at kasl,
marme seJSillll data ldll be reated n much thc same WdV as land seJ,IlliC.
The coeffluent of proporuonahty bt"t:v.een v and tl.p for plana eo m pressmn,]
WdYes 1' :\1/\: wluch, usmg wlauonsh1p [1 fij, can be wntten as
M/V=pV
[171
Product A= p V 1' the acoust/( unpnkmce, the greater the ,tcousnc unpedance A, dw
'>maller 1he parncle \e\outy w1ll be !01 a gnen pieSMlre dJfferenual
The re\auonsh1p between the ><trtiCle velonty and the propaganon \elontv c,tn
hence be expressed as
v/V=L'lp/M
[181
In the condJt\On~
encoumered m petwleum
Ap 1' sma\1 and
mcompressibi1ity
large Jor the 1) pes
the wa\C~ wdl propagate
w1thm 'lh1s means thb Jatw 1s comJnonl) le~s than 10' The paiuckvdocny's magnJtude 1<; then'fore llllV, sever,tl UTI/S at most
In figure 1 03, the wave pwpagat1on t>quatJon for aplane compn'"IOnal wave IS
~hown for partnle dtsplacement 11 lt can be eastlv denwn,tratell that rlus 'ame dJffeiennal equation remdins Yahd for the time deri\allve v, ami ha~ed on "hat we haw
stared abO\ e, also remams \ahd fo the pressun' d1fferentlal tl.p "llu~ 1-D eqanon
l.tn tht>refon' be applwd fo whKhe\er of the thn-e \ariah\e~ we choo~e
20
rd~ttonshtp
lfn\m
theorencaldasas a matnx
exp1e~~ed
21
""
"
e~
e""'
e,"'
e~
""
cr,,.
c~kl
'"e,,
'"e,,
rL9J
Or m a
;
TllOft' cotnptes~ed
O""=t;8c,rkl 10 r
torm
fllO]
Symmt'lry conMderattons allow a u.ductum ofthe<;e Rl c1u moduh to 21 mdepcndent parameten, w.ually !knoted C,,, di~p\aved a~ mdivtdual ekmem~ ot 4 fixG
Fo1 a complete desu1ptton of the ela~nc behavumr of a sub,urface mednun, u
would be necessary to define tlw~e 21 paramt>ter~.
7.) Yer, tf we suppow that
ddlne a homo;eneous lml
r~ a vector relattonIn the ~ame way, tht> force exerted on a partKk ara gnen nstant IS a vectoJ.
and we can me a nctor H'T~!On of '\Jewton\ Second Law of "\1otton Tlus kads lo a
desutptwn
phtpng assmnpttons
mo~t ommon one 1~ to ~ttpulate an
namdy a medium n which elasti1 prope1 nes are IH!kpt>ndent o!
U~mg tlu~ one assumpuon. we can futhe nduce the number ofparameler5 uecessary to des(Jtbe the local elastK behavtotH from 21 ro JUSI 2, a stglllfilant leap m the
~tmphutyl The h\O ntost l\ulel1
fl rhe axml modulm M mdJCated m Ftg11n- 1
1ml the,e two parameters, the 'wavt' equation' for an elastJC tsotropll
heterog-eneous :l-D medmm n:mam~ an unw1eldy chffert>nual vector eqwnon
Solvtug tt howeve1 enabk5 us to 5how"e can tsolare ~e\ eral (hfferent modes of prop"h!Ch may be mathematKally decouplcd, 11<1 lhe KTi>loffd
22
(a)Part1dcmeqml!brwm
<,=~,8,=~~
(b)Pamcleun<lertress
YoungomodulusE-- POJssonsntho v
Compressional or Pwaves
\\'i have prevwmly dc~cnhed (F1;ures 1 02-1 04) a planc wavc tnotwn where an
eLlStJ( modulus M W<IS ddincd corrc~pondmg toan ax1allv applicd prcssure Wtthout
latcr.ll dtspla(cmt>nl (Le. no dl'Jlla(einenl peqwnd11Ular to prop<tganon d1recnon)
In rh1s case, Lhe part1dc mot10n or polansatwn he~ 1-o-mndenl wnh thc \Vave's prop.tganon dire1 t1on Thrse are rekrrcd toas comfne~~wnal or 1'-waves
Shear or S-waves
Instead oJ letung the vibratmg pl.tte v1brate vettH allr a'> m Fl{Uie \ 0:!, \Ve could
equally leL the plate v1hratr horuontally, and tru1k'> fittt>d w1th sud1 dev1ces havc
be111g destgncd With such a
'>ubsurlace pm Lwlrs ILJ:t"ctly coupled \Hlh thr
pl.Jte w]] uJldergo deformaflom a'>
[ 07
;_,=di\.;.lil.x
,Jearmodulm
cr,IE"
23
An t>lastlc modulu~ '-dll be delined whwh dt>scnhe~ thl~ type of purc she<lr motJOn
Th1s pardmeter, known a~ tht> 1hnn moduhLI .t, chardelt>nst>~ the ng!dil)' of the partJde~, anrl1~ the serond of the Lam p.trameten mentioned earlin
lf we suppo~e the platc to be cxtremely large, all parucles snuated Jmmt>JJatcly
hclow ll defoTin in <In 1denti(al fashion The subsurf,c_e's mtnnsic clasuuty willthen
bnng abuut a hmlLOntal force on the parnclcs SJtuated m the laye unmerhatelv
bclow, which m tnrn will rlcform and apply a horiLoutal ~tre.,s on the next
'
clown, and ~o on Iu thts way, the honzontal pa1nde mot1on propagate~
Jownwards In '>0 rl01ng, we have, at lea~t m the local ,j,inity ofthe piare, generated a rvpe of ptme w;l\e where the pol.o~nsatwu (parude motwn) 1s honzontal, but
wlule the monon's pmpag,ltam du-ectwn lS verucal Surh \lave'> are known a'> 1hrar
or.)-U'al'n
In rarrymg out an 1dent1cal calculatton <lS for 1'-waves, we (an construo a wave
propagatwn equatwn !or these S-waves and, sunilar\y a'> for P-\la\e'>, .,]ww thdt the1r
propagatwn velocuy V, Wlll depend on dens1ty and ~hear modulus .t acconhng toa
formula ~lmilar lo ~.quation rl 2]
V,=t
llll]
(d)Particlcmequihhnum
24
{h)Partlch.undco>Lrcs;
ht>tHe dldraOCT tses the flmd'~ mcomprt>'>~ththty, m whH h ca~t> tt ts deuoted by A., 1 e
the fint L,un parameler Fo1 a sohd, K will al'>o depend on thc shea1 modulus p., As
we 111entwned e<1rher, \\e C<lll de~nibe dll the eidsUc parameters for a homogent>om
1sotn>pl( merhum m terms of two mdt>pentlem paamett>rs, the mo'>f rnmmon
A .ntd _ Two orher parameteis \\eJe abo mtrorluced, M and K, ,md these r dn
be linkcrl Ha A and ., usmg for Jnst;met> the formuld~
M=A+2J.L=K+4Jl/3
K =c:A+2Jl!3
[112]
25
Figure 1.!19 Polansa11on ofS "mes Thc pamdc mo!JOn r>t thc S wa-c 1S 1n d p]ane p pcrpendtcular to
!he directon ofpropagatton. Th~ particlc mot10n can be further spl1t '""' two componcnts, une hmtonlal,
theSH\dve,alldoneertical,!heSV"a"~
can be decomposcd mto oue tomponcnt parallel to the local wavefrout prupagatwn
dnecnon and onc (Omponenr normal to 11, 1 e tangential to the wa\efi"ollf Due to
the decouphng mennoned, the parallcl component devclup'> mto a 1'-wave propagatJOn mdept>ndent of the normal componenl, whtch wt\1 evo]vt> mto an accompanymg S-wave prop<~gauon A., we have seen, ea.: h \\ave-tvpe wtll posscss JL~ owu propagatwn \elocny. wtth the 1'-\\aves propagatmg approxunately mue as fa.,t as the S\\ aves. A p.lrtide posttJoned ~uftincntly f<tr from the source \\tll thercfore see pa~s, a
Pnmary ('P') \\ave, 1ts polan~atton parallel to propaganon dtrecnon, follcMed by a
Secondary (hen(e 'S' wave, wnh a polansanon normal to tl'> dtre(tJOn of propaga-
SH and SV Waves
As S-\\ ave polansanon O(CUrs wtthtn a pl<me normal to tts propag.nwn dtrecnon,
the poldnsanon vcctOI can be decomposed mto two mutually perpcndtcular dtrecltons (Ftgure l.09). lt ts usual to take these two projected dtrectwns to be wtt!Hn thr
hor11ontal and vrrtttal planes, the respectJve components m rhese mutually pt>rpenthc SH- :md S\'-wa\etrams
dicular direoiom being known
For an tsotroplC homogencous mednun, the S-wave propagatton velonty \Hll be
mdependent of polansatlon rhrcctton, the t\\0 (Omponcnts propagatmg rogerher m
thc une and the \ame wavetram Tlu~ w]\ howcvcr ce<L'>e to be thc case m amsotropK envtronments, where the two components wtll expt>nence a ptopagatton aL t..... o
dtfTcrent velocitie'> Thts lcads to tht> phenomcnon of 5-Wa\T birefringence or 1hr>ar
lJ'II"Vf >PlittmR, a '>Ubject t.:tcklcd m a \ater '>t>(tlon
26
hut ahrwe al\ for lnstoncal reasons lmked to the tan that unnl
the
and
m 2-D, 1f lS ofkn the '>o-callcd '2-D vnswu' of the wave equauun
l he 2-D Mmphllcdtlon cmployed <L'>'>Uille\ a \ery p<~rtlcular ca'>e, namcly that
the edrlh ~how., no vananon m the dtrectwn normal to tht> '>t>~mlc lint>,
thc .,ource 1s a \me,
cvlmd!lca\ fa~hwn, and about a hor11ontal ax1s
lll!'i]
miti<1l condition 1s
27
Solutton of the lull VeCIOI wavc equat1on lll a homogencou'> mcdtum shows that the
Jolart~dtiOll around the \\dvefront v.dl be locally co-tuudent wnh propagauon dtrccmtrotion, namdr, normal to the v.avefront Tlw samc axial ei<L'>f con'>tant
duced 111 Ftgure [ 03 fm
wtll be vahd m tlm 7onc
the
dcflnnwn of the 1Jrtulai
propdgat1on \elonty \'r, thc a~~umptwn of lSOtropy
unplrmg a con~t<Ull \'alue for thl\ pardmctcr J.]ong thc lcngth of thc wavefrom 11'rc.,pectlvC of the angle at v.hu h the propagauon O((UI'S
teum3-Da.,
28
thc 1mp.tcf of fimlt> duratmn wavelets, the Jyn.tnuc vananon, de~put> tht> t>Xl~temt>
ofan eqwvalent equation from high lrequency theOI)', known a~ rhe uampOTt t>quanon
Soluton of equanon [1 I6]m a homogt>nt>ous med1um lt>atls to tl1e fact tll<lt
wavt>fronts at time tare sphercs (or urcles lll the 2-D case) of radlu'> r '>uch that r =
y t, hul Wlll not Lellus anythmg about the amphtudt> ol Lhe waveficld
There exsts a number ol JfferenllatH>n rules for a limctwn W1thm the Founer
doma.Jn
~p(x,y,,,t)~~P(k,k,,k,,ro)
a::(x.y,z,t)~jk, L1P(k,,ky,k,,w)
a~ Llp
~~
"
~-(x,y,z,t)~-k: AP(k,,ky,k,,w)
[llSJ
etc.
\\hercj = V-1, and k., k,, k, and w are the Founer pars ofx, \', z and t respccnvcly
m the Founcr domdlll
A Fomter translorm Lan then be (arrwd out on tht> \\ave equatwn [l 14] to obta1n
lt'> eqUI\alent expre~~wn m 1he Founer domam
[1 19]
Lo note thar tlu~ formula 1~ denved
1 e the vdocuy tenn \' ~ mdependt>tll ol
propagated wavefield ll.p(x, 1., t) we art> mkrt>~ted m 1'> non-7ero, we can
dedwe li-om tlu~ rclatwn dunng propaganon that the follo\Hilg expre~ston (haratten.,es propag,Uion
V =o
'("')'
k,+k,+k;'
'
[120)
29
Propagation modelling
se1smie 1magmg methods solve the problem of bad<Cdlculauon of the wave!ield for a gJVen re(ord al a previom
momem m nme Tlu~ partK ula1 1oncept, 1rlttca\ ro the u\ ea~ devcloped m the book,
W11i be mtro1luced lm>anl the en1l oflhe chapler
fnvpagallnn, 1 e
o'AP(t)
, ( ,
')
[1211
~olutwns
of the form.
The dspenwu relanon once dg,un pop~ out uaturally ~-quauon [\ 2:!] leads us
dJrectly lo the '>olunon of our pwblem, a~ Jt allow~ m 10 Ie-(akulare tlw wavetlcld at
lllStant t + dt ba~ed on the wa,eficld at mstdllt t, '>lmplr b1 an clemelllal~" tenn-byrerm 1omplex number multipl11ation m dw Fourier domam
Figure l 1 [ \lustrales thl'>, us111g the lechnuue ro descnbe a 2-D plane Wdve
propaga non In rhs examplc, thc m~tantaneoth ~gnal at time t 1'> Lelo e\el)where
ex(ept along the pi<U1e \\ave of rhp
1he s1gnal bemg lnnHed m frequencr band\Hdth (Figure l ll-a) "111e plane
Founer transfonn IS
30
{b)Phase<l>,ofAP,(k,,k,)
(amplitude not sbon)
(c)<l>=Phaseofthe
'pba~e shift operalor'
_
-
(d)Pbase<l>...,,ofsnspshot
Al' ...,,(k,,kJ al time t+dt:
7Cro cverywherc cxct>pt along the k, 1 k, = d1. 1 dx = tan(fl) axis, th1~ bemg one of
thc prowrne~ of aplane \\ave\ tianslmm i\long tlm ax1~, the amphtude depends
ou thc '>pntral (Ontent of the '>lgnal, f tht> ~1gnal ~~ 'ero-phase', tht>n the phasc
along the axis w11l be !mear (as a~~umcd m Figure 1 11-h for '>lmplluty, although an
llllllt>CeSs.ll)
To rakulate
\\avdicld (~nap~!JOt) at time t+dt, we '>nnply necd to applv
r1 22], wluch .!mouuts to a term-hy-tt>rm complex number multlplH anon of thc
tmagt> .l'(k" k, L) vnth opcrator
31
~everal
r1 ~Hl
comrdnt In the ~peufic ca~e of F1gure
the '>pectrum rem<1mmg non-7ero
a plane wave propln tenm of phase,
pha'>e-~hlft operaror ans hnearlv,
a transL1t10n \Vorkmg through the equatranslatwu has components dz =
1 e a paralld plane wave propagauon equal ro
k, k,
,,
/;
methorls
pha~e-sluft operdtor ha'> heen mtmdmed above m order ro propagare a
wave from one mstant m time t, to <llorher t, In Chapter
meet <llolher
pha~e-.,Juft operator unhsed m ~e1smK nn.gmg,
wluch perm1ts a propag<~llon from one measurement surface z, to another z,
32
equJ.tJolll~
In the >mpled wurld, dJtfelentJi equ,muns becume jimtr diffnrntl' equulwm, the
term lendmg 1ts name to the numemus modelhng too\<; and IIHgratJOn tedm1<ues
w1th whJCh Chapter 6 dea\s he name come~ lmm the approxJmJ.tion ol denvatives
\l';mg drlference<, Fur 1n~tJ.nLe, the tnne denvJ.tl\T of the wa\eliclrl can be appmnmated b} the lullowug d1fference fouuuL1
[1251
dt
In ~uch numencal ;cheme,. ll JS e~sentJJ.! to en~ure the denvalne"s value ,, uken m
the centrr o/ the ;amphng llltei~al, here (t,.,+t.)/2, m order thJ.t the numencJ
scheme ts 'centred'
Stm\ar\y, appruxnnate denvatJVe> can he estm1ated \\"Jth JT~pe< t tu depth vanable 7, htgher-otder dettvatlves esttmated stmp\y hy J.pplpng- the \ame scheme 'ever,t\ time\, e g
[1 261
Puttmg. b=
Vd:~
[1 2Vj
'1"1
Lhe term at unte t,"' and depth 1 appe.lr~ m the '<heme a; ,1 hnear omblllatton of
tenm m tnne r, .md t,,. and 1n depth z , 71 and z _, J hh ts shown on the dtagram tn
hgure 1 12 Lhe we1ghung m tbe hnea1 combmatton depends un a p<trmeter b,
~----~---~---..
(21
d"'"'gomgv,avc
"'
\ dl---, h-
lh!"ll dependenr on rhc ><~mplm..; mtcrvJ.b dl ;md dt, and ahovc all, t!H" ]o( J.! propag<lt!Oll velouty Y at depth /
a., ohown n
\Ve CJ.n nuw numenrall} ;uuulatc the souHc
F1gure 1.13 ln mdeJ to <;Jmphh thc ;kct!h,
to rc,J!J;e what thcmrtialumdilwm di<'
ofthl" matn:x.
the (am<~ht\ pnnuple <,ltpulate' lhat the\\il.\dield 10 7ero lo t < O,
Fm.tlly, thdt !he 'uh<,urL1cc 1~ ,Jt rc;t befmc thc emJ~~Ion ol the <,Jgnal, 1 e no
nther ;omLe~ are present, Illl"alHng the frsl column r, W!ll helero
thc op!"J,Hor cm no\\ be apphed tu thc<,e mJtldl IODdJtJons to JalcuLltc rolumn t,.
slartmg fnm1 thc lirst lO\\ and
downward> Colmnn; t 1 <~nd t, .tre then
u;cJ tu unnputc 1 ulumn t"
depth <tnd time lnmt~ rhosen
As a Iesult, \\t' ob,enr lhat at c,J!h depth we find thc ~1gnal und!<,lorted, but
fh1~ denwnstr,Jtc~ the cor-
be sampled
,Jl
dJtfeJcnt tllne;.
35
tJon. "lo ~lmplil) the Sltuauon, we ,Ilso suppo.o,ed the medtum above thc ;ource possc%ed the ;ame pmperttes a~ that hdm>. In practtce though, we nced to be a great
deal ll!OJT caJ"C"Iul and pren;c when defimng a sourcc ,ICting upun a half-space, a
<omment wc madc abo lor the analytiCal ;ulutJon, tht~ though gnes be}ond the mm
ofth1' boo.k.
A stcp-h)'-Step mtegrJ.tlon of
heterugcncous fot thts ID mcdmm Lase) can thetefurc
Vau.ltlOns 10 the prupagatJOn veluCIlie> an" now represented by a \'tlOC!l"j. tUncnon of depth V(1), or, mure prensely, hy
a 'ampled funlllll \.(1) C.hangc~ tn \"(L,) however must remam such that they are
comp . Itible 1\Hh the ;ve uf d1 thmen, lo en~ure. un the une hand, the numencal
o.~ heme rcmams ~table, ,Ind on tht" orher, that 1( remams suffinentlv a<nnate
ngKI, te.
rn otder toJo th1~, a new boundary cunditwn
thl~ bcmg
that the wavcfteld !S Lero helow dcpth z, Apphcation oftht<, hmmda11' <onditon to
om prevwus numencal 'lhcmc ts ,bown m Figure 1 14 From tum" 1;, onwa1ds,
although Luntmuing tu appl} thc same numcncal schcmc. thc wavdidd bctomes
36
created
From l-D to 2-D and 3-D
~~ a vectm \, In
Ill<ttn:xrcspetltveh
1t l\
lo note that In helerugeneou~ multt-duuensmnal medi<i. waves
as rcllected lf reir al ti un cannut be addres~ed 111 the ~unple 11) t<l~e aUme. 11 ~~ ho\1ever <1 uunal ph}.,llal phenumenun, un whtch "T come back
late!. ReladtoJJ ~~ 11elltakcn .~ccuunt ol in fmne diiTeierKe mudelhng 11l 2- <tnd 3D, <llthuugh tlm, 1'> not demon~tr.ted here
37
puttmg a
J~olatmg
the (1 + 1) dcpth
=V~ , it comes :
[130]
ge11eratmg a rdkcton
So fat~ as wt"
ha ve not tackkJ thc <,u~c< t of rdiacuon, a phenomenon
p1edictcd by wave equatmn lllle[p-auon Th1o is hccau~e our dt~Cus;JOn has heen
hnmcd lo thc 1-D wavc equ.llHlll, fmt we ~hall no" 1ook al thJ> phcnomenon fmm
anolheJ \antagc-pomt. thruugh the lOIKept., uf <~'m'rfwnfl and 111") tl!ron
a!~o
vcfrontat
Q
"avefmn
(b)Heterogencousmcdium
rhe snapshot at time t of the wa\efield created hy an Impulse ~ourcc 'Ignature correspondmg- tu a DmK tin\( tJoll, a sign,tl uf infimtemal duratiun, vet fimtc cnergy
As wc h<tV<' ,een, we Cdll sunu!J.te the prupagatlun, t.e find the wa\efidd ar tune
+dL by Jntegratmg thc \\,tve equatmn, takmg thi, <,napshot as the Jlltt!al ondttlon
Tht~ 1', exanh what wt" dtd for the plan e wave m the pre\mu.-. pa.tagraph, m alcnlatmg the J+ l" column uf matn:x p,, ba~ed 011 the ]'" column
to derive the wavefmnt ts lo apply
~lmtdate eb~ttc wmc prop<tgdtmn
1'
39
111 Hs pd;>age ,H roso; the mednuu, the more r,tptd\y the urde radn wtll dt~place latetall} J.nd the >maller thc dt value> shuuld Ue Ome agam, accurdmg to the pnnCJple uf;uperposnwn, the w.wefnmt at lll,IJ.nt t+dtwtll Ue the en\elopc ol these mdtvtrlual cm les Dueto
\illl,Jttons thuugh, tht~ new wa\efrunt wtll no be
patallel tu that ol thc
1\avefront, thc valldtlOD; m \clocty gradually
ddonn the wavcfnmt.
thc wmelrunt Cdn he pmpheterogeneow, medmm hnm th mltlalutstant of emtsstun at the
soune, ,Jt t"" O, unttl any mst;ml t, and enecttvdy rcpresenh .m cqmv<llcnt uf rhe
mtegt,mon of the w,tve equdtJOD, or more preu~elv the EtkonJ.l equatiun. bell.'>'een
Jn\lant 7eru and thc n,t<tnt t
tu
path PQ t> hence the path lo\lowed hy the elaslic
enc110 tium W<t\elrunt t tu wa,efmnt t+dt dunng !he prupagatJOn In addttwn, l'Q
hes by con,lructiun of thc en,elupe, perpendicular 10 the wmefront t+dl 1he euerpath Frum
tu
rav ts at
the wavdrunt. "'h!Ch cun,tttutes a ;econd ddim-
40
<m8
\\'e suppo><' tbat W!" dre mterested 111 a lucally plane Wdvdrunl Jlludent u pon a \e!oc!ty conlla't thdt Js ahu IO!all} plan,Jr Appl}mg lluygen.-.' l'nnnple to each med1um,
and as~ummg tnntllllllt\ of part1de motlon acros-, the mterface, we can casdy show
th3t the w<lvehnnt nmalll> pl.mar on both .-.Jde> uf
The w,JVefronl will not ha\ e the ~ame prupagatmn Juecuon 1n
due
to thc change lll velucnic~ preselll Takmg the wavefront atllJSiillll t and !he m,,Jnt
t+dt, the dJ<,IJJ](e betwccn the twowd\dfont~ 1nll be represellled h) V,dt and \", dt
J1"<,peCU\Tl} m tiH" 11\o 1ones (,1pplymg the rules of prupagaliun na homogeneou~
mednnn Jefined ahovc) Usmg the geometncal relauon;lup between thc lwo trMn1 IG, we ubtam thc ~-ll \el"S!oll uf Snell\ L<~"
sm8 1
smO,
VI
V,
-~---
=p
[l
~lll
to
the 1eloCJtY gradJCnt veltor VV(x, > 1) tiMt thar<~.Ctenscs the local ch<~.nge m veloCJt} In the cla<,~Jcal case of ,1 p!dnar mterfate helween
twu med1a uf Jffercnt 1docl\ (a.-. ID hgurc 1 lfj fur mstantc). VV , collincar tu the
normalnto thc 1111edace
stale~ lhat the <,]mnw~> 1 ectoro; u, and u, uf rhc mudcnt
thc
41
re;pecmTh, ,!'; wcll a; VV, are J.l!tn the s;mc plane Mmeo~e1; n ~l.ltc~ that the procrtton uf the ;luwnes~ \t'Ltor un the plane nurmalto n wrll be lon;Unt The lirst
conrlitron meam thal there 1~ a scal.rr a ;uch 1hat
U
=u,+
dO
[1 32]
= ton~t,rnt
[1 33J
1;
r--~---;
a=~V[-"Y!~(u,
n)"-u 1 n
[1:14J
mcthods are knuwn a~ ICIUI\Wf mrthod' and allow the ~olutron uf the Lwo followrng
prop,rg;rtton problem~
knowrng the W<11efreld
z, t) evervwhcrc at trmc t, 111 ordtt to frnd the
W<llefieldattrmrt~dt
1 llurl 15),
F, t) a~ funcuon uf tune dl depth Fn. l]ndmg the
tllnc al depth 7+dF (Frgure 1.13)
\\h,tt we need ts a too! whrch allowo; us to Lakulate drrectlv the value ol the w;vefield
medtum
,lgdtton ]llol>lern we \ldnllo <,uhe, can be Sl<tted as
""Knowing the wa\efielda<, ,r funrtion uf tllne over a (clo~ed) ~udatc ~. we tan
t1nd thc \ld\efield ~p(x,,, Zw 1) dS a tilnctton uf tune at J.ny gtven pnml M wtthrn thrs
;urfI.Le"'
l ht' may ~ound lrke .t strange problem to addre;;, but as IV!' shJ.ll see latcr 111 the
't'llJOD, and agarn m Chaplcr 3, tlus ,rn be med 10 great efferl wHhrn M't~mrt tmag-
an ,ubitr.IrJ
,m effet tlldy he r-eon'>trurted ifwe kl101\ the \\<tlcfield mTr surfatt L un!} lt goes
bc\(md the su>pc ol tl1e book to denmn<,uatc thr' lheory, for whrlh a theureucal
42
(a)Gencralca>e
to~ei~mic
data
\llfll
p(Jnenll Ot'eriiii'.IUrjulfi
f li-b gl\<''>
ro how rhey llld\' be u~ed
~e!SintC wo1k,
tbc 1<<11t>hdd J.l the surfa(c. hut we need lo kno" u e1en-where below 11
lo hllild tht> ":."t~nuc 1\ll,tge, a-. wc 11 ill set m Chaprer 3 Thc natural. ~t>i~nuc pmces~or's choict> lor X,., thcn lo 1111 ludt> tht> record1ng suriacc and
a >urface
snlfiuemh Ln aw;n
43
s1dered (F1guie 1 17-b). In tlu~ way, the Kmhhoffmteg1al (,tn lx u~cd 10 esnmate
the wavefield m depih Jiom thc mea su red w,vef1elri ,tr rhc smlacc Jf the sur!ace 16
flaL, another henefit IS denved, 111 rhat onl} une of thc m o componcnts o! the 'nrlual somces' 1s necessary, wh1ch lS a goud Llnng smce wc gene rally only rcconl one
uf thc "1\a\eficld components'
beforc IL h.1~ l"edched rhe ~urla< e 1~ one \\/ay of back-j;ropa.ro wh1ch \~e deriiC.lte rhe next sectiOn
Back-propagation
Ba<k-nopag..JtiOn san 1dea paruculady nnportant to SCISilliC nnagmg \Ve have
already ~t>cn H apphed ro a numcrica\ntq.;-nltion sd1emc f{r rhe wa\c equatwn.
\fhen \~e "1\ant ro rcconsrruct thc cnnrc W<l\efielcl"s h1stor~ pnor ro 1L~ dercnwn, JI
e1uhles m Lo 'go b,ICk m propag,uwn time' in onle1 ro fmd rhe sLale ofLhe wavefidd
bdore 11 was first re< OHkd, enher ,,m c.1rher sLage, a ddl"t>rent posltiOll, or borh.
F1gure~ 1.15-a ami h show the local Huygcns soun.cs a.~ ddincd solcly enlltlmg
do\~11\~'.IHh re~nlung 111 a prop.tganon that Lakc~ place dowm>aids m t]l( Ji1gures.
The solnnon to rhc ha< k-propagauon prohkm JS to finri thc wa\efronL ar t, knowmg
Lhe \~a\t>lfont , t + dt Figure 1 18 sugge~ts that we can do Il using exaCLI} the samc
conceph of Virtual ~0\ilces, 1h\e d"umc llO"I\ tlMt tlwse sourccs are acLmg npwards,
and 1fwe <hangc the ~1gn of tm1c ,-, wc wonld do by plaving a ITIO\!e 111 renTst>l
For msran< e, pomr Pon Figure 1 15-b 1s , cJ-,unu V dt h-om Lhe correspomhng
pom1 Q. StanmgfnJm Q, Pv.'lllthereforc he on , CJrclcofradms \', dtand thcwavefronr at mstanr t w1ll he rhc l'nvclow of al! circle'> corrc~ponding LO pomrs Q on Lhe
\~,ndront at n-,unt 1 In the same w,l} wcwerc abk Lo follow tht" prop,ganngwa\efront along the rayparh as, functiOn of l\ll!e, we can snrnL1rly back-prop.1gare 'back
lll Lnne' ,]ong tlw same raypaLh
Note the paruculdf ~ymmctrv rhat wc w11l
propagdnon of , "1\,t\e ,]ong .1 particular <hrccuon as ,
ol t1me and rhc
back-propagatJOll "b,H kwanh m Lnnc' lll
apphe-, ..~~ "1\-ell ro rapas ro the Kucl1hofl
phase--,hJfr methods
Wovofr~nlolnm~
='
-;
44
Wonr...,ntatbmot+dl
Q'
--
45
Reflection coefficients
\Vhcn d v.a1e mccts a heterug-cnetty, m thc foun lor nstJ.nce of an acoust~r
mpcdance grad1clll VAl(x, "E) parallello m propaganon dm~tnon (Figure 1 19),
, Iefle<t!On ., pmdu1ed lcadmg ro a morllficallml 1n thc '1\avc'~ amplJtudc Th1s VI ave
propcrucs, n ts trru!lwill continuc lo U a\ el \\llhm the mcdmm
of the transmitted
The r.ll\0 of lhc rcnccted w.wc ,unphtude., tn thosc of thc lllCJdenl w.1vcs 1., gtven
wh1ch rc~ult fromthc mtegrat10n ofthc wave
1' J.!ld ~-1\il\CS at nounalmculenu (1 e propagaof elastH paranwteJ ch,ngc>). thq J.!'e gl\Tll by
~~
[1:\.'j
that of Ftgurc 1 J 9
smfl
46
the
--~
For a P-wavc JllCidcnt
R,(S)~R,()+G <m'(9)
[1 :llij
In thl' formuld
R,(e) ~ the cflectloll <Oefflol'nl ior a l'-'1\a\c .11 lnudcnce O, 1\here O 1; thc
average ot thc angle~ ofpro.Mgatwn 111 .wnes 1 .tnd 2,
Rr(O) tht" normal rt'fkctwn <ocUincnt gl\t"ll by rel,momlup [1 :I;J,
(_, ~~,linear par.unell'f dcpcndcnt on R (0),
densJLJes p,
and 1\m~on ratm o (o altc1 n,nnel}. S-1\d\t> yeJocities \') 1or
of the two
Lones ('>eC Ftgure 1 19)
'\(01, oflen -.m pi) denored R" IS aho l..nown as the mtnapt, as Jll'> cstunatcd by hnear JegressHJJJ Mth re, pe! r
= -.m (Ct) m cqnatwn [1 ~Wl lor snml.tr
rt>.tson-.. (7 1~ ,]so known a~
Snell', L111, prt"scnted abo1c fo1 l'-1\ave~, 1,10 be l'Xtemk!l Lo rdle!L!OH amlmode
1onven10n, .md !S ]]n~trated 111 Ji1gurc 1 20 Fn.,lly, .t slowness vector 1'> ddined rhat
ha~ a modulu> equal to Lhc propag-.won -.lowrw~s (1nverse of 1doClLJ) ,md ,1 rhre<twn co-lmcai ro the '\\a\ e chrcuwn Sndl\ l,w ~tdtc~ thaL rhe projection of the ~lowthe Interface !lt"tinmg tllf" lo!. pJ.n,n
stanl (m
1alue) f-or boLh Lhe rdleued and
P and ~-\la\ es lt
doc-. hOIICVCr ch,mg-c '>Jgn 1m thf" reflt"Ctt"d '1\a\t'> 11 thu~ <dll be 1\rilten
sinEIP_c.-~
V)'
smR,
v.,
r:_fl_=1
~~=-p
VI
Si~'r'ccfr=.~lll~~,"'tr_= ~\"'"=p
Hetc, 0,,. and V, <lit" thf" .tngle and
whetht"r P or ...,, H, 1'> the 1~1leuion oi
P..J.r.imcte p, h1ch 1S tonsLtnt
the
descnbcri ,md, along 111lh tht abmc
mentiont"d
[J:I7J
47
trlbunonot
1
llulewaw9
... 1(9)
-_.7-~~"ovo6att
'(O)V0..,il
(a)lsotropicmcd1um
48
(b)Anisotrorucmcdiurn
I(O)V,.,,.r
--
an le ofint 1dcncc 8 At m-.tant t, Cdl h planc w,tve w1ll have travdkd a' dht,JnU' 1 =
g (SIl rh 1 ~ 1kfine'> rhc phasc \clouty lorus IT, as ,110wn m ~lf,'llit l 21-b
v A~ Jo,r the
rhe emelupc r or rhese planc \,ave; di rh1~
in~tant 1 rtefine'
. ''
1 hls g-eo,mett!C.!IIO(W
WJU,
in arusotJOpK med1a,
ri1HerenL w rhat of locu' n
Wavdront en\ dope r ts rhe
Wlll ~um 1nn'>lr1Kli\Tly An observer pi.Kcd at poml (, m
a parttclt" monon foi nmt" t, and a-. he kno"~ thc crwr(y hJ.s bccn emmcd hum_ S.
hewlll deduce tl1al rhe Cllt>f!{\' lus Lr,ncllell along rayparh ~G. ,Jnd aran ang-le 'Jl \'llh
the vertiC.tl hl', ,ngle JS known ,s
IL ts thc ,tppan~nt anglc of the
etJe:u
aL(_, c,lll
vclunt\' of thc t>ncrgy wtll be SG/t, th1s vcloury 1~ thc group efout; Y,~"""" lt \anes wtth
pu-.ition (, and tht" _group .tngle <l 1 .tch pomL G on lotus f of- Figure l 21-b will p'>~es'> a Langent, 1\lilth b~ construcnon.
Lo the pLtnc wa1e ~>hHh contnbutc~ consliucuvdy ro the cncrzy ,L (~. So,
a p;roup angle <P ,uul tb
vclocm.- \'," ""(<Jl) rht>re 1>1ll CXI~t ,
ang-le H .md
[138]
\.-loteover, tite ob.,ervel .tr C wdl I't"I'Onl a p.tlncle monon m 'PJ.Ce, 01 polan~.tLmn,
wlltdtt'> thc 1edor >um of Lhc comnhutwn from J.li tht> plJ.ne ~~.we~, ver tlm polart~aLion will he ne1thc1 pcrpendJCu!.tr ro the wa;chum, nor ro the plane phase wa1c
For Llns rcJ.'>Oll, thewa;c !S noL sLrutl a comple~swn.tl P-w.t1e ,-, we h.t\t" ddined 11
up unulnol'. It 1'> rdcrrcd tu con.,equcnrh as a quo11-P or ql'-1mve
A., lll Lhc l~otlopic t<lse, Lhe traJt>l"tory .t!ong wlu<.h rht> energy
(,m Jit~ure 1 21-b or 1 22. 1~ knm>n as rhe Ja~
~h01~s.
the
luthe
of.t ~1\Cll tJ.y,
not
and 6'T011p 1dont1e~ A ,y rraong m an .tmsotiopK mt>dmm shuuld thett>fore '>llllUIr.aneousl} l't"'>JJt><t t"<]Uari<Hl'> [1 3il i<H phJ.se an~\cs aml 1clo<1LtCS.tlld [1 38] for rayp.nh T\1( pha>t> dncct1on ts g11cn by ~ne\1\ Law as a Jun<.Lwn orlo< al ph.t>c ,e\onty
\anatons, 1-1hihr tht" pwp.tg.ttton d!re<.L!On ofLhc cnctgy along the raypath ts gtvcn
b} Lhc rdatlonshtp bct\1een rhc pha~e 1hreclloll and Lhe group direnion Thc med1~-~~15_ rl.tcrt"fm"t" de<;< nbcd 111 rerms of rhe ph.1se >doCtL} and ns 1elouL} , deitvatl\c
\\~cspctt Lo the propagatwn anglt>
\'
; <On<ludc t_hc ch.tptct b} nonng rh.tt d pl.me ~A ave 11\lh an
,,.,.( ), In 1ll <~nl'>otrop!t homogt>neou'> me<hum <oTrespond, 10
49
Anisotropchnmngeneoumcdium
donLllll Lo, .'>tr,ughtilllt" dcfined h~ .,]ope k, 1 k,= tan(8), a., nnhcated m F1g-u1e l.ll
Foi ..tn ansorropK l10mogcneous mcrlium, dsperMOn rt"lanon [1 20] hecumes
50
--
Sel~no]ogy,
Lhcon anrl
method~. WJ-1
~el-.n:ll :VIigr,ton
(~eophy-.(.11
Data
PIO(e~.,mg
,\l((;raw-H/1
Oxfo!Tl.
Helbig K Fuund,JliOil' uf
Geophys1cal }.xplorJ.non, Se( non
HJ (1968, 199:1) Tl1e Ph~s1cs
~CIMillC
Pain
BogmnRfi!;r\
~CJsmology
m I'clroleum
/i;lln
A.nemuLiun .\JrGwu'-
<l5oh-,etTatwnot geologK<li
outcrops, wdllog me..t;tn-cnwnt-,, tOle' 01 thm st>ctJon., \'>'tll te<.,tfv
wf1uenong ela,uc wmo:' are the medmm's den~1t and the 21
mednml..
tned1a mt> known as tlfectr,Jf' mtdw
In Se!S!luc
for lll'.tam o:, we often spo:ak of "tho: velootr' of a _;Jt>n
ge~logKallaro:t
tlus rcprc~enh an mlenul efoul'
~
d~tu~e shonly). vdJI( h
or l1e to relate the ]a\CI \ thJCkn~s' lo
waves,cruca\
Tht~
d~
Hcncc allmformation must he sama\v detall \Olllt> ot thc ll!t'lhOfb that allow
rnodeb
U\
tu
SChlllC ~dodtr
expl01atmn,
~1ncc
~<'ISillic
111
Hgure
o{ the pmndc
\\"e hetHe Ieft'r toa hm/mK ot thc wavcfront,
kngth of thc snsmJC wa\e ,
out thc ~mall-scalc hcterogenc1t~ and only
cffC(_ti\'Ch
d1~t<mce tr;Ivell~d
V,"=
tmvelnme
l'! IJ
54
km
(a)
("hcck~hnt
SUfVC)
~:mm
e=_. '-:;t~
\',.=.1-z/At
\C)l.ah meaurcment
(d)Thinectmn
55
d1stanct> (d k\'>' deCI-mett>I~) compdit>rl to the SCI'>IlliC Wdvekngth thdt 1t ldll be considt'It>d local or uJslamant>ous. He w1ll therefort> unde1 thes<' t ln1llll5tames conMder that tht> ~onu log offt>1~ d mea;urrmrot of ms/antanf0/15
'fint>ly' samplcd at the Jele\dllt ;amphng 1<1te olthc too!
~lit h an m~tantanco11s vdonty functwn though ' fm too dctmled lor the maymry
o{ ~ltlldtiOll~ 1eguLnl~ encountered 1n 'el'>lllll explordtiOn Ont> Mllh 'ltudlmn would
~~p-1mling
problem 1~ the veidge. De~ pite bemg fiequently u~t>d, 1t ~t1ll has dra,..backs and we
w]) comi<Ier late! otht"I a\eragmg tehmques, m partuularly mot-mcan-S<]Uare
<1\Cr.tging
fhe nner'>t> noblem ha' also to be con;Jcrcd. lldmelr that of dt>tomposmg
large-5cak meastuementmei ..tmarm-la,er
mg, 1e rhe tUmm-.II!!I!f{ problt"m l"h-, onu1~ for m<.,tance whcn wt> UJ to
Inlt"n,l 1eloutw' 10m ~lackmg velouue~. <IS Wt' ~t't> below and n Chapte1 8.
Up- and do ... n-~t ahng are idea<., we \\IIl now dcvclop further
}OJ
e-, Jt known and Jnfinitt"-,irnal. d'> mentioned em!in \Vh,t tht" son1(_ too! actually
measure~
T,
56
r ~,~,:z)
[2 3]
<=(
r:!4J
, v'""(L)
Jt comlllute~ rhc
and Vdid for
V 10 tcrmed the
1\htle Lhc tern1
re~,~~~ fm d \elouty meaS!Ired bet;\een
\5 not atwdV' torrt< dy u~t>d lt
57
-.
Tht' timt'-dt'pth fuoc11on c;m bt' rt'pre~eoted m tht' form of a t..tble, sprcddsheet or
gntph, or bv an appmxim.Hed amtlytiLal fllnction, ohen a polynomial. ;Js "e will see
m lakr serlu.ms Verltntl tnuc T(t) <lnd a\'t'Jdge \elonty lrom the smface a~ a functwn ol depth are dltt'rtMttvt' vt'rsion ol the ltJrmulao ahove
[2.51
r2
T(z)="I;+
r~
, v,n,,(~)
['!fij
Expe11enLe 'how5 dldt the mtcgrated 'olll< gi\C' lUnes VlhJ<h ..ti1.' u5u<tll~ lower than
tho'e piOvJded hv tho: ched.,hot method The diiTert>nce between rhest> values 1s
<alled the
dnfi awl 1' kno>~ll lo be <duscd b\ a numbe1 of phenomt>na, mdudmg
dtlTerenlo: bet\''t'en tht' reundmg {rt'qUt'ncy u,cd 1ll the checbhot ~urvey
th..tt m the 'otile too!,
g 'cycle skips.
,ubsmface ho:terogeneJties aL~;uent to the
mvaMon o! <ldyut'nt formauom by d1 1Jmg mud mound wcll (<tffectmg mvestJgatmn depth o!- tht' 'omL), etl
Gt>ophy.,iosts <onst\e thc che<J....,]mt '>uner
58
[271
..........-
::i!~~~~:;J:Jg.ttwn
timo:
10
llll<'llllS
of
figure 2 04 Jlustlates a spe(II!C ~~~uo: 1'1\th th1; protedure fhe tmie-domdm ~og
wdl bo: '-omputcd along a Iegulmly sampled tunc-;tale, l~p1cally IHlll a ~amplmg
rate JTof L 2 01 4 ms llus COlntant flillt' mtetT.tlm d rwlJ (Olle,mnd to ,n_mtcrval whtdl 1 ~ \JIdble though m depth fhe rnagrutudt> of tlns v.u-JatiOn, a functmn ol
he local 1 e]ot If) (anyv. herc bc~1TCll 1!lOO .md fi()()(Jm.,), WI!I be bdv.cen 3m
~nd12m for a t\\0-1\ay ume d rol 4m'>, Sllch an mtenal v.i\l ~ ontain betl\eo:n 20 and
BO son 1c Jog ,;unpie; It IS thereloro: ne'-e,s;ny to lrv ,md dehnt' an .wei.tge, or evcn
better an ellet U1e methum, to lwndk thi., ldil<ttlon A.nother exampic ol the nced
forup-stalmg 1
fypJCallv, 1\C comcil tho: mtegral formula l2 Sj mto a ~unumttton to t.Jke dctount of
the discretc nature of thc
'>OHK
log
59
Somcdl
Somcdt
F1nallv. 01~ a 'ep<lr<ltt' t>xcn !St', \\C <;m extend tht> conct>pt ol the tn;tdnlaneous \elocJtles a' a hmt 1100 ofttnw to !Ott>nal veloutw., bt>twt>eo vertu al tnnc~ T, and T,
60
f210]
seiSlTIJC
t'qual
?Jscus~ed
of d\t'ragc 1elocity
used It >hould he
mcuge 1dout) meastned w1th v.ello, but for ~cveral pradiCa! reasom
m Lhaptcr M, th1~ JS oftt'n not tht' cdSC 1t penlllb hov.ever a qutck, albt'It
lffipreuse (l'lt' >hall ~ce v. hv ldter) depth c-.tinutc b.1sed on the tunes pwked on thc
the wcll-to-sn~rmc tJc IS sansL1cton.
setsmtr sectwn,
trivial
tlll!t'
\anoll~
lhcn 1etnros to be
ot Figurt> 2 06,
[2111
\CJtlcal mueT
a.nd
~nmlarlr
1~
lor V,
[2 1 ~: l
1 he lonnula oflt'n rerened toa; thr Drx Fowll(/a 11 u 1rcrmd o1do ntnnutmn ofthrrquaI!On alww
62
For a mo<kl of N hor!lontal ,md Jomogt>neom layt>J~ w_Jth ,c]m 1t1e~', tbe l!ltegz"<dbased gt>uer.zl dt>Jimuons ollhe a~t>rage amilllb \'t>lontJe~ <Jt tnne l become >umrnauons
v,<1t,
v~~t,
[';!l:j
Relauoushlp [';! 15] ddine> tlw I1TI5 vdoc1t~ fwm the ~urface
f
v;,,(t)d;
Vrrns_l-o:r-~-'
T -l
'
[';! 16]
'
[';!1/j
th,lf hotb Y,, and Y,, are mdept>ndt>nt of the 01der lil wlucJ
63
F:r::!i.~~x~o~'::~ 1 ~::r:g::u~1:;:a;:::~~~7f~~~e:~o:;~:~
r:uvthe";!00:
figure, bul note tlu: changes in the V..,, and V"" formulae, where \ayer average velocities are now
"""'"""
The Inverse Dix formula: the down-scaling relation
J
Defimtmns [2 17] above also allow us to \:dckle the downscahng problem. ~
from Illduo-layers clown to finer Layers
Suppose we know the average and rms velocities hom the surface to nmes T, an;t
'1, we can denve the respective average and nns veloclties for the mterval [f,-TJ.J
The breakdown mto the layers ts pedormed as follow~
'
~cale-change
v... r,
T,
T2 V"'"(T;)=~1 V"',.(T)
' '
(218]
These are formulas whuh are regularly usf'd lo e~tablish a m1gratwn veloc:j model M
hme-to-depth convenwru studies Application of the second equauon leads however
S)~temauc enors \\hen .tpphed dtreclly toa time depth conversmn, as they don
take mto account dtfferenl.e~ between the ave1age and rms velocities when the la
IS not perfeccly homogeneous Thts ts an tssue we shall ratse agam tn Chapters
and 8
~an be- ddint>d u>mg asole Mr,tnWlt>I for cadt LIHT- d ( o~l-dlcctt~t> sohmon ~tone whrlh renMnl' a gros~ ilp~roxm;~non In pra( t11 t>.
b hether liH' tJlllt>-lo-dcpth con,er~Ion or lor ~t>J,nm
Jt
~~ t!Jerc[nrc C'>'-t'lllLtl,
ro ((Jn~lrud an dfcc-
toan
gcologital rt>,thl
entvnn(l/Wril m 1!111
F;Just's L.tw
1!1!5 ~t'diOII
vclontJC~
llunng
~t>dllllt>nLlllOII, ~ompactlon
,ut> t->l,ttt>d,
lt>,tds lo ,m
mnt->,l~t>
m Io(k
~tlfTilt>~~
,md
'""""'-''"""""'''"'"'"'al!
tlw
lt>ads to
[2201
\ , , 1' tht>
,t
dt>plh
65
Sedimentotion +
Tedonic~
~--~~-~~""A_ _v_,_
LOp of the laye Agam, thcrc are man opnons to moddlmg bun,] t>fft>n.,. but the
lmea1 fun uon , the ,mpkst
and!
diff~~~7,~!d.i 1 1~~~:i<1~:c1~~~l~~t>d,
other
lhc t>ssentd
pomt ol t]JI, ~CltJOil zs to dr<tw tl1t> It>;Jdcr's a.ttt>ntion lo lht> difl(->rt>mc be meen coJ1l~
p.JctJOn aHd buna\, , coil(Cjlt wew1llnukt> ust> ofld.lt>I ou1n Ch,tptez 8 when wed~
m~ tnne-dcplh con\t>nlOn m detazl
'
66
Vm~(z) == v 0{1-f a
zl
v,..(z)==vne
~-
__l_+[__!_ ____I__Je-k'
Vm, 1
Vo
Polynomialfunction
3 paramelen
f2 22]
Chiarelli-SerraLaw
2pmamelm
[2231
BeaufortLaw
'lprnrmwffl,
[224]
2 purrmwln1
[2 25]
V"'"'
These functlOil' enable u~ to takc ,count of the general (dlthough, not ab~olutc)
pre~umpuon o! a
nne;J~e 1ll \eloul} wnh dcpth llcsHie tJw,,
there are ;
need lo be borne 111 miud:
The firM rhnx funCL!On~ u~e dll m~tdntaueou~ velont} \, Je!ercnced d( the 'urfacc, L ==O Ne\crthck.,~. all the~e luncuorb can be .ipphed fo1 an) eJerence
rkpth
lamt\ L:tl\ (llJ5l, 1!-l.);))_ b,1sed on the mea,urement' fom , total of 500
lheck~hot ~unep, \\'.J'' Jnltlall denved to t<lke bunal mto ,HlOllllt amito gne
mtcn.Jl \clouues .J.~ a furKtton ofthe depth ol the la>er (a top11 we shalllovn
bter). }Ct 1n common p,JCIKe JS cons1dercd an lll,tantaneous \e]onty functJon
l;usf, Lm gl\'es .J Tero (.md henle unJ~d!l'>tlC) ,e]oCJt \'J.Iue ,![ tlle smbce,
whith tnc,w~ ib use 1' re,tlillcd tu bcyond ;1 lCitain min1mum depth
Al! the funct1on~. CM epi that of lk;uJfort
unpubhsiwd mtern,tl report)
tcnd ltJward' mfinil) wJth ltHre;J.,mg
,g,un ; unreah,lll lc;Jture. and
me;m~ 4 Jllah.I!IHllll depth must he 1mposed
"The thad tc1m Jll the Bcaufon lunctmn wa~ cxprcssly mtrodu1ed to COIIC<.:t
tln~ 1e~ problem and the function lonsequentl} tend~ towan:h ,1 hnutmg
lelouty gJVen b)
1'," oftlw !i1lly lornp;Kted matux umstnutmg the
rot k, e g ''""" 1n
.,;mdstone
These difl'erell\ 1dont) \av.., are comra5ted m
2 09 For ease of rompanson,
all examples a e shown f(r ,lll lll,tant.tneom
1elout1 of 2000ml~
FaU',t's Law and .lll
of .i30ml~ ;Jt .iOOOm
WHh liw use ol l,IU'>l., L111 ;Jt shallov.
and w1th the ChJaJelh-Sena Ltw at
large depth~.
Thc Elu<;t and ( htardh-SeJr;J La''" ,u~ extenszvel} 1bcussed n1 {Lonhei, HJH5).
67
'
k1
Note k. here ;JClounts for a global huna! dfcct Wh1l~t a V,,,= V,+ k z 'tyle mstanj
t;mt>om \clouly modt->1 w1l\ not llt>lt:>,~anl) gi\'t> t>X<lltly tht> ~ame \'alues for \1 0 and
f1 tht> '>alllt> l.t}eJ; tht> lwo modeh art> n:~a,tmahly <thk f01 most cornmonly cncoun ~
I~t~l
applilal!On~
68
In p1a( ll(C, pc!I;Lrnetei' n .tnd (5 .11e c;J!Jbratcd u~1ng a ]mea rcgie~sJon b,tsed on thc
T"'
curve-, f1om ,e,er,] we!b 111 the s;Lme aJea ,JJOwmg ,mhyd!ite thtLkne,~c~
sumlar, hut m \dnclJ t!Je hahte LhJCI.._ne~~ \dllt>' fhc linLknes~ of
th~ eqmvalt>nt tner is c,tlul<ttcd h} p1ckmg , \'Crt]{allmLe ~cctw11 aml1mt>rtmg t!Jc
formula
In OI-dt>r to Jen+m(e tht> eqUJ\alen() conrept fUJihei; ''e can a!MJ define ,m a\CJage llltt>nal \eloltt fo th1s rnodt>l rlus ,IVerage ,arit>' latcrally wlth rhe (h,mging
ovnal! thKkne~s of the moddled byt>J
69
Normalised velocity
Vdonty \'., m thc Y, + k L modd 1., a vt>loutv Jt>fcit>nCt>d to tlw o,uJ f<~.Ct> Th1~
oftt>n llds llttlc ph)~l{ al mednmg for tht> Jmtu! la)cr of ,~ rn,u w-modc! Tht>
l,tfut>\ ,l,,O{Jalt>d with <;uch rt>le1ence ,urf<~.{e velocllJC'i for huned i!JrffidlJon' {<HJ
appt>;Jr ratht>I ~uqlfls!Iig Fo1 mstamc, :'\Jo th ~t>,l dld!k., 1\!th Its .,tJong compacuon
lend, frcqut>ull gJ\c> ncg.Jinc 1alue>l
1 ht> prohlcm can bt> ,noalcd. a., wc ]J,J\C ~ct>n, h choo~mg a Jclncnct> dcpth
orhc1 th,lll t!Jc o,urld! t>, prelcJ.J.bh the top of tht> !.J.)CI
rnt>dll~ Jt
Th1s rdea c<~.n be extended further Wtlh tht> mtroducHon o/ .J. rumnaltvd vd()(1/y llus
{0J15t'b of
mst,tnt,mt>ou> vdout) a' a dunen~i<Jttit>>>
lotht>ratmof
[2 29]
,t
Z + h Z' +
r::3oJ
r23IJ
r:! 32J
r233J
Velocity models defined in the vertical time domain
Gcophysicisb oltt>n tend to de~cr1ht> tltcJr modd'> nol m the lllOit> nann;tl deptb
dmn,rn, but 1!1 that of 'vertK<tl 'el'>IlllC nmc' Onct> agaiil howe\cr. polynolllial
<tpproxnnatJOn~ ,lfe ,,zddy u>ed
\ '" (T) = \1,. +a T
+ b f'
l2 34]
71
::.i.J]
"\Jote lhat Hl tlus equat1on, lht> cot>flioent ll, ~~ t!Je rnsr;mt.tilCOU\ ~lowness d J /dZ =
l/ V, al the refercmt> dt>pt!J (oftt>H, bUI not nt>ct>~~aT 1h, tht> ~urfa( ~"' Z = 0)
Thc tnne-to-depth tun{ non th,u
Iunctwn
I'(Z)
= ,
I.n(l
COJTC~pond\
to the V,
b 7
+k
Z model b
logaitthmrc
[23flJ
Z(T)=-i;(Ju~ +4a
T- U
0)
(d10oJsc-t \1gn as
7(T) = V,, 1 +
<1
~~ d
polpwrnr.J!Jn T
T' + h T' +
+ 3b P +
J\
[2 37]
preferrcd
[2 38]
[2 .i9]
lt \\e lirmt 1t to ~t'(OJld o1dcr 111 J, ,15 oflt>n done m m,m pr<tctrc<tl
lm,tl of thc modt>l bccomc,
case~.
t!Jc reop-
[240]
ThJ\ rnodel1n turn o:if.--r> from f:! 35], ,]tlJoug[ [2 35] c._, h( '' _ J
dewloprnent of~ 1UJ
.1~
,1: :1 nuual
[2lll
V,,(T) =V,+ al
[212]
72
1~
[':! 44]
f~4.ll
ReL 1uon [2 40] ~how; tl1.1t th1s modd ; gener<~liy d1flerent liom thc dd;~Kal V.,
k/.. unle~~ the rel ..ilwn 4aZ< <V,/ IS truc.
exJl"o~ed
/{11 =a (e"'- 1)
[247]
sometlme~
recom-
[2 48]
Or,t!Ternanvdr
C,,,J')=L',T+uT'+(3T +
[2 49]
~nd
73
V,
Vooo
V>
~
v,.T>,V>
[\V,,
'-~--.vo->
,,,,
\"
V""'()
\l
.
z
(a)lnstantaneousnlncify
(b)fh>ptltDJndel
(c)T=f(L)
T(Z)
\\'e <..an anal) tJcall) denve tht> verl1cal dve1age and rms mtendl \'eiontle~. e1ther
fumuon of actual Llw knt>~s fj,Z
a~
[2521
74
-1)
[2 54]
(a)lnstantaneou.elocJtyfunction
(b)llenhmodel
75
cd.
1~
oftt'n
<~>>onated
y,
7) = \',(x,
y)+ k
[25<i]
~ott'
that m 1h1s model onlr rhe eiJUallons 111\0]Hng verlll al averagt' vt'locmcs dlt'
\ahd rhe non-hllt'<lf ],J1er.l vt'locny vananon Jntroduced by tht' arbllrdry hnKnon
1') mcdns tht' ra\''> art' no longt'r CllVJl<~r !ll form
av01d th1s parucu]a problt'm, '>Oille ray 1ra1 mg software padwge~ suppose
tlld1 rhe \donty \anauon 1,m, at lea'>! loLallr. bt- approXIllt<~ted br <1 luwar gr<~dJt'nl
\',.," (x, y, 7) =\'"+k, (X x,,) + k, (y- Yo)+ k
[2 37]
Reference vt'lonty\', b the m.,tantant'ou~ Yelout\' <lt posltlon (x,. y,,, 7 =O a1 the siJIface
Orher 1elcren1e su1fa1e~ 1an bt- ll'>t'd a., we s..tw m hgurt's 2 08 or 212 !he
latt'JJ.ll1. ami even rhc gradlt'ttt Jt~elf ma1
f258]
a> m the(om-
76
Heir agam, perm11rmg a late-a] Y,JrtatlOn m the modcl ,dlow~ <1 doser ..tpprOXHIId(lon lO geologJcal rcality, but di the cost oflmmg- the pnmary ad,dmagr~ ofthe ougUMI V,+ k Z modd n certain <~pplicatJons
11
[259]
Yt ~<-e wanr dlt' aniMJtiOpiC model [2 .':9]to be ftJUlV<llent lo the IJJx1an model of
Equatwn [2 14] for the tr,;eltune parameter t{h) \llakmg-use of rhc 'nnpk g-eomctJ 1c,d relatwnship bdween h, Z and ,mgle tjl, rh1~ gJ\t>S u-. thc fin,d cxprc~s!on m
\, ,lr!Jjweneed
77
,md \',.,,_ 1\Hh rhc dcpth ofthrrrfleLtor nvolvrd and l].t rhe H'rtlCal 1doclt\' !S\'.,, (O") = \' "' and thc honLontJ.l vdoLbctwcen
thc~e
t\H)
aknl equ,Jtumto
It ; trmplmg 10 punue tlu-, '>GLhng-do\\ mdcfin:tch, ~LilCe ICrtlCdl grologJC.]
hctcrogene!!r 1'> prcsent ,Jt rvr1y scak right clown to nnuo~copll le\cls, as snggc'>led m Figure 2 l:i. llowr,rr, unfortundtdy the p!aUJC<ll <~pphcatJon ofthc~e scalmg
equatmn'> is nor '>O straJghtlon\,Jrd
To ny and de,Jl 1\lth thl'>,
senc; olmolr or le~s honzontal shcers Herc <~gam, cakulat!Oih confinned b; preci>c \H"ll-core dn<~lysio indrLalr dldt sw h hod1c~ hme ,m etleC(Ye hch,niow 1d1H h L~
non- elhptKdlm nanue Ar thl'> '>< ,Jk, groph\'SICI~ts read1ly
79
In 1h1~ moJel, a ~tacked ~equrme of :-.J tlHn layen. of -.,nut' rlurkne~~ 1~ <onsJdercd
For .,nnphnl} we w11l con"drr n 1sotroptc allhou!-'h Ba,_k_u.,' theo17 remams vahd for
comlitucntlayrTS wlch a1-e allJsotropic l<,ach l,ye ha~ P- and S-w.ve prop<~g<TIon
Yeioo!Jes
den>ny p, nnplymg rhr modd <an be rhoug-ht of a-. one
by tivedlfJ'crrnT
In
the elfL-coho1tly
Asan t'Aamplt>, the
dft><JT~e
Yertaall'-wave
~doury
lo be ,Jb!r lo comp<~rr more t>asTly th1~ velouty w1th tht> vrrtlcal ~do< Hy ot the
JAJan modd (tht' avemge uefooly), a< onst.lllt den.,ty 1~ suppo;ed, wluch smtphfit>~
the It'iatJ<m~hlp to
[2 62]
:\lotr that th1~ mean 1, dTileJerJt from the vertiCal mean obtanted m iormula [2 11
1he 1ms mean ofThe 1lowneooe> ha., been u~ed as oppo.,ed to <1 .,nnpk mean, .111 dfectl\t' mrdnun for a sene~ oftlnn brdo cannot be ddlned usmg a .,mtpk mean alonel
Backn~ rqu.tions dre somettmcs <~pplied to the c<Tkulation of ~ynthetic scismog-ram~. as mentToned m hgure 2 4 Remember thJ.tthe goal1s to comtnKt an eqwvalenli,JI't>red modd oilhe ;ub;urface compo.,ed oflayers tel!S ol melle; thJCk, u .. mg
>onl< and densJtj weli logs collectrd at sJgnTflcantly ;malkr s<Tmphng !ates
}onnula [2 G2] mdJC<Ttcs tlut the dk< ttvr da;Uc modulus M unolvrd m lht'
propag-ation \docity ddined m Chaptrr 1 1s a hannomc mean of the mdnJdual
moduh VI for each ]ayer Tlw fa moJe exhamllve rt>sults descnbed by Backus art' m
tact cxpressed m term; of dft>CU\e da;tJC paiamders For t'Xamplr, paiameteJ M,
that wr detlnr later (Flgme 2 16), go~ennng tlw houzonral propagatmn ~doclt), 1'>
']]'1
' ~~N~4
,,,
'[1-"L]-'='---~.v;
' +
'
1 l1
v,,
p,v,,
2:-~
,., p,v;,
[2 63]
l'hs rathei compll<atrd formula 1~ mrniJont>d herr Mmply to drmonstrate tJe mterconnecnon bt>twren tlw da;tJC paramt>ter. J 1he ,anwway, the 1'- and S-Wa\e p1op~
ag-at10n ~clocmr~ ~,, and v., for mdJVJduall.tyen, or theu drn>Jt\ p, also mlluencr
the honzontal P-wa~e ~eloCJl\' m tht' t>fft>cll~e medunn Backus' paprr .t!so nclude~
d full ~et of cquatons describmg tlw ellcc!J~e medium beh<tv!Our tiJr a ;rquence of
dm~orropK la~en
80
1ul.tr
1,
10
d p,u1JCular
ax:~s,
1.e.
J flllllllll'ne(~ f1olwjJr< 01 Tf
Lltetal d!rcUon
">uch a modelno ]oger <~pplJcs m complex trcton1C '>llll<lllOHS. but rlw, can be
dr<Llt w1th b} .~~;ummg tl1e mcJ,um to be locally tJan;vrrsely hOtrop11, wHh a nonlt'ILH.il symnlt'llJ ax1s normalto thc d1ppmg IJt'ds Tlus proccdurr h not one yd
,,jdrh med mmdust1y though
Ou1 \'TI nwdnun can be loc\Jlly ddiHed u~mg onlr ll1c mdependeHt elastu
to thc ~ nccded m the mml grnr1al model Thr;e are nsu-
~C,.)'~m 1 Hcos!8
[2.64]
Note thar thc locu~ 11 of thc SH ph<l~t' vdo,tty, dd1ncd b) bjuaiJon [2 60), 1~ .111
dhpse for thc homogcncous vn modd
A lt'rli<-al P-1\ave 'docity corre>pomh to fJ = 0, ,md 11~ honzontal tountrrp<trl
lo fJ = 0W. \dJiCh g11e<, rhc followmg parw ular ph<tse vr]o ny 1cnus rlaotK modnl1
rrtttmn~lup~
Flgme 2 16-a
~how; modulu~
(d) hOn/nJH,d
82
SY,doc~lj
prop<~gat
\\'eran 'ee that the honLontdl \elOCity '' the ~ame .1~ the vetliLdl for thc.,e mo
Jlm nnphe~ that thc t"o modul1 ft, and !-1-, ;u e eyu ..tl mth1~ model
2 16-e ,1101'' thc
between .,tn"~'> a.Itd ~ttam" mrko,pcrtfi\ lO ho:-
(~)
Vllmodd
(bcddon~)
(h)IITTmodel(traGture,
83
r2 7oJ
E
y
b
repre~eutmg
the relatmnsh1p bet>wen the llommtalty and HTt!Lally pwpaganng P-wavc veloulle~:
representmg the relationshtp between the honTOntally and vertKally pwpaganng S\'-wa,e Yeioutles,
rcpreseutmg the vatJJtwn m P-wa\e veloc!t} aboul thc vertlL.Ji
e~(c"
rt~
l2 711
Vp(8)"'
l2 72]
v,v(8) ::::f3ol
'
+~(s-i5)sm 2 8cos
~"
84
e)
l2 73]
wave-type~
as
\Ve abo need to bca1 m mmd that the pa1 amctn > chale g theThom~en p.uamcter~ E, b and y. 1111l abo, 111 tmn, va1-v
m ., 1Mce In pt<~rtKc thougl1, the ..tm,otropy p,nametn Yll'lat10ll~ ,nc not t.ikenmto
.Lccouut, and ccrtaml} uot for tndl\1duail<~yer~ 1\lthm thc modeL Ba~cd on the \HJrk
of ,',heateJ <~nd C,nnpLell (19tH:\), Cerveu} (19H9) mtroduLed the Ide<~
am.IOIHtfi'i, ~~here onl} one tcrm. for m~tancc tlw vcrtrLal ~dunt tnm,
dcterr~mg anr~otropy,
In
l'hc
~ud1
a model,
v<~lldlh'
~:quatmn
geologiC<~l
contcxt Om
~nn-
85
dcmonstoat10n ol Lh1~ phenomenon ~~ found m (V'erwesL, 19~9) Howevet, tlu~ umdusum Jocs 11111 holrl fiH tl1e geueoal \'TI modcl
AnoLhcr ,llt,JC!Ivc ;~peu of tlm moJel~ that Il can he cnLnely rlcfiuocrl u~mg
L1'0 paiameter~ lhc P-wave propilg<ttiOn \eloutie' \', "" ;nrl V,."'".
ho1,eve1. rercnt \\'Ork ou anisotiOP} beha~iou.- mdiL;lle~ that tht~
mcdwm rloe' uot oept e'ent ;n e~pcn;lly
lO
reaht~.
no mattei >~hcthcr 1t boc consJrleeJ lllJkeJ
.
'anct\' pre~enl 111 da}~
Fracture-induced anisotropy
h;cturauon ., another phy~ICal phenomenon whtth rlefine~ au effertive dlll~otwp
moJel .\ f1atture set \'>'hKh ~~. for ImtauLe, \CrtKal ,md appmxunately p.ualld
can he morldlcrl. for Lhe
of da~tic pwpagation,
lC
111
i't6'l.tre
16-c
Lo the ,hear
, -,eu~it\t'
Ay
(a)';wavcbtretnng.ence
86
(b)
Stres~-
strmn ,,'
tra~tures
morlulu~ [J.,
o"
'p,,_ - - , !1,,_,,.=--
(~)
Strc>S
>tram l.lradUI"'>
rem..tm~ ~JrtlJally
a~
87
Porous media
l'he typc of hcrerogeueny 1<~: havc rlbLnherl um] mm ha~ bccn lmkerl nthe1 to
beddmg- m to fractmatiOu Vet tlw heterogene1ty \\luch , of priman LO!Knn to
petroleum cxplorauou ouur'> ata fa ~Hldllcr ~cale, <~nrll~ lmkcrl to rhe pHseucc of
pore' aurllh11rl~ \\Hhlll rock,
Powm media can be de~t nbed a~ a pack of gram~ w1th ~pare~ bell'.een 1hcm, a
lliOdeJ whtC]l 1~ paiTlLUJarJy lt>p!e~ellTali\e Of ~anrl~tolle'
llowc\CI, 11c Cal! abo thmk of a Iod, ,~a ITIJti\el} homog-eneou~ m<~tnx containlllg- il munilei of mdusJon~ of \allou~
mughly spheii(,] (~nch ,Js \Ug-g-y
llat (e.g h,Killled l1mestone~),
In
2 Ol-e, we ,howerl thc me;J~UITment of an 'aH'rdge \eluuty fo1 <~
porou~ IO( k ~ample l]u, me.burt>ment can be carned out, 1t ag.un '>l10ulrl he
entph.I~I~erl, proYirlmg- the cbst1c s1gnal 1\dvelength u~crll'> large compiiied to the
'!le of the
but rem;m, sm;ll comparerl to the '<~mple'~ lcngth <;uch
m rock pl1y~1C~ ldhoJatonoc~
11c cau aho
uuamhih'llOU,h define an
lot<~l ma~., ol the ~ample to
We c;n <~ho define an average ur
flmlu wmtanl, The J3;rkn~ method
rlc~cuberl .1bove be111g an cxample
le<~d hom the rlefinltJon of\eloLty
a~ a fundlon of the Hll k<.' ela~tl
[1 2], d gencr;l relation,h1p ofthc follm\mg fonn 1~ ..~~stnncd
the d\l'age
88
den~Jty
of a
pmou~
matend!
pose~
no partilnlar
pwblcm~
where the meU1um 1~ comtrlcrrU lo he m<~de np oll"o con~tllUtllb (1) the m<ttJIX
dtHl (1i) the flUIU-fillerl pmc~. For th1~ m<~tenal, 4' rcprc~cllh tlw porosltv, or tl1e r;lllo
rhc rlcmit) of lhe man1x
0 pme yolmne to tl1c m eral! volume ofthe m<tlertal,
lhe
111 dkiug up tlw maten<Ll, \Hth p,
localculate aH
m dlcclive
p 1o\ide
flmd~
m the pore'
89
These morluh are rhfkreut from the ptevwus two above stme the} rlepenrl on
the roLl'~ sttucture, the arr<~ng-emcnt of the gram~ or sl1ape ot the pore~
K,, 1~ the bulk nwdulu~ f(n the flmrl 01 fluid mixtme eudo~crlm tlw pon~~ ~t 11
1' of Lour~c Tcm for <~lllluJd,.
IZ., and fl,, ..ue thc eflect1~e or a\erage morluh for the lltllrl ,annaterl mck
I"he llltct,JCtlon, that trtl...e plate bel\\Tenthe matnx rtud the fillld~ at the uwment of
an ela,tK \\<LH''' P'~"<Lge ..tlT unponant a'ped~ of w,1ve propag-,Jl!Oll 1n pmotb
med1a Dlmng- the pre,~Lue and rli,placement dbtmbanre created by the ela~tiC
\lbtalwn, thc fhm.l vlht<Llc~ rel.it1vdy Jndepenrleutl} ot the Ill<lliiX ~unoundmg 11.
l"he QJ ~ lil hydw,tanc rle~eqmhhnum anrl a heterogene1ty ' c~r,1bbsherlm the
pre,.,moc and tntern,J! f1111rl flm,~ <liT ll!duced l<~thm the pore'
1he>c phen<Jmena rlepenrllargelv on the prt1lleahllltV ofthe roL k, ou the ,ha pe
aurlLonuecthity of thoc pore~, the fluid n~cmit} anrl tl1e waye
Indeed, v.hen a hydwstatic ~tte~~ or \Tl} low frequency
1~ apphed
to the wck, the flu1d remam' totallv m pha>e w1th the mrttnx and tls mlernal
(n tl11~ ca~c, tlw med1um v.11l bclJaYe
ore111losed
the tmw to re-eqtniihrate Certam l1igh flLud pres~me Tones 1nll thcrd(ne be
pre\entmg pore~ to Lhauge ~hape aud
loc<~l flUid flov.
La~e. rekr to
domom or
e~uhl1~hed,
\Ve. m thl>
90
[2.791
pu"ponhnm for;:m
tlnwput'm
de1ant wk m
cqwv<~lent nuxlt>l\ mcompn"S~Ibilitv
I!JII (1952) ~h1meU that ~~hate>er the ~h<~pe ofa porou~ mcthum'~ g-am~ or porc~,
ltS compres~llnhty \\"ot!ld he ~ome1~lwre between thc~c nvo hum~ H1~ modelthu~
propo~ed <1n efTediH' hulk morlulu~, \\luch wa~ tlw mc<~n o! thc~c L\vo values.
Hashu1 and Shtrilman
the V01gt anrl Rcu~~ uppn ,md lower hmlknJ';nan (1993) g-enc1ah~cd thc approaLh
Biot's Theory
A~ mdJcateU abo\e, Bot (l9.1J6) pul fonvard a Them)' and [onnulanon defnmg
plO]Mg-<LtlOII velonlle~ for 1' ,md 'S-v.a't>' m porou~ merl1a 1' l1llh t<~kc~ account oftlw
lllttiauiom between a rotk\ ,fnx <~nd the fluid~ rontaincd 1nthllltt Although rel;lli\eh" ntmber~ome, thc~c cquattom define the velont> ,arJ,fwn a'> a fnnlllon of
ti1quecy .nJ rt nnmher ofparamner~ associated ~<ttll thc roLl ,mrl lh11ds K.,, K.,,
K,, \l~CO~ttv r, ctL Hoc al~o define~
[~Sil
1 t>l"> lequent v behaYJOUr ha~ a ~tmple expte~Mon, mltlrtlly gven by Ca~~man (1951),
wh11 h
\\"lul~t lugh frequenl~ behdvJOur on thc othcr hanrl b ~tll d
'>Ul.oji>U
~ome debate,
it does not ~eem to be rtl.ole to actount for 'e'e1al phenomcna, such a~ locrtl fh1x be ha\ tOUI (e g see l\1avL.o, 19'l9)
[2
l!u.,
1~
..1
H~l
Shedt morlul1 .ire uualfecterl bv tJw flmU prescut 111 the pore,, .illd Therefore onh' a
van.il!Onm thc avctagc den~lt} 111ll .illecl tl1e ,l>,-l,d\C propaga!on veloLllV whcn a
ch<~nge m
tlw liliKI m lhc por e' b ~ub~lttuled
Ma1ko
g-<~'e ~evero~l md1cauons a~ 10 po,tlok exteu,wu' lo llw Ga~,man
f(nnula
f(r ,1 mck 1,hmc mati!X '' compo;ed of >neral mmerab, K,, ,Jwulrl be t.iken
,1~ the JeuproLo~l o! tlw weig-hteU meo~u of the compre,-,ibiluie, for earh of
thcsc rompouenl~.
fot a polvpha~K flu1rl, a VICtghtcrlmcan ~hou!U agam he u'ed, tht, tune of eo~ch
flu1rl C<lmponeut'' rompre~,lhtlill<,
r~
S4J
It~
relattvc
~<~tur.itiOn
ro~tm 1~ e J 0' dl >url,Jce condJUon~t 1 e , 1en '>mall tonccntration of g-a' 1' 'ltflic1enl
to dramatJ(ally redttLe the efteCll\e fiLm! bu!L.modulu~. leadmg toa \alue (]o,e lo
92
Dcns1ty
O%
____!_=___+.!....:.
K,. 1
Kn
K,
for $>45%
pn)~lli<'~
[2B6]
are found through an mterpolatwn berv.een
tii<J lOn~tJtuents
93
b~
pl~<tse
[21:\7]
the vulumctnr pe!tent,ge ofclay m tht" ptJres, 1 e rl,y volunw
,.,sumed ro contam a da\'-flmd m1x
diflent equhalent model for 'and) day.,, where sand gram~
de
lll day Clay conrent \ , JS defined a' the volumetnc percemage of
day lll tlw maiJIX. 1 e
llflllllldtnx volume, the maiJIX lwmg tom1,
in the indu~rry,
day pa1 dmeteJ
(2 B7].
Tln~
~;
d1lkrent ro the
p<~rameter
mlluence theeffec-
V~
[21:\0]
Ca1tagna el al
94
(}lJ85J
1,
l2!.l0]
95
96
(b)'Layerrk'modelwlthparametrlc
>elodt~ functions in cach la~er
[::!01J
fhe lnllltanons of th1s method are encountercd when we w1~h to handle muln-valued ;urfat es, SlKh as the O\'el hangs often cnLountned n ~ah tedomc~ or dw mvnsc
ha~
been enhanced
Volumetric models
Mcthoch for the volumelnt d1splav ol vdoulll"S aH' I'.Jdc-Jangmg ~oftv,are, lor
lllo,tant'e, usmg fi!lltc dll'etence Jmgratlon (Chapter ) uses a velont\' model ba~ed
on d tegular 3-D gnd At eat h lltJck (x, y,,
<1 \elocay \alue !S pootrd,
t1the1 lhe mteJ;.] \'t"iooty of the !ayer,
or rms \'elonty (..,ce c;u-
97
(a)(;nddedrnndel
98
';.]o\\ne''
ver~us
Backus GE {1962) 1
Tlorli:ontal 1.d\'ermg
(,enpil)> H.f,ermh,
4127-1440
BerrymanJG (1993) ;\hxture heone~ for Roe k
Amenran {,eophyoJCal
llnion Handbook of l'h;Jtd! Comlants, :\(,LI,
'205-228
Bourbie T, Coussy O and Zinsner B (1986) AIOtHitqru df\ m1heur: prmwr E(lilmm
ft"chrup, l'an5
Biot MA (l9:'lfi)
\V,ne., tn a }luid ~aturated Porou.-,
'lol1d j Acou't Soc
Byun B (1982) ~e1smu P.1rameters fo1 Medm \\llh ElhptKal \'dotlt\' lkwmlemw.-,.
(,eoj1hym,, 47 lfi:::!-1626
Byun B (1!.!84) Se!Mllll l~ctldllWien f01 II<tn~\endy hotmpiC Nkdu Geojlh\'\111, 49
1908-1914
CastagnajP, Batzle ML and Eastwood RL (19W:i) Rdatomh1p., lwtween tompl<'''!Ond]-wa\e <1nd she;u-wa\e \dOut1e' 1ll cld-,lll '11icate mck.-,. (;nph)wl. !JO 571J81
SP11molou D Re1dd
Cordier JP ( 198J) lforrlie1 m
Christensen N and Wang H
!"he 1nfhwnre of lbn"
l're.<nm. on Dyn,mlC l']a,tll f'rope1 tw., of lkn"d ~dndstorw
21:1
Dix CH (IIJ5.'J) Se1~nur Veloulws from ~JJJf;ll<' .VkasJuenwnt' (,nph',mJ, 20 8B6
99
<haptn2
Wyllie M, Gregory
Gardner
( 19.":il:\) A:n E'!:pernnental
F',clo1s Afkctmg El<i.'>IJC \\'d\(' \e!ouue' m Porous Med1a
of
td! ~cut
Imaging principies
mn.t >udeh
In mdw,try, Pre<.,D\1 po.-.-.~-.~e~ the
bas~d on the fund<tmentals ol ela~tJr l'.dH' pmpag<~tion theory and
number of a.-.>umptwns
ll;mg tlll', method
and more approxunate nwthocl-.
lheojfselrhmemlfm
rnlmns. Tht"
pre~ent
to
i\"ote
m,g-e's 'fwquency', \\hen frequencv
change of a tnne ~eries' fhis, "hen we
nentually m clepth' Th1~
of
IlllflOJiant 1;sue l'.t' ;ilall
~hould
102
(b)Sei"mcscclionplusvelocit}model
(l.nom ona P~eldispill})
(c)Variousresu]lsoflltcimagingprncess(singktraccdipiRy)
103
Note that the mtagmg supphe~ th1~ relatl\'e refletttV!t\' ami\ elout> h.Kkgmund as
two sPp.!rdte ple<-e~ uf mformatmn, whtk the slrnv \allattort m demtt}' wil\ not, at
lt>d~t via ~ur!.iLe ~eismic tethmque~, be mlormatwn teadily an:esMble to <1 geoplwst-
~nsm11
tuUI.ir pomtl
Jn thb cltapter tht>refmt>, 'We ~lldll tiUke mo~l
We \\111 dho nonethelt>'~ addrt>~.-. tlw kmemattcal (g-eomnry and
ence~ between i~olated poml dilfrat tor beh<tvionr and that of a pomt whicl1 makes
up part ol a rdlet tor, but wluch \H' 1 an tsolate fm lhe purpo~e~ ol de~cnbmg the
tmdgmg- prote~~
104
.~ well as ltne,mty.
l\',ed, as shown 111 Chapter 1, to ~lmph~
11ot.ttJoll ,llld equatJom. alllllllg- the followmg- definitJOil'> to those aheadj g1\en tn
(lli)
;(t<-FT-->
S(w)
[31]
R8PmJw)
[:l2]
105
~vmbohcalh
1vnllen
a~
[~U)
from
jJOI!d D
pmnt
106
UH'I
snrf.tce r TI1e ~ame (.reen functiOilS ale
tn the k.tn_!t!tofl .,ummaltll n propdg-auon and bacl..-proMgatiOn, no
lll.ttter\1huJ1 sense l'i tmohed
107
Once aga!ll, tht> 1vnght!llg funct10n~ art> gwen bv (,rt>en lnnclllb t>-.t1ma1ed
hetween thc
D
art> now m.J_(le w11h a ltad fll!lf 1, t>qual tu r!V' 10
i'<ote that the
hom.ogenou~ mnlJ<i, whde for fot 1\,ifll p!OJMgatloll lhn; vwul1l he apphed W1lh
108
An anJ.lyttcal
expre~\!On
111
the <1bove
t>xpre~MOn,
tOlllJ.H l~lllg
. \ wrm epte~e11Ung lht> prop.ig,lt\011 nme (01~ .ts tt rs more uftt>11 kl1o'Wn, the
1m,eltnnf) Ret<lll th, a tuut> -.fuft lll the tnne domam 1~ expre~~ed d~ a cumple" exponen! 111 the ](mrit>r doma m
L3 5)
r:l
S(Jilf \eJO<Jt\
AP,,,(m):::'
lllt>dium, tlllegJa)
~~
r3 4j Wlll hetllffie
2 rrV~.P,u, 1 (X,,Z=.w)
coslj l'"'
~'e vt..x
[3!51
109
~umlar
m~err
,\ t"W
mol-unl, wh1ch me.tn,, fir~tly, tlw .J.((jUISJtJon geomerry for Lht> relatlvt> pos!tlOll'> of
D ;md H \distante r, ctngk ,Pl. but <tbove all the \'t>louty, V
Green functions in heterogeneous media
Formal.~, r3 4]. [3.6] .trHll~l i] \1e1e gnen snnplv as examples, and .u e vahd onlv
for homogt>ncou' me1h.t Howner, rhe tht>ory IJchm1l1he KnThhoiT mtegral t.tn ,liso
bt> exlt>!ldt>d
Tht> two Green funttJon component'>, propa~olutJons m homog-t>neous
110
~----
(a
--------------------,
,lld=>bo1record(or'galbcr') (b)Greenfunctlnnnperatnr
(c)\\aufield
\--~-~~reflc-ctedbyD
lhe matlwmatJcal exprt~SJOH ot the other we1ghts nece~~<ill' m the Green funcHo"
cnmbnvHne tn tlw
ca~e, particnlarlj m :l-D For a c].,custhc
other term., were ustldliY ncglected, thc currcnt trend tmv.ml amphprme.,smg ,um~ to encompa~., theoe ctddltJOnal parameler~, albeJt
m p.trucular the nnport<1m e of the t..x terms rt>latt>d tu acqtu-
<~pproxmatelv,
'>ll mn geon1etn
1ll
1ht> leh-hand s1de of hgurt> 3 05 illu~IJ<ltes thts opera! IOn m the t1me domam
.\gam. we see tl1e three lerm~ of a C.iet>n functton re-occunmg Propaganon lltnt> from the wurce S to D, t>qual
= rjV 111 J.n holnogencous med1um,
the receiven. ll
then simply a Li~C of chedung 'Whether
R at D , non-lero and estunatmg- 1ts value by a Simple mven10n o[ relanonslup
l32]
R(w) = LlP,~(w) / LlP ",(w), 'ifw
[3 ~J)
--b. ,_. ,
'--~~~
~----------1(._,.,_
-Ta.k< .. mpleah.,...,f.....,
~k-propapt<lln:otiwn
-"Co11'0etfur~,...diw~
112
R ""S (w)
1
Hf. ,,,'
w,llP,",r(x,,7
O,w) e
'"
Vw
[3 lO]
Huvft\tl',
mg
>Igual ~(t) to .1
of ,nnplitude spe<tnun equal
tu aJHl pha&e ~pntrum equal to tero at all frequenne~ ~mee rhe <,gnaiJs of lunllt'll frt>quenL;. tontcnl, swh a de<omolutJonm jlrd<lwt> can onh he .1pplwd fm a
hcqut>nL\ bawlw1dth whert> ~(w)"' O, 01 more pi.l<ti<.Jllv, that the amplnude spt<trum ~(wll L"Xct'Cd& a
sJgnal/nOlse rat1o
\n alternall\T to
t>Xl~t' whKh avoid., tlus t>ffect llus l' ro take the <orrebtwn cudficwnt bct\H'Cn tll', and tll',"
113
(o)Plonewan>rming.t!t~euri
(bJWfieldmurt'dnt!hcurfoccJl.p(>,1,7~tl)
1>
U'f
rnsh
[:!12]
for a typlcal ~;unplmg late of 2m<., the NHJUT~t frequency \Hmld he 2:JO l-ll
same rule apphe5 m rhe x rhrect10n .tt ;my tllllt' t 11 we \\;mt ro pruperly
o.unple thc \'..l\elield, wt' must h.:ne at least (WO mea~memcnr pumt~ pe! w.vekngth
O\er tht ~patul "-dH'ier
114
For cJch ;ngle hequency unnpunt'nt f w1thm tht' lcmpmal \~avdet, wave!ength f.. ol
lht sp.1tial Wd\'elet " dcpend on the emergent angle of rhe Wd\didd and prop.ivdoul\ at the sudaet'
3.0fi-c) From thl>, the m,lXmum fl'.Jt e
l3 14]
'\uit> lh,\l dl mrt) havc a dlfkrt'nl lllCdlllllg prc->ldck (a; he1c) and post-slack (t\\0''il\ lime. >t'e Chaplei 4)
In J-D, the bm ze (see l'gme 3 20) ~. ~} mmt be ~uch thal tht' rtnl1-ahasmg
((lJldmon '' hunoured m any Jrecuon \~heno lht' tune-J1p IS the largc5l (01, equally,
liw .tpp.uent H'iocitv ; smallcst)
t1on~ ;u emJSSJOll ami recep11on ;tmount~ ro addmg the travelt1mt> from rhe
VJillTt> lo Jm<qjt' poml D Wilh that lrom D lo rhe re t'IVt'I; lhcn mulnplvmg b\
the dppropnatc "eight&
\k 1all tlus new optl.Jtoi tht' unagmg's full G1een functton lti' apphnl lo the no"
ll5
zero-ph.1seJ detonvol,eJ d.ila drlll allo"'~ us Lo ducctlv obtam the e&tunated rel\ectmn codliut'nl Thl& is oplwn 3 ofthe nnag-mg tondition m Jgure .~OS
Ir 1& rhis summmg operanon \'.h1ch 1s often dubbnl as a Kuchhoff \U lit 1n geophy~
lC.ll hterahne, anJ urhe1 Wl~e known a., the rllffra!lum >tack, thrs St'conJ n.J.me empha~Jsmg thc Jm;tgmg procednrt' invohes &ununing tht' cnergy dillrJcted by an1maged
p1>111l nmsrdereJ <1 po1nt dllliattor
()per.ilor (, hence redmc5 to .1 dday equal to the rotal
Llme 1: = 1:,
+ 1:, and a sene~ of \~e1ghtmg codlinents, " Tht'Se parameters the full Green's
lum rions woukl be dcJl\e"d rrmn Equ.llion [::\ \O]Ior <1 con~tant \t>locm medmm, but
need to be computed by rar lrJcmg or any other ~mtable mcthods foral! other ca~es.
ll11; lcrtds m to tht' ke-\ result of thl& thrtpter
In other word.,, m our -.nnple-.t inreTpretallon, "e can .,t,lte rhat tompmmg the
refkcll\lt} \.Jiue ofpomt dlffractm D amounts ro locusmg, usmg the \~e1ghted ~um,
the- ela~LK eneTgy recorded at rhe smfrtce and re-euutled IJ\ the po1nt d1ffTat tor sub&equcntto exCJtanon b) rhe Jmtlal drmngomg wave from soune S
step~
116
Ly fa.,t vanatton'> Wlthm the sub,m-,-b,tiuwo"'""" rh1., phenomenon 1~ normai(v rh~Ie~anlnJ, \Hlh only
ttan,tnJ.,lon through the 'low trequencr' background vdO!ItV moJel (f'1gwe
hemg taken mto dttount .\Jthough nonnally negle1 ted, we could etWJ&,t 1., not actuallv done ltl
117
1 he fourth t) pe of prupagatum an mulliplf rejlertwm, an nnponant phnwmenon dedr!y not taken nto account by the &Implified llll.Jgmg rheo1-v descnbed
heno "l"}n., efkctl& uften significan!, evt'n piedomindnlm certain 1egions "lllis
1~ wh) a pre-cond!llonmg of dat,l mpuLLnlHltO thc nnagmg piOct'SS kncmn as
demnlllpluafwn ur m"lllhple remow1/ IS ab;l!lutel) twcrswty 1heie J& rt range of
nwn orles~ ~atp,factOI)' toul~ availab!c to ;tddrc~., tlu., unnpkx Iooue, blllll 'otlil
rem,r1~ one uf rhc majo1 th.1lkngc., wirhm mode1n St'l&llliC procnomg
Au mfimrc numher or pu%Ihle cumbJnarwn~ wuh d ~tearhlv nu"ea~mg number ofre.,ulrant mter.Jctlon~ 1an sub~cqttentl} bt magined
Puttmg a:.1de the spenal ca~e' of mult1ple cnergv 1dle1 rwns, uoe of rhe BuTn rtpproxnnrttJOn 1:0 ]ll~tifitd by the fan that each non-pnm.Jr~ mtei.Jll\Otl "111 dclav dml attenualt' the w;tvdield \\'e heme have a .. oluuon to the second obecuon l"d\'ot'd earher
As for the lir~t, the theor; .,tdtes that dpplil .:uion of the Kirchhofl mtegral for
\~hcthn
118
tn md 1vdual pomt ;umd .1 Ieflecror, only those trace., w1thm tht' K1rchhoff ~um cor1-e.,ponding to
wlilmak a construcllvt' cor~tnl~utum to R 1t has been
~Jown usmg
pha~e (;ee e g- UlciStem, 1987} thatthe apphlead> lo a ITflecUVIlY valuc
that of an mndence
Kuchhoffsultrer-
model
Je-.tJitll\econstraml, '>lllCe\ei()(J-
rhanre
a"m 1ated nn<~ge
nnagc
Tln~ !S a ]Hlmlpk used under .,everal gmse-. "1lh1n St'IS!lllc processmg, whether
111 s,acking \d()(itv anah'1~
migr<~tlon vdo<itv anah<,~ 01 in fol..uMng
an,Jh>i'
Imaging in hetengeneous media
The methodology outhned ahove a-,&tlllle~ .1n homogeneous sub~urla<e, but the
thcon can be extended ro
modd we lik In th1s <ase. the uuplementation
become, 50lll1.."\'.har m01c
Jntegianon ol the wave equauon no longer gne~
toa ~tr,ughtfot"ard <<~kulauon of each trace'.,
119
lhe prt'u~ton wrth "hid1the pwpagauun \donty !ield t> e&trmated and the Lreen
funCIIOn~ ate takuldted \nll dtrelll} d!en the quahty of rhe re.,u][mg rmage
(,enerall}, the grt>atet the- pred~ion tn the ve!ucitv fie-IJ, the more tomplex tl wlil
bennne, and um~equcnll) thc more dtfficult .tnd co.,rly the trtkulauon o! the (.reen
funcuon will become lntenns orthcor, rhc me'thod re&ts unchangeJ !or complex
tcctomt., rn 2-D a., !or 3-D At
ttntt', the
oflhe
lot m, the unting edge uf
Tht.,, coupled wrth rese.tn_h mto the most
nally !or 3-D work Fmallv, other dfeu,, 'nch a~ source and recerwrs dtredJYllY patlern~ al~o could be exphcitl} mcorporated tnto the \~etghnng proce'~S tncorporatcd
m tht> Grt'e'n's fundrons, though rhi, i~ nut usnall} done
putn--mtensJye
120
(a)Pr-processed,dcsignatured
shotrecord
(b)FuiiGreen run~tion(-r,+r,,
at,ariousirnagedpointdepths
(e)
lrnagedtra~einX 0
On Ftgure 3 10-a,
.\lso il!u,trated on the dtagram are
thc nn\es rt'pre-,entmg the {_,reen
lravt>lnmes for ea<h netghbouring
pomt (Hgtue 3 10-b) Once <tgam, due ro rhe stgnal's non-zem length, but a.,o
bet.Jusc ofthe linuted aperture ofthe anms1tion array, -.ummmg along these curve~
wiil
non-zcro \alue' for p01nts ad]<Kent to p01nt D, the nnage of D 1S &meared
elieltl\elY lmuting the &ei,mK unage's lateral reMJiution
Tht' tvm pro<es&es o[re~tnunl vertJCal ami lateral re-,oluuon ;ue ({Jilnected the
me\ HrtblY appea1 ~ a<, .1 sme;n"ed &pot whme ~ze w11! be
band of the euutted s1gn.tl and tht>
f\ltc
I,J<,Jl' r ::allv at
the best 't'l,llllc tm,Ige
\OiuiJon uf the theoretwally ptTfcnly .,harp uuage
oi se1smJc tmagmg rt'&olulton 1~ gJH'tl m Berkhoul
r!CJ!:l41 fhe authOI <,how.,, for m~tance, rhat the honzonta!Jcsolutwn (\Hdth of the
mtgatt'd J!ITrrtctor potnt) 15 a fundton of \Va\elt'ngrh A (and hence, o! the central
bt'quent} ofthe <,e.,mJC dat,I band"itlth and ofthe \elo< 1ty) and the nugration apertnrc, th;n rtClt'n~cJ, for mstantc, h\ tlw lll.iXUlllml refleLlJun angle med tn the
operator, 1.1," r-.t'e Ftgure 3 ~4 fm de[uutton) Th1~ Lrtn be approxnnated
[:116]
Rc<,o]uuon of -.eJ.,mw nnagmg through pre-.,ta< k dt'lllh mgalJon ha~ .,1nce been the
lO)JH ofmrtn publH.Jt!Om, a recent examplt' hemg (l.t>hu el al, 2002)
121
LOIIfa/,ll'llhiTi \IUh!l{',il/hl'r
A. final reflec ll>ll) 1mage s obtamed b} romjwlmg the avemf!.l' ~~/he colleilum of uwl
122
rnJUOll
,\n m!Uill wc1ghrt:d sum correspondmg ro d shotpmnt mMgmg usmg d
Kirchho>tlmtegr.tl,
-\ ,eco11 d ~umnl<Hlon correspo>nd1ng ro rhc mult1ple CO\C:rage rcdmHldncy
11J 1s c,tn be wnlten
~(_hernaucally
Rc:c,JI thar
t.p.,(t) 1s thc ;csmu tJ.tCe lord shot gather S recurded at JCCel\er II, (F1gure
302),
1".,(X, z) rc:present., the trd\elt!me tdken for the SClstnK \\,\~C to p1opagate downwards hom >ource po>Jtwn
D of coordmatc>
(X, L), theu ro pmpagate upwdnh to
w,,{x, z) w1ll be the we1ght attdciiC'd to th1s tl,tvelttme, whJCh w1ll compensJie
I(H sphcncill dJVergence ;:md other effects, as we mentioned e.1rher
123
Recei~eJ coordlJiate, r,
lmage pomr depth cooJdmat<''>, x allli /
V\'ithm th1s S\'St<'m, for an homogen<'ous medium ohelonty \; tra\eltnne IS gi\en by
a 51mple apphcatwn of Pyth.tgorils' dworem,
124
[3 19]
and r,=x'll'-h
rlllt> g~mg il
conecuon
~tiltlC
Cornrnon-shotpomt gathc:r~,
Comrnon-offsel '<'ction~,
Lomrnon-mHlpomt g,Llwrs. Widdy refenc:d to ilS crvll' g.tthe!S.
( omrnon-recelV<'l gathe1~
)o
off-~et>
ofthe
hypc:bola equatlom
consLtnt non-Lelo oH:.et pl,mes or cornmonthe resulLant cunc become~ p~eudo-h}pcrbohc 11llh
is as>OC!.Itcd 11Hh thc dc~1g-n of thc DMO too!,
-! \Ve Cdn .~!~o sh011 that du; cune !S hyperbohc for ;ll
oa1~ abo\c
Equatton [3.L'i]
~dmple>
126
mq;ratum
tht'
~ummat1on
\HII
gl\t
pomt In
<1
con:,tant vdoutv
128
~------------------------------------------,
10 the Zoepputz Equat1on~ mrroduc('d m Chaptel 1 So, retauung the offset dmwns!Oll \\lrllln the nnag<' gathe p10v1des us wirh rhe pm>!b!IJty ol analysmg Jellectlvlt\'
a> d function of ofh<'t, which 1~ preu>eiy rhe goal of A\'0 dndlyst> We <~Swme ht:~<'
tlklt the lffi<~g:e g;th('l'> ha\e been properl; 0dtlened, m onler that rhe veloCtt\'
!S COJJect J goes unfmlunately berond rhe
mteJactlon between AYO plwnomenon
129
,,
C<;tllll,lf('d
(or
1n
thc:
Jt~
comphc;tcd eqwvaknr m
dilta volume 1\ott: on<-e ;gam
and then: ilre billion<; uf po1n!~ to
set~lm(
thoe
1~
one
~lKh ,lllf-il<-e
per
IDJ.igel
130
'",---
--2h,--
otho rhe .,um (fo1 .1 hmlled b.mdwJdth s1gnal) or the envelope (Jfthe s1gnal werc: a
ol all the TI curTes l'lus en~elope comtltures a ~urface ~ m {x"'' h,
1)-space,
m F1gwe 5 El, the ener.,ry Iellected b~ R bemg zew even\lh('Je cxcepr ,t!ong tluo, surf,\Ce Smcei 1'> the emdope ofthe TI surf,\Ces as D \afie:>
along l('!lt'( TOI R, the only non-Lero sample contubutwn to tlw unage fo1 pomr [)
11111 b<' along the tangenl cune C between L and TI Let u.-. defi11e I's ttmc: a> l:("-.,,,
}) .md il\ tune as tn(X, x,,. h}, where x ts the coordmate fo pmlll D FJ-om thc: rn;uhematKJI defimuon of dii emdope, l- '>iwuld oloey dt",'dt = O - h1~ 1mph<''>, bJ.,cd on
liTn.dt's Principie,
Jdk1tor R<1t]) fm
the n.nt>ltlrnc'> fur the >pentlaJ Je!lectlom on the element D ofrhe telleclm R dS thc:
ofhet\,lflC'>
131
Surbceottherefleclor's~pecutartravet timet(~.,..,h)
Somc ordt>rs of >Cale to cons1der !01 convennotMI 2-D seJsmJC, w1th .tll nuagmg
apertme of 4000m, a d1sLmce bet\l'een shor~ of 2~Jm, a 240 hydwphone streamer
with rece11ers tlt>I)' 125m, one smg-le pouu (or p1xd) on the se>IlllC ~ecnon wtll be
the sum of ct1ound 30,000 .-.<uuples, of\\hJCh only a few hundred <ll besr will ("OnsuuctJvd~ coutubute to the muge' In 3-D, the flgutes ate e\ en moJe st.tg-genng, as we
1\lll soon see
132
a~~umpuon a~
In tlll> manner, the computatlonal eHor~ ~~ draswally reduted, smce thc transform
lO J.CH' offset 1s far less computer-mtens1ve than a Ku"'thhoff summanon .1pplied to
all ofhets rwght he lhe quesuon nonetheless IS how to .,unulate a .tero-oflsct record
y,!lhout ]os., of the Oenefit of data redundan<. y
\\'e rel!lrn lora momeut to Figure 3 l!J to evaluate thl., pomt Note that reflector R's ~pecula1 nnage wll .1ppear as a tontmuous evenl on a common rmdpomt
g.1the The event JS s1mply the mter~ed!Oil m (X"'' h. l)-space of surfate 1: wllh the
pLuK '\. 111 = tonst,mt
11 hi> dmnain. a rellector 'nll clearly shol'. up 1t 1> th1., conlmuom mforrnallon
thal 1tmklnK ueloul) anaZu1< (Lhaptcr 4) tarned out at .leJu-offset lime t,, woulJ
detett Summmg ~amples along the offset dJmens1on followmg tiH~ cune pelds the
modelled 7em offscl Th1s 1~ the so-called NMO stack 1hscussed m Chapter 4, and
ll 1s at thJs
m lhe method. "'here stackmg of JeJundant data takes place
Ho 11 e\el; as(,
he along the nnnmon-n11dpomt dm1en~on, t]Hs
magc does not 1one.,pond lo
~,une reneumg element of R Th1s property has
led w tl1t concepllou of the DMO
Imaging in 3-D
.Rinning seismic data in 3-D
l:,Jlrer, wc ha>e oeen ho>~ 2-D ~uney~ are ~orteJ 111 con\enlmnal proLessmg
Nm., \\C exannne ho>~ tln~ 1S done for :~-ll datasct~
rJw loo] mcd for thc ex:lens10n to .:1-ll of the 2-D roncept of a nudpomt JS the
lmt, lt'gulM ~quare or rectaugular cell~ 111to wh~eh the area lo be pmce~~eJ IS dJnded A. t) puJI >ll.e lor one of the~e hm.1 !S hetvoecn 5 ami :~0 meter~
Sortiilg nlo hms- or bmnmg- JS schemancally Jl!ustrated m Flh'l.lfe 3 20
Fo d g1ven lLICe, the :~-D auumlwn fimwwlen w]l he deiined h
'->omte
coordmates, x:.y
x:,,y,
'->hot and retel\er elevauon (lor ~mphoty, \'le 1gnore th1s fattor hert>. although
a ~~ arr 1mport.ant parameter m land datd protes~mg)
These Iom pJrameters t.tn be then ~utte~>J>ely transformed mto
o M1dpoml coordinate>, x:",,,y,,
o II.tlf-offsels. h
o 'lhot-recCliCraznnuths, u
133
nal
\di)
~~non
mdeed populated
Bm '<Ortmg ts cs'<cntlal 111 um1 enttonal proce~smg, pa1twularly ~hen DMO ts
mcd (~ee C:hapter 1-) In the next ch.tpteT we sce how anmuth aml nmlpomt locatJOH l'>lthm the hin are nsed Explicit hmnmg hrme\'er 1> not ne<e~'<al)- fm pte-stack
neH'I tlwle~> thr bm 1tdl rfpJneut' tite wmjJhrt{! e/!morf m roordmates
3-IJ wi~ml( mwgr
134
(h)Shot(:hcopforOatlOOOm
(a)Onchotm3-l)
(cj'!lhotCh.eopforOatlOOm
(d)Sh.otCh.c..:.pforO~t2000m
cxpn:o'>-.cd
L\P",(())
111
r;; 22]
135
where x and )', .tre the coordmates of .".11 rece1~en m the .tperture aieil, T, IS the tr~a
elume !mm D to the rurrt"nt reretver r, ,.,,, ts the (OrresponJmg \H:'tght to he app!.e'
anJ L'l.x anJ !'!.) are n:celH:T intenals l he~e an: a1oumerl to he ngulw over the apertu
lf one .tdd~ the ~oune propagatum and the imagmg conJitlon, our .:1-D exten
f.:l 15]) becomt"s: ,
R,bot _k oc
i
[3 23]
'
,
136
We Lan add thdl li>r Jeep hmuons or turmng \\d\'es (see Chapter 5) the
1econlmg dural!on wtll also need to be suffiCtent for rhe reflected ener,-rv to be
rt(onlecl.Jtall
'fhr reo fi~t conchtwns Je.pend on the geologKal su ltdure and the prevalent ;e\ocJlY !ield Examples of elastJC \crer.n~' are ~al.t dome~ or ~alt canop1es, compkx faultccl ,trudures, b.Jsalt stlls, etc Such consJCieJattcms nnpmge JJrectl~ on sune
b} ,...a o[ two uuportant questwns, k.nO\>ll collectiveh a~ the 'tllununatwn
'fhe~r
,u e
quc~nons
t.Jt
[3 :! ~t l
RDccw,}h
,,.,,.,,
,1p,.,"'
pt.a...,(ry,hu)
[.:1.:!5]
(1
whcrrt"'" represen!> the tra;elttme of a JtflractJOn ray hom d sour(e to D and batk.
lo the LrceJVCI~ ouch that liS source and re(etver have m1dpomt coorJmates (x,,,, }\,.).
ofiSn h ,md a.~im uth a
\\'hlle onnmung O\'er bm coordmates and off~el ~~~el)' snn1lar to what was preSented 111 2-D (Equa.uon [3.2\J), sunmung over al\ possbie shot-rentver a7lmuth~
has d.
meanmg that need~ clanficarwn, ~hllh ts done m .t later section
the hype1-Cheop~ 111 the bm-ofhehutmuth domam rora dilm the model JescnbeJ O Flg 3 21-a lt ts >~Oith notmg
137
ln-lineShotc(}f)rdinate
~-
1
1
1
1
1
~
~.~:
~
10()11
Y, 1 ~,
!S
IIKI
- Fc11 a g1ven
\t a given pomt D 111 the ~nh-.mLue, compute Grcen fnmtum> (tra~elumes
ami wt>1ght~) hum D to all ~hor anJ n:-<e;er ti.t<e !O<anons \\lthm tlns
oiTsd range anJ m the aperturt> area 1lefiucd by the nnJpomt Jomam
Collate thest' tra<e ~.uuples at the computed trmeltmlt'> JnJ we1ght-sum
tlwm
138
200m
1000 m
Offset rDnge
2000 m
139
as~nmptmn~
140
141
.t;;"z:::~~;-;:::;_~~:~"0
- --'
__;::-o;i
"'~
drffractor D (x!J,y.,,z,)
Subsurfacecoverageatf)
142
"hcre t;,,.,,. -, the tra\Tlllme of down- and up-gomg lay' dtiTracung at D >nth the rorresponding set of angle~ 1ht~ Kirchhofl' summation means JntU!llvely that to obwm
the tdk< l\'lt} at D we can 'mm over the contnbut1on of all poss1ble 1hps and
amnuth,_ Tdkct10n
plane~ m depth
dtlll_rent from the unes 111 [3
One ol tht' 1ea~ons i-. that the lm,Ige g<~ther thmenSton can now be due<-tly the rellecnon angk <!' ltself. lnd<ed, e.a(h trace ofsuch an
i,nagc g,Hher IS tlw im,ge 111 depth of the rdlectvt} for thts <ipeufic refkcnon angle,
\duch I'i cxacth whatA\A(Amplltude \i:1sm Angle) "'after' "Jhe departurcfrom llatne~' f .111 e\ent 111 thts dom,un 1s dho a mea~ure of the torn."<.tne~~ of the velouty
nmdel, ]ll't d'i for the offset domdm, -.mct' ofhet and rdlectton angle are lmked
Acquisition footprints
larllcr, 11e defined fold
a"t'ssmg-the numoffset 11 ltillll a given offset rang-e andan amuth 1-'.irlnn the
gt\en shot-retel\ei Ml!nuth range. Coverage map' by offM-t range, ,ometimes
lrJdcrl >11th S\rnbols to al'o d1spla, aLtmuth mforrndtHm (e g- Co1~den d al, 2000),
are toutllt'h produred dunng arqutsltlon ro atd qualtty control It ts commonl} conltdercd tlur glob<ll ("OVerag-e maps and coverage maps per oiTset ought to be a~ reguldT ;s po'>'lble. \\'hen rhi-. -, 1101 the ta'ie, extra data l\111 need 10 be al.qUtl"t'd to till
thc ~..1p1 Th1s IS knm\11 a-. m-ji// acqur<rfmn
1 ht~ prdctiul approadt.., supponed by the fdtt th<lt ~:quatwm [3 24] and [3.25]
reqtnre legltlar samphng of the recorded wavefield, e1ther tn tlw ~hot and recet\'er
coordmates or m mtdpomt coordtn,Jtes, ofl~et and a1.1mUth.
143
8tnol.lc
lt'r't'l''rm'IT
~~~~='~,__~
:::~
""'"'"
-~,\
(b)Bintracccount
perpattcmcyclc
\\l1at h.Ippcm then. when for any practica! reasons, th1s 1~ not the case'
Figure 3 24 auns to danfi. th1s ssue. Sm(e we do not know whedter D !<; a dlftiattor oran elernent of a reflecto! or fwe assume It Js a reflector, wc don't know
what Hs dtp and ;uimuth l'.i!l be, an 1deal acquisiuon would be surh rhat each facet
(fl, cp) for elernent D l'.ould be ~truck by reOected
covenng the full
of
reflectton angles l.jl and aLunuths 3 fh1s !S
a very se\eu.,
and
Illlpractlcal con~tr<llllt. e~penally when 11e constder that onlv lho'e tra(e<; po~~essing
-.perutn- properttes at D wlil evemuali rontnbute construrtll'eiy to rhe lmage'
As d result, an 1magmg 11111 be Imperfect, due 10 tlw poor a\eragmg- out of the
non-spendar contnbutwn, amlleadng to Jmagmg 'noJse' In the extreme Ca<;e, the
reflectwn 1\!ll not be nnag-ed at all, f no active recelH"IS are pre~ent mcr the the
Fresnel Zone <;unoundmg the ernerg-en(_e of the sperular mfo1 manon Once agan,
the data redundancv lmut-. the phenomenon\ eiTect. but there are stdl 1mportant
anplications 111 term-. of tht> final subsurlace image quaht), and artefach- known as
And the better the O\erall
144
th!S olhet 1ange and the typKal cyd1uty of sut h , tover,ge pdttern (Figure 3 25-b),
dc<;pite the dCt that lt IS drdwn ,s;ununp; no ~trt'amer fedthermg anda regular shpcoune rhi' Irregulai cvclit pattern leads to dmphtude data artefact<; known as
dearly Vl'iible on the um~tant time ~ectwn m Hgun_ 3.25-c lmagmg metbtD\10 ,JS m thi; specific <.ase, but also Km::hhoff pre-<;ta<.k rmgration;) are only
<.ap.Jhlt: of part1ally 'beahng' su<.h artef.Kts
Othet IJummatum-related al tdacts mdv be more troub]e,onw, smce the dre
k~' obous Specditally, amphtude studtes should be nm alongsde dlummatton
-.rurlies so<; to venfy whether amphtude anomahes relate to actual p;eology ratlwr
thdn tlw ptbslbtlnv uf acqmsition-prO<essmg .trtefarts'
fm,dly, we need tu nwntwn ohadow wnes, areds \vhere no pnm<n-y rdlc<.tton
ml(ll m.ttion ; avadabk. the result of .trqwsitiun ,Jrrav design. \\'e shouklnevei furget that m compl~x settmgs,_ there wl_l be nm_es m the sub~urface 11h1Ch _are 51111p!y
110 dtst e1mble u~mg reflernon se1smiC techmtue'i. no maner what acqut~ltlon sy~
wm deployed'
tr
145
Rays can he e'enh'-.,p..!ct>d at the ~ur!dn ernuldtlllg the regular ourf._ce coverag-e map. The densrrv of ra}s ,tnkmg ea<-h ..lt-e.t of the rdkctors m dt>pth
(an be measured '11u~ tedmique , rcfened to <IS an 11/ummatwn >lady. ~HKe
tllumm,Jtron map ofthe reflet tor m depth for a regnlar cmerap;e
Note that thts represen t., a J.ero-off.,et sub<;e! ofthe suhsurb<-e
cover<~ge maJs, and corresponds tiJ fl and 1:p hmJted to !\,,~,,, and 'P.~""" and
~o
rav' c.m nol'. have .m '1deal' rq.,rulat sp.1ung n depth, but wlil
emerge m dll irreguLtr pattern at the Sllrface Thts pattern ~how., 111 pnnupk where to lav out the arqwsttwn wstelll m a non-regular, vet optrmal,
manner 111 mUerto en,ure an opumal unagmg o! the sub;urface
TJw,e latter hH> optlom ,re niaor nnprovements unupared to tlw lirst They
nouethdes' h.nT then lnmt<ltlOns they rcly heavrly on tlw arcuracy of the model
and solelv .tddrt''S rhe 1.ero-oHi.et questton his means all dkct., re!dted to non
tem-off.,et, sud1 as st,JCkmg quahty, vdouty ;md ,uusotropy mea,urements, IHII not
be full} a<-counted for
Tlhumn..lt!On ~tudres are now common pracure 111 the destgn of suneys, e<;peually 111 romplex geologxal settmgo. pnwrdmg a rough rnodel of tlw ~ubsurface can be
estim,ted
Various aperture definitions
the rh01ce of aperture 1" I.TUCJ,tlrn rm,gmg Remernber that f
the speruLtr ravs
non zero-o!Tset) are not 1111hm the apt>rture, rhe correspondmg rt'lkctor will not be tmagcdl .\Ioreover. rf the aperture IS too small, nonspecular data 1\111 not be
out m the Kmhhoff summatum
pmress Thne 1> therefmr a drrrct
oj the
111!11 the
and
n:dmulh of tejlerlon that can br 111/rtged and spatwl re~olutwn, as
1 1O
;) ~1 tlh1~trate
The ddilllt!On of apenure l'anes 111th the techmque used
Fm common--,hot
the aperture 1~ naturallv lmnted ro the arnve
A s<rond ddininon 1s those shoh wluch are um1amed
In common-uffset mtgratwn, the aperture IS ddined a' tlw bm area around
the nnage point coordina te (Frgure :1
It ts generallv desrgnt>d as a rectanexpn_,sed tn acquhlt!On d!reCtlOtl
and rross-,JCqUI'lflOn dne<:tlOII
Note th,Jt rhere are reret\Tf., ,md
outside tlw dperture area fo1
non-zero ofi.,els
For common-.mgk nuagmg, the ..!perture ts defined as tlw range of reflecnon
ami rdlecnon plane d71mutlh l'.e wtsh to sean In thc1 ca1e, thr rtl)' fmcmodelwllldirfate the:,mjme itpl'llure
Practicar solutions for 'sub-optimal' surveys: what can imaging do?
Optmusmg arqm<;rtton destgn m the tield ts one route around the
acqui'oltion ..rtef,JCt,,
for acqur,rnon related artefacts
~ition
146
lootpnnr'
147
rays corre~ponrlmg to all auuuerl traces It '' mdet'rl a ma~~l\e oh, but we
shrmld notl'orget tbat m K11d1hoff pre-<;tack rmgratwn, mo~t oftlus Js done
anyway dS rays must be cakulaterl through the Lurrem \elority model
'lhi<i l.nwr rnerhod rs wdl adapted tonew devdopments 111 rornmon-ref1ectron
angle Kirrhhoff summatron, smce thrs novel ,lppnMch ts rndeed 'ref1ector-onented' It LOnsJsts of elfectJI'eiy perform111g- the surnmauon over reflector's d1p
ami allmuth (fl, cp) and {(r a rdng-e of reflection angle~
Agam, this reqmres
data mterpolatwn, as a regui.Jr ~arnplmg- 111 (fl, rp) doe' not 1111plv a regular
acqut~ition geometn !'he herwf1t ofthts approarh , ob\'JOU> for .A\'A <lnalysrs,
but also for an rmproved (though foned ) co1erage m depth
tr
"JO condude tlus St'Lt!On, Wt' need to stre<;s the 1mport.mce of the reldttonslup
betweo:n acquhlllon parameten and pmct'~<;mg te< hmques. Adaptmg <lcqur,rtion
geometrv cost-ef!-l_ctr\elv m <;uch a 11av to produce a rdiable ,unplitude-pre<;erved
nnagt' of the ~ub~urface pre<;ent~ a lllaJor Lhallenge dhead for geophysrcrsts workmg
m complex geologKal envrronmenh
lhe ultrmare loo! r~ complt'mentan ,cqmsnron For the proLes-.or, pre-staLk
KrrchboiT tmagmg g11e~ ,Jl dw requrred mformatJon to dragnme -.hadmv zones.
VVhile he prons~e' rhe data, lw can a~ceitain where mr~<;mg trace' !re ami wbich
acrm~Jtmn anay de~tgn h reqmred to optnmse ddta recuper.Jtron m the field. Thts
new appwach ha~ just begun m the ~t't~mrc mdustry, but mw that wrll no doubt
de..dop m the furure, e>pec,ily a<; computmg- power fauhtate<; fasrer and fa~ter proce~>mg The lmk~ bet\\"een acqmsrtmn, prores-.mg anrlmterpretanon can therefore
onlv hL-come tig-hter m the future.
148
ttnues ro IJ!(_rea~c. \-Ve can eastly see that pre-st.td.. tmap;mg te(hmque' 11tll raptdly
beconw the st.ntdard
cla~sKal
~hortcuts' are sull wtdelv used and we hst thcm
bdOI'>'.
tog-ether "-!!ha rekren(e to where the nwthod" aw addre.,sed m thts book
.\"1\I. Dl\10 and CR'i ~tad.. mg, followed by pmt-stack mtg-tatwn (Chaptets '1.
149
certam 'itmpillicatlll., dl'e rhercfore m<1dc One ot rhc most commonly u.,ed IS to calcul<tte rlw lunctmus u'mg a toar'e g-nd, \Hth the results bemg saved ,, , tahle, e\ en
rhoup;h rhese file~ ,n-e sti\1 consider;1ble m <;u.el The tr,l\elnme pa1amcters and
wetght., reqw1ed dttnng: the rmagng an:' ~Ultes.,lnlv de11ved, a' needed, from the
t.!hu!ated ,,,]ueo.
\liith tlw ~ame toncern for nnmencal cftinency, modern algonthms avmd calculV\o pre-determmed p1nnts (lwo-pomt la)' lmcmg),
number of ikratlom lnstead, the software
from a pomt at the surf~cc or from
..1 pomt at depth figure 5 10 '' an examplc ol one .,uch ~-D ,.,.,,efront-bascd (,een
functiou 1 ,]lul,it\011 Dtffdent tech111ques u~mg beams or wa,efronts allo\v thc ncce~~dn p..!ramcter-. dt the nodepmn/' of dw coane gnd to be takulated Among rhe
(Cenen~ el al, 1982).
(Bevdoun & Keho, 1987).
of the r<1y be<lm" dunng prupag.ttron 10 ensure tlw nccessary
prenswn ts mamt;~1ned
La,tlv, we shm1ld mennon the work of\'1dale (198fl), who used a finlle drtlerence
version of thc Eikonal dtfferentla1 cquanon 11 16] mennoned m Lhaptei 1 to cakulate tr;\clume' over <1 ~pattd! g11d >nth ;1 h1gh numenc<l1
Be~tde the fact
tll..Jt du~ method on1y allows us to lakulate travelt1me;; and not
Creen fun<-twn
1\eJghtmg,, n ;]so only gtH'" the t1me of the frrst \VdH'front anwmg at , pMncular
pmnl wtthm the gnd 1 lowen'r, rcrent work ha., shown the uuportance of multi-
150
Clayton R and Stolt R, 19Hl. A Born-\\"KBJ uwets1on method for atomt1r refleLtmn
d'-lta Gpoph;;tl\'. 4fi i!J.'i9-l567
Cordsen A, Galbraith M and Peirce J, 2000, Pldnnmg l;md :1-D suJvey' Soczd)' 11
h,/ollttwn
Gardner G. and
resolunon functmn m
'Ct'!mc prestad, depth un;tgmg,
HanitLsch e, qg_ Compan<;on of \Vetgh., 111 prestark amphtude-pn: .. enmg
Kulhhofi dcpth m1gra.tton, Groph)WI, 62, lfl12-1816.
Houllevigue H, Delesalle H and de Bazelaire E (1!.!99)
lUhe cleriHd ti-orn multt-allmuth 30 marine acqui~rtiom, (], EAGA
l-08
151
amphtude
a Gcnettc
2000, The
vlfl No9,
Lambar G, Lucio P. and Hanyga A., 1996, Two-dnnenstonal mulnvalued tiaveltnne dml dlllphtude map~ by umform .,amphng ofray ield, Geoph)'l f lnt, 125,
5R1-598
Lumley DE, ClaerboutJF and Bevc D, 1994. Ant1-ahased Knchhotl 3-D mtg~<lt!On,
64thAnn lntmwt MI; ~1!( o)Ev.pl Groph~o, 12fl2-12RS
Podvin X and Lecompte 1, 1991. Finte-diUerence compurauon of tl'dVcitimes m
velo< 1tv models A m,J<;Sivel} par,IJel appmach and Its a.,so(atGI'ophJWnlfmona/, ]():) 'l.l-281
Rousseau V, Nicoletis, Svay-LucasJ and Rakotoarisoa H, 2001, ;)D tme amphtude
nugrauon bv tegularJ<,atlon m <mgle dom,un, 62 'Confrrl'nrr E4GE, B-13
ScalesJA, 199.?, 'f'hi'OJ) n(Snsrmr Jmagmg (rllw' Xoll"i m Amtil Senreo No 55).
'Spnnger \h],g-, Ber]m
Stone D, 1994, De,igning ~e!SillJC <;urvey., m tv.o and three dunens1on~ Sor of Expl
Geophy;, 24"1. ('" E<hted hy Ch,r]e., A Mceder)
Sullivan M and Cohen J, 198, Prestalk Knc hhoff" mversion of <ommon-oflSet data.
GrojJhwcs,52 74.1J-7.1J4.
Tarantola A, 1984, fnver.,Joll uf Se1smK Rdkrtlon Data 1n thc Acoustlc
Appro:>..nnation (;ropfrJ\1{.'' 49 1259-1266
Tarantola A, 19R, lmIT\P Pmblrm 1'hem) ,\frtlmd; for Dnfrt lillm; 111!11 .Hodel
ltUflml'frr F>IW!illi0/1 Fhe\ler, Amsterdam
Vidale JE, 19R8, Fmltc-Dtttereme ThlVdtime C.Jlculatlons Bull Se~:> Soc. A111 , 78.
2062-2076
WeigantJ, Hoover G, SteinJ and Clark B, 2001, EL1stK modellmg and waw equanon finite
IlllgratiOtl m a cmnplex offshun Cahfornlil
gcolog-ir.tl sertmg,
Interna/ Aflg 501.
Groplr;s 953-956
Yilmaz O, 2001, Se1smu Ddta . \nahs1s.
Coopcr,
dml Doherty. S M , I<:d.,
SciomiC Data Analys" Vol. 2, 02: Soc ol Expl. Geophys., 1001-2027
Yilmaz O. 2000, S~:1~mit Data .\naly,is, m Cooper, M R and Dohertv, S M , Ed.,
Set'>mlc Ll;na A11alv~IS \01 1, Ol: Soc of Lxpl C,eoph)s, 1000
'"'
'
1
'""~
__
'
the d}Him/11
the mrreasmg data redundanq th:Jt was due lo thc
of data arqU!sltwn
teclmiques dunng thc l950s. The goalts to sum JelOidings illununatmg the ~ame
sub>Ud<lce po111t, ID order to muease both sgnal-to-DOISe and p11mary-to-mult1ple
refkctmn
1dea
'
.
v,.(z)=
a\erage~~rllcal "ehJCltyatdepthz
Vm,.{l)-
nnsv~r!Jeal
pom!=commoo"udpoml
,e]ocnyatdeptltz
11 Js obvmu., thar rhe retlecnon tune wdl varv 1\ 1th olhet. Ti> be abk to -.um reflecIH>ns and hence benefn fmn1 thead~.mtages ofmulu-f<)ld coverage, we mu>l correct
the rhflerem recon.ling~. and mon them all lo a common referen< e Tlw lliO>t logJc.t! <ho~te o/efcrcnu time., th.-1t ol zero-ofhet
"1 he torrection 1tself depends on the 'nbsurfate modeJmolved In pratl!le, lhe
NI\[(_)< orrnnon 1s <l1o.,en 1\hen .-1 Simple tnodel of tlw suh-.urfa<e 1S assumed 1 e a
homogeneous model of honzmaal 1-el\ettors In th1> model, .-1pphcat1on of
t\leorem mdlLdte'> 1hat the .1rnva! tune of ; 1-eOeclwn Will he a hyperof the sonrte-H'< e1ver olbet, the ,]wrtesl t1me bemg for zero-oft:Set.
sis
and that b
~tratified
IJuslr.-~ted
tl1e soune-receJ\ei
1.'>, at 111001, of rlte <~me onier a~
mvestig:Jtlon depth.
D11~ forii!u!a 1~ <11 the /e,rt of st&kw,-vdool) aniJhm, :Jnd I'>C recast 1t ~hghtly
differentlv here
.lt
tuve~ttgatton
Tlw N:'I.IO <orrectwn 1'> ba~ed on rh1~ cquatlon, ;md tlms ou the underhmg suhmodd lt correcr-, thc ,-rjv;Jnmc t(h) ot a 1eflection rerorded with offset h,
re .. tormg ti lo lhe theoretual tnne r, lh<ll would hdl't' been reconkd V..llh .tero-offset.
tlu~ corre ton depcnds on both thc
1 but ~1nre we are onh mterOnh
IS molved tn
~tllf.tce
10
' (2h
= t;;1.. v"'1o
t1
ro
L\t:>:\K> = 11, -t 0
!"he lerrn normal moveout" or 'NI\[0' IS llltloduced :Js 1t 1-efer~ to the <h:Jnge tn
time .t\ one movcs <1W.t}' rrom the normal-ra ~ilu.1twn The uansforrn
2h to zero-off&ei!S c:Jlled the NI\[(_) <orecuon and -, 1llu~trated m figure
}02
154
t,.
t.,
y~---,
llCtCS\.tf\
:\ole th~l the correcuon for .t g1ven ofhet 1aneswnh ttme
\ , 11 ,,. alld ts wh~ thts cotJ.'>tltures a
-\n
t ..,
fllOCe~~
.-1
'1/reh f(I{IOI',
1vhKh
l.'>
tite
155
rallO ol a >;JVen tnne mtenal bei(Jre aud after correctiUn and generally
expressed a~ ..1 perrenlap;e, 1~ ; lmHt:Jtlon ol 1!1e dynamJC <orreroon
The ~tretch l:ldor increa-.es 1\ 1th off~el .-md detna~es w1th t,, ;m\\'"'" A stretch
1.-~rror ol ~O'Yc L'> generalh :Jtcepted "1 hn, ts ea~tly reacherl m pracuce, thus
of the available data :JI long offsets and for sl1ot1 1:,.
str:Jtdied model th1~ method of ~miUlaling a zero-offsd propag.-Jt!On IS e.act lor propag<~tion trme~, rt IS uot corren m 1erms of
amplitudes \Ve nole m passmg th.-11
tl1e :lllll JS
to pre~erve ex:Jctly tbe ref1ectl()O rodficrent
to
:Jnd no1 to
modd tl1e amphtude ol the real trace tl1at would be seen at zero-offset.
Standard NMO prme~smg thus (\sregards the phy~1cal me.-mmg ol amphtude.
fhe rav rorrespondmg to tomndcnt sonrce and rererver w]l he tl1e normal
r;y \Vh1bt liue lor tl1e Simple model
mherenlly mtomplete
.\lternauvdy, lhe trates omld be rnllected b\ common offset .-1nd the NMO
rorrection applwd m 1h1s dom.-un, rhe result bemg , .,e1smic ~ecuon at tero-offset. Jf
llw subsud:Jte mode]s closc lo lh:Jt ol the D1x model, :JDd tf the corntuon \'eloul\ 1S rhosen preci.-;;el~, lhen ail Lell:J-ofhet ~ectiOllS, e..tch from <1 dtfkrent orgmal ofl~
ser, ~honltl be .-1hke, and tl1e\ lll.-1~ rl1u~ be a1eraged
!56
2J \Ve now
an;ly~~
(a)Common-midpoinlgather
!57
hgure 4 03 lt
1~ (Oll~tlucted
column by tolumn,
torresponding lo a
lhe to!umnJ> obtamed hy applymg <ID t\MQ
\ ' , ,0
:cmd tl1en ~umnung the torrecravJJ!Jhlc, 11e t<lll
takulate the
VN,.J
10
IS
158
l'r/onty j1rhi '\!ole lh.-1t lll proLessmg yngon, thc expn,~wn 'st<Jcl..mg
J<, usu:Jlh ~horttned lo 'velonry .mal~~1.<,'- a term nstd repeatedh
JddttJO)il
~hm\"11 i11 the ex.unpk 111 F1gure 4 04
1 he ;emblame paneill~ell, wh1ch IS g-euer<t!ly Jmprovt"d by aver.tgmg oWT a
lB' tn](lpomt
gather~
<,t"SmH
mu~t
~eclmn
159
!he ~~~ual ,hgnmt"nt of rt"llectlOHS can bt" Lht"Lked on tht" torrected CMP
gathe1 the ga1her 10 mkraC!Ively corn'< ted and d1-.plaved as the mterprder
moveo h1~ un sor on the semhlance plot
tho,,. affordmg a cht"< l on tht" later:ll consJsten(..y ol the
the \\hole ~tudy are:J, :lit" abo Widel; used
16{1
uple rcmov<~.b, ~tata torretllll'., ett It also a~;ume., that rhe dat.iset h,-~s been ;orted UltO m](lpo111t g;tJers 01 b1os (see Figure :1 20)
he mam ;lep~ m fi1t" sequeoce are a' lollow~
~ 1 rstly, we dt"cJde on the deosllv ;nr\loc<~.tJOn of the vt"!(}( ny ,m,~'M:'" A senes
0 '\'clontv Jioes', chmen m the acquisition r\1recuon for m;:uine ~unn~ 1re
selected 500 tn apart
extra<t bm gatl1en. e\'t"IT .'iOO m.ilong the<,e !mes (orlCt" aga111, th" figure
161
'Velocity-independent' methods
The <1.-~sstcal .-1pproach deMTtbed above Marts from an exphot model of the ~ub~ur-
appm.-1dll'~,
162
1\ote lhat. m gt>ner.Jl, thl~ tnne \'.Jlne 15 mdept"nclcnt of tht> rdlt"t tor':, 1cal \'t"l'lllal
time t" except fm homogcnt"OU., mcd1a 1t <h.uattenzes the cundtll!C
,dternat1vely, the sh,pc dc.,cHht>d by thc hypcrbola on
[4 :Jj 15 indq>t"!Hlent ot tl1t" Jt>al \CioCitic~ m thc 'ub~IU
valnt> m tlw IHllllCrhatt" \'H 1111ty of rhc surfacc 1 h1s
11 10 a paramcte1 ltuposed b\
for mo.nne ~ei,mH
163
164
-y:.--r --.r. . 1~
r. \,
y~~
-
'
..
{a)TpurV""'>O
~-!
(~)Tp<O;
v,,.,.'<O!
protcs~
1he rr,m~L1tt'd hype1 bola techmqnt" clocnbcd abo\'e 1> onc such t>xamplc \\'t" now
u.m,Hlet l\1'0 othcn. rcstdual \'("l()(lf\ dnalvs1s aml1mersuJn
l he tclt"a behind rt>~idual \d(){ in, anapis 1~ lo .1pph an ntral 1 orrecnon lo a
filM, l,lp!dl) perlornwd, maniJa! pKk, followt>d by ~ub.,cq1wnt rdincmt"nt, hopt>fttll}
J.lllllJ<llll
Tbe \t>loltfy anah~~~ 1~ lhn~ pt>rtornwd Hll11o '>tage'>
Ftr~l. a lrJ.dttwnal ve](){ tl) analst~ ts performt"d wttlt a manttal ptd;:, gwmg an
M"<ki"gwi<<Ci<< !lddY,,/x,,
corrcction to t.he g,uhen. a'> de~t!!bcd cJ.rlier Th1s to!Tt"Ct!On loan mitJ.l and
tnnc t, car1 be l"t"lll'lttcn .1~
p!ovi~ton,]
165
!( lht'\'t'lOI\[j'\"m,
to r, Howevcr, tlus b not ntu:ssdrily lhe td,e, ,nd a SKond rdintng opc!atum may;
rhcrt"fore bt" nqumd Fvcn lhough lhc lllllldi p1Lk 1~ onl ,ppwxllll,ltc, tlus second
torrettlon w1ll be mucl1 o,Jllallci llldll the rsl lh mtt-ntionally con~training- the second tonecoon, we cm un thal 1hc tina\ result doe~ not d(\.Jdtc drastJ<<llh fmm the
miti.ll Hck, and "e a1e ablc to
tlw procc%, w1th tht" automaiK p1Ckmg
bKOJillng le>s randtom ,,a rest1lt
tlu number of pa!d!llt"ters thm need
to be e1aludtcd 15 Jeduced, espeCJalh >mu rhc dJ>t"!g-cnct" fwm 1he mmal pKk has
bcen re>tnned
Next, an dSSIJmptwn must be no.1de about tbe rt"SidU<li tOJTectlon rt"qUHt"d
IJ it J> d>sumed ll\wbolic as 111 thc init1al ton"t"CIIon. amlH
l]. the dpp!JcatJOil o[ a 7CIO residual correUuJn to thc Uli!Jal
mfimte re;cJu,tl vclocnv \
\el] Wt"ll adaptt"d to Ie,Hlual corean be transfo noed mto the ICW]IJal velm !ty, g-JYJng-a le5UIIdenved frmn cqu,nwn [4 tlj, and the final ~I.Hkmg
[410]
p wrll tdke po~IJVt" or rwg-al!Vt" valnc~ ;l(tonlmg to whetlwr the mare ellher O\t"T- 01 lllldt"rt''iOmattd, dS 1111l llw resrdudl I. fhe ~e\ec
tion criteria u~ed !01 an ,nnomatl< o,dettion o! p noa} wdl be the ~amt" a~ !01 the
,maly.,Js
o a '>lltllllldtlon o1 a Wlnblance m<~xmnun, etc
i\onethcle.,;, m tlu~ 'cumrl phase an autom<~tK Jlltkmg tan be appht"d to find thc
al each umc t, Nott" that
166
r4 121
167
tlon [4 12] il.~hould be nott>d howt"Vt"f tha1 ClJuanou [4 12], !Jkct"tuatlon~ [4 RJ and
[4 10], 1~ also an OS(Ulatl!lg rcl,uwnslllp, ~ad f(n short oflsels Consequently, the
; lt>~~ a({ uralt' thau tbe RMO procedure
\""""' vclontle~ are, howevel, \\idcly u~t"d a~ vt"lout fuurnon~ lor otht"r purpo~es,
a~ j the wew con\'entional \'""' ~clocltit"~
168
(a)Themapplngprocedure
!romlt,,p,jtosynthelicCMPgatlter
P, P.,
(b)Titeinvenionpmblcm:
findA(lu,p)thatmap
intutheactualmidpointgathe
pie' ni tlw \Jme ampl1tude d, platt""d d!ong a ~t""ttton of tire parabolte t(lr) cunc
defirlt""d by t""quatwn [4.11 J 'IIH~ porton of tht"" ]MidiJOla bt""gms wtth the flrst off>ct
m the gatht""t and umtmue~ urllll llw ld~l tratt"" be[oT"t"" dtt"" mute ctn-vc A.nothcr
1mpt1l,e of dmplllndt b, ~ituatt""d dl a difft""rent (1,, p) pO'tron wtll bt> lransformcd
mio dlllht""I parahold, dlld so on
l be mapJLng 1\ dddlltve w!lt""rt"" the patabold~ llllt""T~t""tt, amphtndt""~ a and b wtll
l ht\ pwct""durt"" tan bl:' exlt""!Hlt""d lo dll pmlll\ "tllun d gtvt""n amphtude plot
rht"" pnKt""S~ l"t""ptt>~ent~ ,mtnvt>rSt"" ttan~folmatton 01, mort"" prt""CJ~cly, a lramdnnt 111/if!hludP
wlruflllwn, which b~ ~tlpt>nmpo\ng- portion~ of thc
ilw
IIllllt""d C\fP gatht>r L'.p, ,,,,{1,, h) ror-
Ap,,,.,.(t,.,n)~J'(A(t,,p)),
[413]
1\lll'te F descnbes tlw linear tram.formatton of a \alue m the (p, 10 )-domam mto a
'-<'1 ol
t,,)-domam
1he 1nven1on
tn,nlt clo>est to tbc actual CMP gathcr whcn
whu.h 'bt>st explams thc dat.t'
Pl)bkrn
lind ,11 ~amplt""~ a [or
"'F (,\ ,,(t 0 ,p)) re,emhlc~
169
~~:(,'p(t 0 ,h)-,;P,,.(A,(t,,.p,))j'
~~:~~::~~~:~:~!~:~~'~:~:~~~::;~~,~~:~ami~
st<tnclard example
lJlltTtcd The oohmon mtght
[114]
01
to
~~::~:~q~~ .:~:~:;lon,j
or addi1ion
/Wr>f to the data to
be found llnough kaM-means ~qttdl'C~ analysis.
~~t~~~~:::~~,~~~~5a:~~:~~~:~~:;;~~~~;~~.'~~;t:~:~~~~ :~~::~,:~:~:~:~~~~:s~~:~~~~;~l~~
01eh rlw >olunon of the fitst Herauon m th1; Ld>tl~ nonc othCJ than lhe amplitude~
plot nmmally obtaHJed
a >ummanon dlong liw JMtabolas Sub'>t'tllt'nt lleratums~
refme tlw plol,
the ;meanng aoualed wHh each mark-~
er he 1elout) anahs1s
lo pH k In partll ula1; pnmary and}
muluple JJit\ab betome pmg1e>S11eh nore tlcarl dcfined and bettet sep.1ra1t'd.An
automa11t pKkmg wl\ tlwrefo1e be mole stablc and easJer to HMJMge on such a plot.
).]ott" tl1a1 the d1splay pro\'ided by.\ !S not a semblance plot, but 1-cpresent> the
deunnpo;~twn of the daw
nas allow> us to rcconsnut tal!
anal~>eo
ha> developed
170
r2
ond-oJ<kl nomentllln)
IIJJI!Oll
SIIIIITil'djOI
\Tloul~
ll!rl1/llllff0
Run ,\ fiJst COil\Cntonal \t>lout\ anah'>l' to c~lllll<lte thc fint p<uan1cter a a'> a
fllllltlon of 1, ,\.n ex,tmJnatJon o! tl1e <OTit'<tt>d
kad toa mutt"
hemg ,tpphed to the gathe1 to enSUJt' th<~t tlw
lt'!ill doe~ not
mfluemt' rhe me,\,IIH"lllt"IIt o! a(t,) 1 lu~ J<; Slmlla! to tlw <Oil\"clltlonal ;LHkand ,can the paramcte1
171
b(t,) e he Crltertoll ; stJI tht" 'flatnt"~S' of the g-ather 0\'Cr .111 otf~t"t;, poss1hly
mt"dsured. wnh a semblanct" luncnon
Tht5 prmcdure 1~ lahorHlUS and Unte tonsummg lt dot"~ nor guarantce ton~er.;;
geru e, as the ptckmg of b 1s mfhwnred hJ the JIHUal p1ck ora
A. lt"~S 5atJsf,KtoJ-y, but ntort" pr<LgmatJC, a\tt>rnan~e appwach 1~ abo u sed nowa~
In tlm, St"tond method V,~;.
ts Mdtlllt"d as m tonventJonal pmces~mg.
rhts i~ ach!t"vt"d by as,nnnng that
V,, '"""""wl, cmop,nng , lrom tht>St" values.
fourth-ordeJ moveout rorrectJon is
apphed accmdmg to equatwn (2 11]
Time-offset relationship and anisotropy
So fa, Vlt' have d1~U>St>d non hyperbohc ttmt>-oltst>l tunes related to vertica]
heterogt>nt"IIY In ChapteJ 2, Wt" showed lht" equlValt"llCt" bt"twt>en \'CJ"tlcal heterogeneH and elhpta al am;ol!op~ an JdentKal rda1wn~h1p fo1 lr<Lvcltlntt" agamst offset (to St'Coml-mder n h) i~ oblalllt"d "hcthe1 tht> model1~ a>sumt>d to be hett"rogeneous 01 amsotmp1c The >tackmg vclonty analys1s will dlert"tore be the same
whether Wt" a>snme 1he modcl of the sub>mface lo be
ht"lt"!Ogt"neous or
to be hetewgeneous, "e wtll intt"l pret tlw stacklllg vdO! ny ,s a Vt"rt!Cdl rms ~t"loc!ly
Howt>vet the aw>orropy ~penahst W!ll mtt>rpret thf starkzng <Wiocl(~ as the 1N'locdt"tail heconws tmportant Vlhen thest" >tacklllg ~eloa
USt"d to dt>fine veloCJtJes for tlllte-depth comt>nJOn or migra
wc 11nestigak furthcr 111 Chapten i and 8
rhe eymvalt>nce betwet>n tlw D1x modcl and the dlllSOtrop!C modcl de>CJibed m
CIMpler 2 lctUllt"S a l,~er thaknt">S lhat IS Lu-gt> m comp,ul~On with the wavclt>ngth
of tlw St"Jsmic ~Ignal, and lt"ads toan dfet lt~t" e!lipti< al ani~otrop~ However, reccnt
work ha., shown that thl~ pdrlltlllar amsotropH modcl !S not ~Cl)' representauve of
the eUCctH" ela~lic beha~JOur o! tlw subsurfact" rhl> J> e>~enuall~ dueto the fincly
beddt>d ~trut tUn" ot the real Stth~urface and the common O< unTeJHe of c\,y~. wlurh
mtmduct" a ~tnmg mtnnsJC alll~otropy lt 1., ctnrt"ntly consJdert>d 1hat the cfleclive
\'11 model reprt"sent> , far bdtt"r approX!maiJon.
Helt" Wt' e~;t>nllall~ generalue eyuanom [4lj J.nd r2.llJ fm VTl dlllSOtropy
ancJ faCIOrLted Vfl
(\WtCJ"Ogent"OUS
(homogt"llt"Oll> dlliSOI!OptC
dlllSOttop~t mt><ha) Tlns lar~t>l)
and the more
recent \\m k at tllt" Colorado School ofM11ws (rsvankm
fhe am.,otlop modd> Vle t>xamtne are fi1~11~, a homogent>ou .., modcl, and >t"Condh, d holtzonlall~ st1 anfit>d. wquence
twn
172
[4.16]
The ,1'/oCif) r' has the ~ame ddimt1on foran dlllSotwnc mockl ,~ tl~,t g1ven abo\ e
tor the ;otmpiC c,\'>e, IMilld~ the lmutmg \alue ofthe ot,ICkmg \ekllllY ,<; the nff'iet
tend' to zem
11 ,1 homogeneouo am~otwpu medmm, th1s
\eitllal ,-elocity, dnd 10 w1itteu,
vdoot~
\', .,
l~
11 equdtlon f!J 1{ij, the h' tcnn 1ucludeo a compeusat01y f,Ktor ro, ount for term~
be\nud the fnurth-orde1 111 h
It 1'> ~A-orth notmg that, f01 the dhpt11 al dlll'>ntropy mtrodw.:t>d ahovt> as a .,pecldl
ca~e ol VTI am'>OtJOpy, when f: = &, rhe paramcrer h w11l be ?ero. Tln~ parameter 1'>
oltcn deMnhed a~ the
For T] = O, heme fOr clhptlc,]
equauon [4 16] becomeo truly hyperbolanNJtiOp).
11 lhe ora1kmg \e]ont~, howe\'er,
\dlue hom rhe vetJcal pmp.l\eiOI 11~, un le the parameter e = O ts .liso zew, 1 e the modd reverts to
an i~otro.ac honwgeneom modd
shown 111 Chapter 2 fo1 the [)x modcl, companson of equat1ons [4.16]
ancl [2 11) enable~ a honwgeneou'> amsot!Op!c modd deftned b~ th1ee pdrdmeters
ro b, estabbshed Tht~ thn:e-tcnn dlllSotroptc modd ~~ equt\'dlcnt to the heterogellt>Oih modelm teiill~ of the vanauon 111 na\eltnlle w1th ofhet 1t depends ou the
thnct" mterval \e]()( meo describiug the heterogeneit) \',,,, \""'" aud \' ,1
173
z~
(a)llumo:en~ousantsotroucmodd
t2=t"+(2h)2
0
v,;m,,
2T],u(2h)4
el ht~
Snml,rJv, thc
tt:t: denotcd
[119]
V,~n"(t;v,~"'"+(l+2lJ,rr)(2h) 2 )'
,~1
t0 =
i:.t
"1
0 ,
Howe\et~
v,"' 0 '
\""'"
=a 0 ,~.
dll
[1201
cqunalent parame-
AlkhahL1h (19011) demonott\ltcd th,t Y"'""dnd r," <ould he e~tun,ted u~mg commonmtdpoint trace g,\then U'img , thn:e-term velo< itv anal~~~~ n.undv, Wlth t, fixcd. we
au V,,,,. and TI"' to find the combmanon
the be'it ;umnldtlOn hio m fad
tepre~enh du alterniltl\e to rhe 'thrt>c-tcun'
dnli)M~'> de~cubcd earlter.
B.qudtlou f!J ! 0] no\1 cn,hlco ,n mterpretallon ol the re~ult to be made 111 tcnm of
,n t>Hectl\'e an1~otrop1( \1 r ~ubou1 t:ue mudd
<;<
174
(nterpretation of v ....c~
In
thl~ ~edmu
Cooventional interpretatioo
1he first (_QI\l111C'nt S that thc otackmg \C]o 1ry dcpends, as wc ~a\'1., on thc n,xJlllllll ofhet u~cd m the .,,ckmg veloutv anal} SI~ flgun: 1 11, t,ken from , n:al
1 l-a 111 wluch tlw dll!Sotropy h,., lxcn nt>gle( tcd, tllmtr.ltes
(Flgnn: 4 11-b) 1 he d1fferencc
cqual to dcpth (typaal mute ahw)
Comequcutl~, most ol thc tune thc ckpendc11ct: of V""' o11 otf"oct 10 ncglccted and
rhc follo\'lllg convc11Uonal rule-of-thumh 1S u,ed 111 tlw mdustry.
(a)
D~e>v.aterdeJ>Ih
model
(b)~tacl..mgelucityasafunctionofmaxlmumoff<et
175
...
d~~umed
[1 24]
Ifthe ea1 rh ~~ as~umed am~ot10pu, we mu~t {_omp ..11e equat1011 [4 Ir1] V>'lth equauons
f4 E.ll. [4 20] aud [4 21], fwm which we deJl\'e rhat
a(t 0 )==V""'"(t 11 ),
b(to)o:-function(to, vnmollell ).
[4 25]
176
s!S doe" not g-1\T <lCCC~s to \"'(o ,,), and lwucc not to tlw deprh
vrl) wnple modd
1,
t\Cu lor
tht~
nw
!971)
t'(h)o!;+~
(~'~osef
['i2GJ
ln thto et[tl<lttun, t,
In rhe hm11o~e11eom medJulll, rh1~ lmmuill<; exan, a11d the ~ta< kmg veloclly exh1b1ts
no depe11deme 011 maxnnum uli>et, a11d
equal \',,.,,. Huwe\TJ, the
~ratklllf{ velont~ show~ a
the refkctm This is the
fi1 01 llmt> we oh~en't"
l'vloieovn,
4 12 shm\'i
m
gather along
equalloll [4 211], we sum IC1le<l1011S belo11gmg lo
chffc1Tnl lo<atm11o on the
tht~ 1'> the well-known nflerlum-jJomt \j!leadtng.
Both otatk.mg \douty depe11de11ce 011 d1p and rdkttron-poml ~prc,dmg lcd to the
de\clopnrent ofDMO 111 tht> 191-\(h, which will be addressed m a later se<liOn
Stacking velocity and dip: the anisotropic case
1n the <a~e of alll~otrop), e' en 111 a homogTneous medmm, H 10 drfficult ro genelaltze th1; formuL1 furrhcr, <;lll<e a 11Umber of orher effe<t~ become 1nvohed. For
lil~talHe, the formul. m L2 71] exp1T;s pha;e \clocity d'> a lumtion ofrhe '11<omsen
p.rametef'i, yct rn order lo <alculate tr.neltuneo we abo 11eed to m.Jke use of group
\elont1e~ l11 adchtwn, the vclonty "11l dt>pend on the propagatmn angle, 'illlce the
energ) 1\lll 1101 pmp,gate w1th the same velout~ 011 H> outgolilg a11d uuonung path~
for a gwen offset
Fm exampk, m the s1tuatro11 11lu;trated 111 FlguiT !J 13-a, o[ a d1ppmg reflecto
~rtualed u11de1 a homogeneous amootropu V'l J mednm1. we observe that the .reroofF;et 1ay 1; rectrhuear he<ause the med1um 1~ homoge11eou~. ~eltt 1~ not perpendiu]a lo tht' 1TflectOJ; as would he the <a~e tl thc med1um l\e1T <;otrop!C 'Lhe ray
propagare; w1th a
a11glc 6, the relat1on~tnp
betwet>n the
[1 :'JH]
178
equ,1non
;JfiJ!lioonupH
(140)). ho\1e\e1; ougg-csted a
appm"- 1m,tmn ro the van,tlon 111 thc nmo \elm H)
and weak anJSOtmpy, rh1~ e],nwn~hp b wntLen,
\',,,
model
fu tlus exp1essmn. V,,, (O) 1~ the muo \Tlouly f01 1.ero dtp. as gJVt:n m
[4 ltll \ni,otop~ rc,tturcs 111 thl~ fonnula \la tht' parameter , whl]sr a
also ;ecn, ~mibr to th.;r 111 lhe Le\ m d1p tum. Ir ts pn:nsdy th1s d1p whJCh JS corIU ter! Oo1 .tn J~otrow caoe) b) the dip mo\eoul {D:\10) proces~ ddincd later m thc
;
a,
179
ofl.cvm (197l), who g,l\'e a l(h) limnnla lora thppmg-rn,rkcr 111 a 3D homog-eut<ous
medwm, leadi11g lo a ~ta kmg ve!()( ity expresscd a~ V/ os(dip)
fh1~ 1~ 11\uslratcd m 2Il 111 .Figure 1 12, wherc the pmut P Iepie~enl> the retlt"(:.
tmu poinl for the Illldpomt tr,ce x .. , ami o!Tset 2h 011 , rdk lm wilh a clip fl The
tia\ellunc a\o11g rhe palll ~Pr 1s g1ve11 by cquanon [1 261
Ir 1~ c;-;enual to note liom tht~ fcnmula lhe tlldt llllle t, (more oftc11
'' rhc tnnc alo11g the normal
rf N 'lhe wmmm,-m;dpo;o,
......
-
~-~_,_"_i~---_'e-_~
:""~,__ ._""-'
!
1
..
_+---
(a)DepthmndeJ(rrumFgure4.12)
(b)i\lidllointgatheratX,,.=4000
180
.
<(h,l
7'~
Thts
Lt'llll
111
2D ao Iollows
2h 2
bl""--sin8 cos8,
VlN
l bxl""~=~sm8.
eos8 VtN
l!J29J
181
Equally,
(ra~> ~hown
X,u
rn Ftgure
t(h,)
Rt:(all rhat the goal of the O :VIO operauon !Sto t1an~form rhc onnno11-offser
scctron mto the >e<.tJon that would havc be-en tccorded wtth a zew souHe-n:ceJver
oflser 2h "' O \\'hcrc would rhe rdle( twn po1nt P be recorded and J~plaved Wlth a
l430j
rhc rcnl! (2hf\')' ~ugge>l'i the appJranon of an :"JMO corn:ct1ou wrth \elo(tty \:
l!w, lcad~ toa 11ew tlllle t',, defined bv
e(h)==t~+~,'-
f431J
2-~n8 =p=~:-
[432]
As the \aJuble p ts nol cxphntl) depc11dcnt on Y, thc 0).1() opcrathm a11 he bmkcn dovm iulo lv.o '>Kp~
-\n nutwll\IAJUwnectum ;_'t/h 1'1'/ont) F, a<cordmg to cqu,\tmn lJ! 31], thl~ 1~ the
(Onertion wev.ould apply for a 7t:JO dtp rc!1ector
.\ ocumd (Ol'IC({vc ope1at1o11 whcrc rhcre 1~ no long-er any expll(Jl depcndC11<t: ou 1 do< tl), onl~ on thc .1pparent dtp of lhe rdle< lm v..uh time
182
(_l<;Jll);"thr v,1nabk., rlcfincrl abO\C', we c,m .,J10w that thc DMO late la] 1111!-jT,lllon dJs(u.,mg tllt~ not.HIOII of F1guw 4 12), IMsed un equatum~ [4 2Gj
ranuo. b" =
and 11 291
tan be V>Tillen .ts
t~
to =
~t;-.-(h p):
[4 341
n~~,
,lJld
In
hgwe
183
In ,lrlrlltwn, we al&o l..nu1\ thitt the poso;1bk \dlues of the ume-d1p puna zero-offset
sert10n are mcvtably con~lrdllled bell>een the honzunt,l reflector CdSe where the
lllllC-tp Js ECHJ (m thc homogcncous ca~e) dnd rhe vertttdl reflector 1'.-htch has a
maxlllllllll time time-rlip p = 2f\T T!m mean~ thdl DMO nugration wll only be
tJOS'>thle along- the .ut of the clltp~e rlescnbed b1
.Vote m 1fn1
lillf
Thi~
torrc,pondeme ~~ u~crl
tu
the Or.lo uperatur, either to protert ag-atmt aha~mg orto liher out unrcahsttc apparent thps dunng the DMO opcr.ltJon, a'i l'.t!l be seenlater
184
185
l'h,~ mute
.tpparcnt Jips
g-reatcr than
mute upcr.ttur\ ~!ul'.ne~s valiJe Thi> 1~ one of the rea~un~,., hv an
mcre.1~c m the ~Jgn,li-ro-noJ>e r.ttJU 1> uftcn obsen:cd pu~t-D.\10 Dc~pirc th1s,' the
rmlle ~huuld he apphcd <Hth (<!Te, ro a\uJ usdul nlormaliOH bcmg dmlliMlCrl
186
D~\0
upc1atur
thc ncw
lug-uf~tuuc'
coorduMtes thcn
!JellJt;"\UJtiCil
n 11 ~
ope1alor JS no lung-cr elhptn al, ,md Jt no long-cr \anc> WJth tune, -.mee T.,-1'
187
(a)",\-10-corredcdcommon-offsctsection
{b)Zero-ollsctseclionafterDI\'10
!'he 1\CJg!Hs w are mnodmeJ hert> ro emphasue the fact th,u HIS mdecrl a weghtecl sum along lhe curve Jd'ined 111 equatw11
Sullllar l'.eJghts .u e also ion11d
lhev govern the \arialiun m amph.t!ong the dhpiJcal cumulution
turk~ dunng lhe DMO operatw11
are rumplex. ancl mdude a temIO the _w term cncou11tercrl m the Kirchhotf
188
and 1n contrast to the prevtons approa<.h, pwwrve AVO mjnrmatwn lllls ts k11own .ts
arnjJhturL'-fm'.lenwd DA10 Huwen:t, the resuh ts not phystcally 11gotuu~ and the1t>fure
u 1kulating- thc Welglw, w, 111 equatiun [4 40]Js nut ge11crall~ e,tw
the ume-dtp and depe11d u11 the rc-,IJ!t dt>>Jrerl, on tl1e often Jfregulat
011 rhe conJnHm-oiiSet se< tium (a huye a\1 in 3ll). a11J 011 the .mththaomg- rechmqne
cach appltt.ltton ueah th~ m a Jtflerent w,n, but
11 ,erl on the
ahJ'll rule.,
011 7el0 d1ps
lh1s
equdlJOIJIS wntten (Fome!,
l~J~l:J),
(441]
cncuu11tered \Hth
prestad. n11grat1m 1n Chaptc1
llnport,mt a'>peu:. ul ,unpJ,tude-prcsened O)..IO
1 he trate mtcrval
~elltull <; also mdcpendcnt ofthc methuJ and
,~a trace nterpolator, ,,hJCh can be \Cf) cumen1\C \\<1111 a ~horter Trate mterval 011 the final
lit'
189
by equauons
intu the I<ouner
grven trme-d1p \alue p =
(UITe~pond~ m thrs
tu .1 straght lrne u[ slope
p p.lssng throug-h the
uJiglll L"he caku!dtJull> lead tu .1
althuugh not ex,Ktly a Fo11rier translurm, wlnrh allo1'' us tu Sl'.ttch between
lllllc and lrequt>JH' domams Tlns
means, hm\t\cr, that the calculation:. ami the mcthud Jt~df become p<lrticularly
In addrtiOil, a~ the mcthud rehes un,, I<ouncr tran~furm tu pass
11 a~~umes. f(r nunencal effincncy, a reg11lar tTau; ulterval un thc commun-uf1set :.ecuon:. fh~:. a<lS as a m,l)or cun:,trarnt. ao; l'.e have already ~een
Nevcrthde'is, thr'i methuJ 1~ (Ullsrderrd the 'ben(hmark' lo whrch uthen are cahbratcd
,
jJ
d(dx
rs a:, fu\lu,., s
A ~ene~ ol p, ,,t!ues fur 1 = 1 ton bctween O anrl p,,. .u-e dcfinerl
Fu1 ,l \alue
a transfu1m 1~
tu thc coJTJilion-offsct scCl!Ollll~lllg
rclatmnslnp:.
= p, '\Jutc that tlu~ opcralmn r~ larcrallrun,lnant fu1
out
Thi~ opcutlun JS then repeatcrl lur all p,
Fmally ca< h Jll{hvlrlual re~ult 1> summed tu ubtam the fin,] fero-ofhet DMO
Thrs method 1s cffrnent JliU\JJed the number ol lnnc-drps p userl remam:, \,mued,
the numbe1 bemg- determ,ned by the auuis1tiun parametel'> and the dc.,ired qualilY uf the rc'iult lt> exten>~untu 'ID .tnd tu vanable \elo<Jtr 0\f, wln(h 1~ fhscussed
late!; 1s su,ughtfon,arJ, ,J]though 1t reqwre'> a regular trace nllenalrn x. as m the
Hale method
DM0in3D
190
-~D <~cqu~HJon
1'> that m thc laucr. lhe suUICe and reCcJvcr .t7Jmulh ,ll"e van.~ble, due
lo l,tble feathellll)l;, to muluslwamer .~cquJ~lllOll or ro CTO~'> shuot1ng- 111 lancl sun--cys
fo de.! IHih tln,, 1hc l),\[0 dlipt1cal uper.ttor IS posmuncd m lhe vertttal plane
through thc ~ourcc and rece1ver ~egJTwnt ol the trace ro be tran~formcd
~huwn m hgure 4 20 Tu rc,ICh tlus 101ponaTH re~ult howC"\TI, ,1 nurnber uf
geornct1 Ka] .l~JWCb mnsl be takcu mtu ac cuunl
191
..,
rht lit~t, wdJ-known pmperty JS that the ~llnl of the dJ~l<iiiLe~ frum <lll)' poin,
on the dlip~c tu the two Jon w.ll ,l!wa)~ be cun~tant Su wl1atevet the pomt oq
1hc depth elhp~e, the propagatwn tune from rhe so~rcc toa pu1nt on the el!ip;
tiCal relkt tor .mrl hack tu thc H'(etver 1~ the ~ame lor ,111 pumt~ on the ntlec:~
Tu obum the mpuhe rc:,punse uf the DMO, l'.e now smph neerlto rcmemher
that DMO IS the ttan~formauon of a non-/ero-offset ~eclon Lo uJJe at 1ero-off~et. In
uur cxample,
morlclhng. 1 e by rav trating
with normal tajS,
elliptical
model. Jtsclf dcrned from the 1mpulse's
depth mgrat1un un the nun-7cru-offsct ~e< uun
For an ul't'IYICW uf ray-ba:,ed murlclling and mgraton technJfJUC~, thc rcader
shouid rder to Chap1e1 5. Nonc thc k'i~, tlus geomettJ< al tnterpret,ItJOn ol DMO as
a non-zcru-oflset mgr,nwn lullowerl by a 7CTu-oll~et moddlmg, (arrwd out w11h the
~ame constant vtlocity, g1ve> anuthcr pcrspective on 0\f lt enabk., us, for
mstanre, tu unden.tand mtwtneh l'.hY the D:\10
not on veloCJty
\: but soldy un time, sJncc ''e ~ec that
lhe vcloulv dunng the modelhng phase compen5ate'i lur that dunng thc mgr,ton phd~c
fhe eXlClhiUn tu three d11nensun~ JS ,Ihu maJe castel by th~
prdallon :\1 ute that, lor fairly ubvwu~ ax1al svmmcll) rca~on~, ,
subsurface
morld m the :,hapc uf , rutatwnall~ srmmctncal ell!p~onl, whose IJOJJzont,t! dXJS is
the ~traght hne joimng thc ~hotpu1nt lo the reccivcr anrl who:,c gcneratnx JS the
\(TIJCal dhpse descnbeJ abu1T fur thc ~-D case, ,.,,JI abo )1;\Ye , unque rdlectJon at
fur tnne t, ThJ> 'half mgby-ball-~hapcd' elhp~oidal rdle<Jor, 'ihown m FiWJrt
ts the 3-D unpuhe rcspon~e fur a prestack dtpth nugrat1on at non-zero-ofl~
>ctand
In the samc ,.,av,
Jo snmlar rca~uwt~>unatcrl wHh the symmeln ,md t.he
prupcrtJc~ uf thc norm,Il, muddlmg thts three-dJmcnsonal objCCl ,t .rero-otl\et will
gvc cxactly thc ~ame ei!Jpllc.tl 0.\10 opcrator m the \crucal o;hot ,nd JTCellcr p!ane
as m 2-D. In dfe< l, all nurnuls to thc rotauonally srmmelrital dhps01d wdl pass
range of d1ps n ~patc (slope'> and anmuths) uJrre&ponJmg tu the tangcnual planes
tu the elhpsolll of rnolunon, anJ that a parrtui,Ir puml un tht<; uperaror alluws
192
"
(a)DMObmnm;:
(h)Propernm>lin;:ofthe
3-D DMO opentor
193
-:0- w,
h
h,
[4 4:l]
~'
The .1mphtude at a pomr \uth coordm,lles (X,,, t,} m the Dl\10 stdck IS thus the
194
re~ult ol the ''c1ghted sum along surLlce S 111 Figure 4 2~ of tlle prc>tacl. data 111 tlu(x"'' 1" h)-domam Tlus suriau: S J!> ddined umqudy lilJ (x,,.. t,) and Vhy thc equa-
110!1., rl 31].md rt
ll-,c of D:\10
comphcatmg the subo,urLlce model >mcc- u tmolvc-s corrcctmg Jor .1 tacto! that, >trictly !>peakmg, l!> unkmmn, namdy, thc- dq1 It unphes an
add1tmnal '>urnmatwn for the :\1:\10 correctum to be C.Irrtc-d out HmH'\Tf, tlus surnmatum t> perfornwd IOr a lumted apertuJc, and thu~ I!> le~., cmtly than that
dc~nbcd m the exact mugmg pmcedure m equauon [:1 :!4] or [3 ~5].
\ , 111 KnchhoiT Imgr.Itwn, the .,pecular r.I\ Lom-c-pt Lan once .tg.Im he used whc-n
IH' '>Lek the LCto-o(hct nnagc lor thc poinr P onh th<IL p.1rt of the lJ\10 operator
1\hH ] "tangcnta] to the fmal zero-olbet unagc \Hllmakc a po~III\C tontnhutJon to
thc 'Uillll1<1tlon (!>ee Figure 4 16} flu~ \Hll abo rema1n true f the pmnt P ,., .1 pornr
thtll<tt tm On the surfare S, the >peLular Lontribuuon to thc fin<tl ~umnutJon of thc
Jmage 1m the potnt P wlll he along the 'so-p' ul!"ie shown m F1gme 4 2~
/!i!ll!f 01
' 0 ne~pondmg
195
o,
DMb,tacl
3
(h)Mld-IJOinlgatherallerDMO
X"r"'3400(X."'ml
The real-lifecase
lhe subsurf,Ke 1~ of (our~e hctemgenc-ous, anda grear deal more lomphcated
than
rht> mudt"l tlut we have' used a'> the ba~1s lor DVJO theory
Jt IS
theory that I'> apphcd m pr..tl(l(T The applK..ttwn ofD'M,
wh1le 1t doe> not e'nable us to obram the tdeall7ed re~ult ol Figurt' 4 :!3, provule> us
1,ith an approximdlt' rt"'>ult, such a~ 1s ~hown >chenMtJCall} m F1gnre 4 24 In thts
exanple, thc
cont"spondmg to ~e\ eral ddlerent offscts are- d1spld}t'd, 1\'htch,
onre DMO
<~ppl1ed, w11l ht"!ong to the >dme CMP gather Jocaled
Liter \\e show that tht> rdlerflon pomt> w!ll not
f01 the normal ray emt"rgmg at X.,,,
although m real life tlus efl'ect 1'
comcucne
correspoudmg to the >ame markc-r but dt difkrent ofht>ts wdl not be
pt>l[ectl: al1gned on the CMP gather Tlus phenonwnon, smcc- 1t h,s d >Jgnificant
eftt>rt on the qudhl} of the final summetlimdge, 1~ lorrectt'd 111 a pt.Igrnatil way as
follo\\ S
-\lte1 applpng lJMO ,md sortmg the trale~ mto C:\IP g.Ithc-r~, an mverse
NMO correl'tlOn IS applted \\Ith the velocuv w,ed m the onginal NMO rorrectwn pnor to D.\10
Ccrtam of the>e gathers are- tht>n scleued ror , ro'>t-D\10 1elouty analpts,
196
o"
o"
(b)Mid-point~ather
V~., 0_,,;o
(c)Mid-(lllintgather
aflcrDMO,NMO',
finaiNMO
g.~tbers
I>
oftlw
gather~
~tacbng
197
198
Gardner DMO
Returnmg to F1gure
we ,.,..
ohrauwd h) stachln.( al! 5<Unples l)mg on ~urt:Kc- S 11m summ,\tlon IS mudlh
carrwd out 111 two ~tages
an initi..1l :\11\10-DMO '>u mm aliOli m the cornmon-olhc-t plane,
followed by a >elond ~ummatwn m the '~o-X"'' dmnam
tlu~
ne"
k=Vh:-l<.x 2
and
I!Ltl\T
t,=t(h)~
r444J
lhe new parameters k ami t, were mtwduced b) FoiTI ami Cardner (198:'\), hecause
, sunplr NMO->t)le relatHm~hlp ex1~t~ brtween l., t, ,me\ 1em-oflsc-t ume t,,, gven by
r4 45J
l'hr ldOCity 1n th1s equatm 1> for a medJu!ll ,"u1nrd to hr homogeneom, and 1t
Cdll be detelnuned <lt thl> stagc m the mc-thod u~mg the usual 1clout) anai)SIS techruqlle'>
lo summar11e, C.ardnrr DMO 1> carned our m thrre -.tagr>
hr~tly, dll ntegral\011 of the DMO ~urface S of Flgurr 4 ~2 !S peerformrd,
ueatmg a' ommon-nudpo1nt gather m thc- new (k, t,)-domam
'-:.econdl}, a standarrl vdox1ty analp1s IS carned out, allowmg a ,ldtl.mg vdouLV to he dedu<ed TI1i> veloCJt), qualifng a~ .1 'post-DMO -.ralk velonty', 1~
rq1ul to rhe 1donty th,Jt would br oh~erved JI the mrthurn \\'ert' homogenrou~
Fnally, thr NMO torrecnol1 and >tack are pc-rlmmrd u-.mg tlu~ velocit}, gtvJng tire rmal surked DMO tero-oiher Jmagcliw .u\vantagr ofth1~ method hes tn the fact that 11 dors not rc-qlllre an '\JMO vdont} hm( tJoll to hr c-srabl1~hrd dt the outset On the contra~, thr 1rloul) .Inal)~JS tako:-s
pla(c pwt-DMO, 1 r on(e d1p efl'ects have airead) been rc-mO\ed frO!n the reflelt!On
llalcltnne-. Tht-. \\111 not he perfcnly exdct, according to thc- h) pothr~e~ tJnderlying
thc tht"ory, m p.utKular rc-gardmg the homogenelt) of the medmm J he m;~jor d!>hc-s m thr f,Kt that the method reqU\res , changr to a new
t,), and hem_c- a mampt~latJon of the rnttrc dat<tset
199
'The DJ\.10 method ~~as devtsed. a~ ~<e havo:- ~een, to dnuuate d1p efl('ct~ m connnonl
m1dpmnt gather kmem.Itin It 1~ for this rea~on th<Lt the post-D:\10 stackmg veloc,
1ty 1~ usu.Ill) assurrwd tu he a dtp-corrn!ed ,/ackmg wfonty l'h1~ l> ohv1ousl} exact bj
con>trucnon for the homogeneous modo:-1 of vdouty pmvtded that the NMO COrl
rt'l.tion vdonty u~ecl pnor to DMO 1'> aJ..o V In tht- real heterogeneous amsotrop~
world however, e\Trything bo:-romr-s , great deal more complicalr-d.
:
v:
Tite
1s no suq1n-.e
:\lote that thr- ex.I<T vertu:al rm~ vdont) 1~ not obtalllt-d ror 1ero d1p th1s JS
e~sentull~ due to the JlOn-hnwrboh<. fourth-order tenn tn thr- time-ofTset
ctlnt- "lnth 1~ not accounted fr he1e The dl"ect ts -.ttll very lunltt-d m tlHs spe-nfic case 1\'her(' tht- nMxlmum ofhet IS equal to the depth oftht- rr-flettor.
lbe rerm 'error m st.Kking velonty !S unfortunate MJU e thr- velocH} obtame6
1> tlw one that best f1attens reflectlon~ on tht- post-01\10 nudpomt gather, and
henre g1vt-~ tht' be-M unagt' po%ihle fr the \ ~"" ""' dtost-n Fven >o, thb image:
1'> not the be~t po~Mble
.
"\Jott' ,J~o hum thr- B\& traced 1n hgurt' 4 2ti-.I that the '<ornmon-reflecnoB
pomt' obecnve 1~ not reached pr-dectl) etthet there 1~ ~t1ll a .,meanng ofthe
refle<.flon zone
1 ht- <.un('S m Ftgure 4 ~ti-t ~ho11 th,t m order to he able to hnut th!-. lna' lll the
200
201
2800 VNMO,.Ot
202
k'
'"
Offset-stretch DMO
Anisotropic DMO
In lhe ~ame 1\il) thaltlts log!Calto lry ro I'Atcnd lhe DMO operator lo hetero!it'ncoth nrcdta, 1t ~~ l'JlMII) naiUialto Ln to exlenJ
An cxten<;l011 takrng- account ol ell1ptH al an1sutrup}
203
In thc altcrnat1ve approaLhes n1rn:ntly bcmg dcvcloped, u~e 1'> made of the;
'off~ct-~lrctch' concepl ,Jre&d) mentioned fot \ (z) D:\10 Th1~ con>Jsts firstly olj
negle1 tmg the 3D pan of the D\10 opet.uor, and ~uh;equeutly a>~ummg that th~
~~t~~-~~::l:::::,.~rl~~t:::~~~~~(~) ~~r~a:~:;~~~o::~:~~:~:!:'_::l:>~~.-~~g:~~lip/~c~~:::ttf~
ant~otropJC
stan(~~
off~et
bctwet:n~~
chiTerenl (\ip~ Lut ~rntlit anmuth dnt ( tmns at< se< n at the Sdill< po~tt1on In ad~
non the \\ork uf \lkhahf1h
showtelthlt the aru~otropJL DMO operator
eAIHblts
to .m elbp~t tXlept fot a ~ery lrmttt d range
Thm lt 1~ un!Jkeh that liJls technuut known
the future
m standanl ptoLe~sng-thenfott Jcnram> \en mu
204
m 1 ~ mfan(_y Mmemcr we prcrhu that any devdopmcnt wtll be lor prestad: tJffit'
Jlll);r<~lion
Common-reflection-surface stack
fhe co11Cept of common-refler llon->urfa(_e Sl.trk (CR~ ~lack) \\a~ fi~ltlllroduced by
Mulle! (1999), La~ed on previou~ wo1k by l'rol Hub1ar~ group .u Karl.,ruhc
UnJVt>r'i]{V
In d.t>SKal NMO stack, the stacked data a e ohtamed irom a summauon over d
cune ,\long thc off~el coord111ate as ~hown. fo1 IIISlarKc. 111 F1gure 3 17 DJ\10 add.,
a thmemwn to the ~ummauun, a~ mrhcJJed m Flg1ue 4 22, but th1~ i\ LO compeno;ale IOr the fau that tlw local rhp J\ unknown, anJ onlv the 'spenJ)a' unve contuhute'> efletll\ely to the ~ummatJon The prmuple of CRS ~lack 1~ lo su m along a
swi:tce of spenJial umlrtbUliOII~ ftom a .,egment of a teilector mstead of .t localized
rcllecnon pomt TIH> 1~ dlusttated 111 fgme 4.28 lhere \\e ~how once agam Lhe tra\'<ltune surface of ~peu1la rcflecllon~ fo1 a
Jellector R m the 1mdpo111t-offsct
19 m Ch<~pler 3, whcre we d1~Th1\ figu1e 1~ ~mula!
dnd thcLew-o/1
scl tnne 1, 1~ tlw \Um of ~ample., m the >Urface hghhghted m grey 111 Fgun: 4 2il
fht> aun 1'> ro dettlmllle the shape ur tlm '>mface for the l"t'al data tn order lo he ablc
to pc1fmm thc summ.ltlon
'>uri'accoftbcrdlcclor<<pecularlra'eltlmel(x""'h)(s~cdboFigUre>
17)
205
,,
dcfimtwn~
m Figure 4
x +h' ('
'1.
-
V<
R"
~H)
and halt:o
[146]
Rr-. 11. )
The veloury \ J~ IC \clmny allhe ~Uif.tce whcrc the teLotdmg- 1~ petformed and,
whtch wc tntwdll(ed m equatton [4 .'l] h 1~ a~~umcd known. rhrcc ncw paramete~
are llllloduced hen: u, R, and R,,. ct ts thc emergente .lllg\e o the normal ray,
,,hu::h wcwtll mt>ct .tgam tn Chaptct J <~nd ., dt"noted tlc '""m l'lgme., J 05 and 5.0&,:
R, 1'> the radm~ of cunaturc olthe explodmg tf"llertor W<tVdicld measured at tho
>urface (again a romt>pt 11e ,,i!lmtroduce m Ch.1ptcr .'l, m n.trtLular 111 Figure 5.03)..
Fmally R, 11 s d gencrah!dllon lo (hppmg non-fLtt rdlc<tots of tht" parameter r..
1\IHch wc mct ne1 1<msh 11hen l>e pre~ented the ~IHftcd hypct hola ptmnple. \Ve caQ
check that equatlon l4 4bj reduce~ lo equallun 14 i] \\heu n = O ami R, 1, = ct (f\at
hmtzontal rdlecto1)
Equauon [4 "16] Jefineo a patametettzed ope1alor aud tt 11 \\orth noung thatthe
opetator can be defined tn the dala domatn, ure,pecllve ofhat happem in the
~ub~tJif.Ke Tht, 11 ''h) the metJ:wd ts of the 'velouf) mdependent' k1nd
Practica\ optimization approach
othei velocitv <~nalvsJ~ Let hmque~, the aJin ~~ now to find v.tlue~ for 11, R,.
rhat wtll tndXltnt7e the .,ununatton ol actu<ll dala u\'er thc CRS surfaLe for
.;\,., tn
'j
j
:rlm
;igmficant mlormation on tite- subsurfa.::c structure. tbr in~taw '. tite em:rge.nce ~
.mgle 1'> computed everywhere and <an titen be u<;cd lora normal-rav map nugranon J
(<;ee Ch.tplet !'!) M o eme the curvatures
a11d
(an be- unertcd ro )teld dued i
model-bwlchng ;
methudolu,!.,>y
1\lth
206
J-lo\\cv<t; the method rche~ ou <tutomalt< ptcktng and thu~ .Kc~ ~t'~erc pt<ttlJC<tl
prubklll~, espen<tlly m the prc~en(.e of muluple~ l'tckmg 1> pertimncd 111 tlw non
augr<tte,--1 dom<tm (<~> for DMO, but rontrary lo pr:tack
autom<~tH pwbng ha., to .tdrlte~~ thc ~~~ue of pos~tblc
lllldgc~ m
ctom<~lfl
1 he th!eC~lep
mcthod 1~ a tJmeconsummg approach lt~ cxtcn~Jou lo long-nonoJhet\ .md 10 '1-D IS not str,ughtlml-\anJ In thc lattcr r a~e, the numhe1
IH'
IM1e uht<tllled a 7ero-ofhet vulumt', 1\1' Cdn pro< ced lo the neH ~tcp m
th1~ uvolves thc postSla< k tmgat1on techmquc~
207
Scne~
AI-Chalabi
Alkalifah T (1996)
GPOjJ!iJSU 1, 61 !147-96:1
Alkalifah T (19!Ji) Kmemal!(~ ot :1-ll DMO opcT.tlms m tr.tn~\end} JSOt!opic
med1a GnJfJh)'.IICI, 62 1214-1219
Alkalifah T and Larner K (1994). :\hg-l.ttJOn error m transvt~eJ) JSOtmpu:: media,,
GrOJ>hy~JII, 59 140.?-1418
Alkalifah T and Tsvankin 1 (1 !)!)5) \c1outy an.ti)M~ oi transve~el) J~olroptr medJa.
GeojJ!t)'IIC\, 60 l.'J.'JO-I.'Jfi6
Anderson JE and Tsvankin 1 ( 1994) D1p-moveuut proces~mg by Fou11cr uan\lorm
m antsotropu medta 64"' ~E(, .\nnual 1\leeung. Expanded Ab~tracts,
1~13-1216
Artley C and Hale D (1994) Dtp-moveont proces>mg lor depth vanahle vclooty.
(,I'OjihjliC\, 59 610-62~
Backus GE (1!162) l.ong\\<tve elast[(' ant~otrupv produced by houzontallaering.
r;tOjih)'ilcal /lcscanh. 67 4427-4440
Beasley CJ and Klotz R ( 1992) Equahzalton ol trregular \pattal samphng 62 SEG
:'l.nnnall\leeung-, Exp.mded Exnat 11, 970-973
Beasley CJ and Mobley E ( 1988) Amphnule <tnd ,nUa1Ja~tng treatmenl m (x,t)domalll D:\10 58'" <;EG .A. nnual \1cl'lng-, FAp<tnded Extracts, 1113-1116
Beasley CJ and Mobley E (1 997) SJatla] dealtasrng ofthe 3D Km:hhofi'I>MO operator 59" EAL;}: Annual Lonftrence, Extended Extracl~. -'I.O!2
Berthet P, Lafond C and Williamson P (1996) A.m1otropy detemunauon frorn ~ur
fat e se1~nuc dd!d on a case ~rudy 66"' S~:C~ Annual :\leenng, Expanded Ah~tracts,
!R58-IR6l
3-D ~emnJC Jmag-tng Stanford Cm\t>n1ty (http //sepww/
~ep/bwnrlt/Lcnme~,')
BlackJL, Schleicher KL and Zhang L (199.'1) True amphludc mldgtng and dtp
moveuut Gt>oph)')IO, 58 47-.'J6
Bloor R and Deregowski S (199.'Jj
Lo zero ofhct fi.'J'" SEG t\nnual
1\lceung, Expanded AhMr.Kt~,
Byun BS, Corrigan D and Gaiser JE (1989) -\msotroptc vt>loclty ana!v~1~ for bthoi0)0'dislnminauon (;roph)'IU'\, 54 15&!-1574
Canadas G and DunandJP (199.'J) . .-\VO
m the parabohr Radon ansfonn
domam 65' 0 SFC. t\nnual Mce1ing-,
1.'170-137:!
Castle RJ (1994)
no! mal moveout GrojJit)'-lln, 59 9R:I-999
Cordier JP (1985)
m RefleCl!on Se1~mulugv D Rt>tdel Puhhshing
curved
208
~e1sm1c~ anrl opnc,perbolae and curv.tlun~ 61~l EAGE Annual Confeence, FAtendeJ 1\bstract~
1'042.
De Bazelaire E and Viallix JR ( 1994) Normal movcout 111 lon1.' GeuphJI!cal
Pw,jJerlmg. 42 177-199
Deregowski S (l986) \\1Iat ~~ D:>.10;, Fmt Breali, 4 7-24
[)eregowski S and Rocca F ( l9ill)
ulhet ~ertion~ 111 l.wered mecha
Dietrich M and CohenJK (1992) 3D nngratum lo
du;nl rm analytualjunnulalwn Centre f(n \\'a\c l'henmnena, Repon C\\'P
Di:x: eH ( 19.)5) SeJSml< veloutle~ from surface mea'>uements .-I'OjJhyvo, 20 68---ilfi
Doicin D, Johnson e and Hargreaves N (JtJ9!J) lmptovcd 3D p10cessing- nunround \Id automatK vclouty p1cktng. 57th f.AG~: Annual (.onlcreme, Extended
h~
.,C~~IOII
:'I.IJ,trau~. ~e~~1on
no:u
209
Judson DR, Lin J, Schultz PS and Sherwood JWC (1995). l'qu.tlizmg rhe ~t.trbng
\doulie\ oi di!)Plllg evenl~ Vla DEVTLISH In DMO Procnsrng (cd. D Hale), pp.
:!-6 :-.o< Jetv oi Fxplot<ttJon Ceophstu.,r~ (H.epnntcd <tnd exp.tndcd from SEG
Ahwa< t~ ( 1976) 44(:1), 3:!6)
Larner K (1993) Dtp-moveout erro tn
JSotropK med1a wl!h hnear
H"ioCJl} \.tri<tllonm deplh
Lehman HJ and Houba W
of thc determmatJ.on ol 3-D
!>taLkmg- ~elout1e~
Levin FK (HJ71) 1\ppMent vcloCJt\
36 .i']0-r:il6
Levin FK (1990) ReflectJOn from .t chppmg- plane-tranwenely l>OlfOfllC sohd.
Geoph)"U>, 55 8.JJ-R5.'J
Muller T ( 1999)
YH;:;~'I9H9)
Se1~ml(
37
35::::"'Gj
(ed~ M~-
Yilmaz O (2000)
dald
Dala
tf!l l
Cooper and SM Oohcrtv), p.
Yilmaz O (2001) ScJ\mW dat.t d11<ll~ts In
Analy11\
2 (ed~
Coopt>I and SM Doherl}), pp 1001-2027 Souety ofExploration Geophys1CS .
Sel~mlt d,ttd w1th a ".fJO-ofts,el ch~tance ben,ccnlhe souHe ,wd ICLenel pla; a ~peci<tl
JXJieuJlhc\el',miL HlJ<tg-mg-ptmess
toa wal rccurdmg, but a1c thc re~ult
1, na111eh lhf II!HNJOWn
211
ontra~l
~!luanun
rontigurarmn, m t
to the
dqnctcd m F1gute 3 2, only n:cctver
po.-ttioucd al [SR] w1ll rcgl>Ler Lhe upgomg rcllcded wavdleld at tlu~ posJL!On. ~
t~norc rhe ~omu: >ig:nalurc th.tt the rcceivcr would .tlso rcron:l ~mrc only upgoin~
\\,W~~l~1 ~<~t~11~~~~;r,~~i:~st~:~r~~~~}~~~:1~~(~tci:::ed
w1th
wave,1
cmit-1
LOrre~pond
lo a reflec.
are l11ghhghted in,
Flf,'llrc 5.0 l ~hows dldt severa! rPjlected wy1 11wy emnge frorn lhf mierjarP al lfw mmt
jmml /SR! Th1s !S the phenomenon often refe1 red lo a~ 'reilcLlJon lnphcauon', and
JI 1~ a~~uciareli" ilh the lmdgmg ot ~ynchne> or complex p1opag.ttion velociry fields.
l"his should nol he inte1p1eted .1~ meamng d max1mum ofthree reflecllons, a~ a far
largcr number JS poss1ble, dept>nding on lhe geometriLal uJilfiguraLion of the
Iefleclol, wlur the ~ub~w fa< e p1opaganon velootJe~ dl"e above th1s pa!ucul<tr refk"<:tor, and thc prc~cncc ot cJffr.KLJOn pomt> Thc ~LhemanL l"C<.ordmg .:.:orresponding
ro ~everal lid< e~ for the model in Flf,'llre 5 Ol-a 1~ ~keiLhed 111 FJgtue 5 01-b
The 'Lusps' tn thcse 11nage1, gJVmg nse lO the Jstmcttve bow-llc
<ate "'ithm the modd'., dom,tin the
cau~ed bv
Such C<tuSIK>
symhct!C, ca~e
Kirchhoff migration
hm1 a waveield could be back-prop<~g<~ted untJ! tl was focused
1mage pomt D, u~1ng d ~ummatJon \\'e then '>d\1 hm> we Lan fon~ard
the source from the ~urfau: to D aud, bv applvmg one of the unagmg
cunchttoiH deptued lil F1gure 3 05, \IC Ldn denve the rdlectJVJly lll D, wluch ts the
objec!vt> o! se1~mll 1magmg
Next, e ~ho\1ed that rlw three oper<ttJOns rould he Lombmcd m a ~mgle \\t:Jghted sum, pro\1deJ th.tl ~ome 'de-s1gnalUJe had heen apphed lo the data bef01chand
leddlllg to the 'K1nhhoO ~ummauon" lie~cnhed bv equatlon
Ui]
Fmally, we lnddt> a ch.mge of vauahle~ to trdmfmm
thc common-shot
domain lo the common-olhet domam <tnd wc mtroduud thc notion of 'multifold'
<over<~ge, lo an 1ve e\"t>ntu,!llv at the de~Lnplwn of the 'pre~t.u k Klrrhhofl" nugranon' method summan1ed h, equatmn [3 21] and ochemdllcally tllnltlated 111 lgure
315.
:'\'ow that 1\"e aJC m the tt>Jo-o!Tsct domam, the quesnon arJ~t>~ as lo what 1~ new.
o Tlw tint obviou~ comment Js rhat we have only one othet to proLes~ (th1s is
\>hy we reduced the otl\et dunemton)
o Secondly, e ale tntere~led onlv m 7ero-othct ra)s whe1e the upw<tnl pwpagaI!On (Creen'~ ftm<twn) ~~ the ,dme as the dmuJdrd one
In
on to
prop<~gart>
212
are- preprocesse-d, lit practJCe- rhb -,tep ~~ pe-rformed \t'l) e-<~rl} m the
he-fore ~tackmg- ve-louty analysts,
t'>ddincd.
thc l~rce-n\ fuuLtJOil ts cakulated, hut only one-1\ay, ami theu the- tnne~ dTe
multiplie-d by two,
d II'Ctghte-d -,ummatJOn !S malle of tlw ~<~m pies of the- zew-off~et ~e-ctJon along
thc (,t"Ct'"t fum l!on cune
tht~ t'> the l'.cll-kuown
a~ \Hll be ~ccn
t!itfi actwn
thc IC~ult
~umnutwn ; placed al thoc un,ge p01ut,
thc operation !'> repeatcd for aH poiuts in the ronoc of intere~t
wme but not all of thc ternarks made for the gent'rd!
t a~e
213
the
mu~t
he t<llrulated, and
pHlp.tg.mon
model mu;t thndon: be knm'n l'h1~ modelts
ro dS the 'rlllg"ratwn \Tlonty fieh!' V\'c JCturn lo lhts k"
LJter.
th~
rdre4
f
Wlrctc thc \:lonty morid beromt>~ coJJJpltcdtcd. the
funcwm maj
be( o me mu)U;alut'fi, mcanwg lhat ;t>\CI.tl rhllerenl ~ample~ m.t} contnbute t~
the ~urnmalon for the ~dlllt' tr<t<-e 1 ht' ts thc problem of mulnple arrival~
who~e lmpdt ton ITIJdge qualny has been dmply de-monslr<~ted M:thods usin
soluuon to t h ,
Ir b nnporLHH to note Jut the ofhet .dnnensron Ira~ now dt~appe-ared, wh~c.
rucan~ th.tl wc cau no louger check tlw
of the ;e-locny mode-ls
'
d1~pmdl for bu
;chtCJl\ mot!el ll11~ w11l bt> rh~cu~~ed m later chapters. :
tppmKht~
thl
Other
equt\ tlcnt m pttnoplt> but hequt>Htl} \el\ dJfferent m
unpletrJenl mon ,,]} bt> prcocntcd ~htJllh m tht~ md the loiJm,mg chiiptel before
dtfiiculr qut'"stton of dt>SJRlllng the mtgr tl!Oll \clont} lteld ts t Kklcd Chaptcr 6
214
(b)Corre~pondingurn-nffcl
eclioll
J. rt>tter<HHJII of tht>
dt~cu~~ed 111 Chapter 3 for tlw nww gc11CI<li cbe o! a 'multt-olht>t'
for tmlance- Flgtne :'. 1R)
only need lo find thts sample m oulcr to gam an tmagc t!nettly,
and tht~ .,, in some re,pert.,, 1\hal 1' dCcomp)i,hetl by thc '1111rmol~m) n!lgla/rntl
metlwd de.,u tbed latn Hownc1; ~uch a le-chnH]Ut> rcqtlll"C'> tht> local rhp to be measured ateten
~omcth111g that poses huge
problerm 11 1~ tllerdorecalcuLJtmu~ ami mage
Losth to r artT out numt>tou~
215
216
[331
Normal-ray migration
Ftg"
q,.,,,~, that the '>pecuLJr uormal ray illlks th<" ;ell< u, ~\Jlllt D 11Uh the
point, X,= X,_,,. dl thc Slltfl<t' Point \) lws ', the eml of tire norand on the- 7t'ro-otlset imag-e Jt wdl
me~'urement
mal
Ll~ ,
Tht> "'ncfrout
H
217
~ecttou, ~mee
Tt'l
sm9
y=const.
[!!41
218
~Ji],!Ct'
l.'i.IJ]
Hxz)
_'
j
~~ ..
UIIti]l:At=l.,f2.1
219
o The rd\' rs rhe11 b.L{ k-propag,te(\ m rhr~ llC\1 drre{ tmn durUJg a ttme At, grvrng_
a nc" pomt, (x, /,)
The pmtT'>~ r~ rqwatcd untrl rhe tot,li pmpagatton trmc rs rcarbed.
0 Ba~ed on tire
tlw fin.tl pnrnt \lrll he
R "hce the
at umc lm thc t,rcc X,
ln thr~
ceo~'>e~ dt the zew-ofl'set
stdge 1S
by a pha~e
and ptckmg of a grven
numbe-r of rcflccton. Ray mrgrafton only beunncs mvolved m the final stage-, where
rhe Iesult ofthc p!Ck 1~ posttioned spatially,
fiehli'> kuown 1 he lt'LOn'>truuron ot the
lllldgmg proces~
~ection
220
1Ull i l i l l
~~terpr_etandpickreflectorl
2 Computelime-diJ>sdt,dxj
--
1_ 6-lnterprelandpkki!C:dhorlzml
Computcrimc-diJ>s_ _
(c),..orma]-raydtpthmigrationaflersecondhori.<o
pmce,~mg
chaur o!Jmagmg-mtcqncLltJOn-dcpth
CO!l\t'T\1011
221
011 to a surEu:e (~hown 111 the figure) uMng- tnangulatmn, gnddmg-, kngmg
Chapte1 8), or othc1 mtcrpolanon techmque~
Jls \\orth 11on11g that, m practKC, hmu_m\ arl' not nckrrl m
but 011 ,
the zero-ofl.,et hmzon~
(~ee
fh1s secl\011
a natu1 al
demon~lrrttcs
of thc
222
(~) lmmb~
un a zero-offs~t ect10n
(b)lmpulseresponscofdcpthmi)lratioll
po;s1bk lo um;~der tlw response ofan t'xplodmg efkctor ~y;tem along a (onnnuom rdkLtor dS the sum of the 1m pulse 1esponses o! ead1 mdiVJdualtmpulse (pomt
dlfffa(lol)
the reflector 1 ht., l'> auother \\a) of expn.,.,mg- lhe pnnnple
Tius
nJcnnrmed
In lhe Cdse of 1he Impulse response ofm1g-ratwn, llw nnpulse 1411 l1e modelkd
by a Dnac Jumlwn on a zero-olTseL ;ectJoll. the w;tem lwing th:Jt ot d depth tmgT<~
uon proce~> In olher 110rd;, \\e 1\ISh lo kn011 whal lhe morid of lhe ;ub;urface
rdleL!or~ would be for an explodmg rdk1 tor-tvpe hypo1hen1 al expenment that
pwdun., ,, 1ero-ofhe1 sect10n 111th zero :nnphtudes dl t>H'l) pomt (x, y, t) exu~pl <lt
an l'>oL!Led
y, t,), thatr,, all f<'lt'IVer; at the ~urf:J1e remam StdtH except
fot the
:~t.\, whnh ob~enes 1he passdge of d \\aYt-front. :~nd rael\TS a
tnnet,
lo tlns problem !S dqm 1ed m F1guns 5 09-J. J.nd 5 09-b }OI
1J on tlw <:ero-oHsel 'e' tmn, while 1he ltnw ; de;Hly ddined, tlw tnnenol be, and tl11s means thal all tnne-dtp; w1ll lw
po~s1ble "Jiu;
thal nonn:~l rars enntted from <~ny dtrectton will
..tbk lo rt'<tlh the
saresfurtheh\o-11 av
rton 1 he two-dnnens10nal nnpube respon;e of the nngtaL1on m a homogenetiU'>
mt-rhurn 1'- lwnce a 1ude In tlnee dimenstOD'-. th1s geomelru allo1 us be1 omes :1
sphere
rn o homogeneom mPibum 1s a
""''""'""""''"'""JI)
223
224
11on'> )Jote 1he nun1euu~ I<IUStiCs ''h11h occur wht>n l>.'.O d1fkrcnt rav; <trnvt> at the
s.UTW t1me at tlw ~me pomt 1n depth, as at point [) for mst.Jm e
p-tlh' must be 1akt>n wto accouut in the Kirchhoffprcsta1k >Umnution
1ll Ch.1pter 3 ('Amphtude ;md muhtp<Hlnng'),
As, fin;!l comment on the r:~y-traciug nwthod, .Figure 5 10-a shO\\s dw ongmal
dd<tJled M<HmousJ modd, hut a smoothed vcnmn uf 1t 1' w,ed for the .11 tu]
conqaJtanon ot <..~reen's fi.mct1on~ 111 F1gurt> .IJ 10-b "11m IS lo <tvoul sh,up velocltv
1011 rra~ts m tlw modt>l that C<lll cau~e the rav tfdCJng lo be Wlstable Sndl\ rdr;Ktmn
l<tW (t>quUon [1 31] or t>IJU<!on [5.6]) IS very ~ensJ!ive tu the estJmation oflhe vt>lmJt\ gr,llhent VV(x, z) in Figure ~l 06 In a brer-(ake model, for m'tance, thc cstllll<!le
of thc hon?on d1p 1S cruCial "Jiu~ problem IS solved by smoothmg the modd The
tkbate on how much ~nworlnng -, dlceplbk tn order to obtam an oplnnal lnl<!!{e
n K1rchhoff presr:~ck nHgralon -, s111l ongomg amongst SCJSJTill lllMgers
225
(a)7.<>ro-offsefirnageofrcfkcturanddifflactor
226
to theo lin;Jinnage lt ts ofcoune tlw norm;J!tJ.) tlldt (Qnnects Lhe.,e two umtnbuttons, a propeny ]n~1dy exploited !or ray 1mgranon
In KmhhoH nugratmn, the nugrakd lilldge !S um~tructed pomt-b-pomt, summmg , ea(h pomt :~long a gtven cune on the st<tcked sectHm l111s is HkntJCal to
the mathematJCa] owrdfiOn of correlatwn In umvoluton-hased nHgrdlton, the
poten na! contnbutum ot each po111t on tlw Sf.J( kd ~e hll 1~ m tlus wy 'pmted' or1
to rhe tmgrated sectum
Mtgratwn therdon perlonn~ three d!ferent trans!ormatwns depend!llg on the
m.tlllret choscn lo rcgard 1t
(h.,placemcnt of connuuou~ evenh (hen( e thc ft>rm 'nugtdllon'),
fo( USlllg of dtflTctiOUS,
Oe<ttJon of 'nugratwn ~nulco' m re.,ponsc to nnpuhes \\lthm the '>t<tckcd
b~
a rco1l
(d~e
111
pr:~cttn,
227
Th1~ rehJllonshtp 1~ none other th;m the average velonty definton [::! 3].
Tlw 1wo-11av \crtwal nme wdllw equalto tune t for a zero distan ce x corrcspondmg
ro the <~pex ofthe h)pcrbola ddined b) equatwn [5 7J nns tune IS denoted t,,.~ in
Figure.? 13.
fh1., relatwusll!p ''ould allow us to ust> Krchhoffngalton lo creatc an nn;1ge
of pomt D di depth Z snnpl~ b~ kno1'mg thc two velontic, V," and V.,,_ A..s Wt> S<IW
m Chapter 1, a first approxmi;Jllon to V,,Jt,,.,,) !S g1ven by stacking 1elouty analysJs,
allhough \'" remams llldC! esstbk 11hen u~ing surtace setsmtc alone
In othcr 11ords, thc rd;Jiiou~lnp between thc verl!al tune L..~ and thc dcpth Z ts
not known Th a'o'd thi'> Jfficult)", geophv~icis1s nn;1ge the poml llm hg. !':i 13, ~ay,
Z) d~ for a "depth
but at it, km)\\ n position
The
in th1~ war 10 1he llme-mgrated
p10V1ded al! the as~mnp
lmw should reallv lw known s the
as we ~hall sce ~horl-
'"
228
pmnt
1;
d 'llme-mtgr:~kd'
tm<tge ol tlw subsuda( e ( :~n be ( omthe propag<~hOn veloutw,, but thts ts :11 thc
Tht~ unagc tqJI havc <1 vertu ;] <IXJS,
""''hf;m"'"''""""""'
229
/)rlp!ll' the11' Jodamlogel, tonr ll!lfiralrm rtmmm the 11101/ w1dely used W111[.;1ng tool
230
(a)~chcmatlcdepthmodel
,,
""'"'
'
'
'
'
(b)Zero-offsetsection
x.,.
(c)Time-migraled~oetmn
(d)Time-mtgration'plnm<''
lo <l /l'to-ofht'l sectlon, where lll<l.JOI later;tl V<lftatlon~ m velooty do occur Black and
Brm-,1ow~kt (1991) an<llvttC<tll~ addres~ed tln~ t~'>ue, empkt;tztng the lnmtdttons of
Jntdgeray-,
hrstlv, we look at tlw prohlem~ observed for a pomt dtffi'( tor, '>uch as that m
hgute 5 14, ltdore gcnerahzmg- ro ntle(10r
231
ts~
bohc. On Ftgurt> 5 14-d, the first pomt dltht> surf.tce reached by the wavehont
l)ing ;11 coordinare X" At this pomt, thew<tvefront will be r,mgenual to llw sur[
Tf 1t wert> not, .mothet point on tht> wavefront woulrl arnve hefore Jt
1hs IS equivalenr tu statmg that at x,., the wwgr represerrt~ng D has a u:ro aptJa
llmt'-rlzjJ rlt,;dx =O, or alternattvt>ly, 1ha11ht>re ts a fd\' enntted from D 11hn heme
onhogonal!v to the smtwe ;11 point X,R Hubral (1977) cztl!td thts partiCular r;y
lmage TO.)' Tlw H'd~on lwlnnd tlus 1\111 be exp\at~ed bdow, but first we note that
docs nol gencr]]y he \ertK;IIIv above D, except m the special case of there bemg~
lateral v;ntanon m vt>lontv In tlns case 1he tmagc ray !S pt>rkctlv vt>rt!c;J '
greatet t.lw he~erogenely m tht> subsurb1e, tlw g1T<1ter the probabthty that
dep;~L~~1::~,~~,
a~ <~ppro)
velocj
,,
.t
232
(a)lnterpnlationonthelime-migatedseclinn
(b)lmage-raydeplhmigralionoftbeinterprelation(a)
233
~h1f1 lotalled mott: than 150m, a di~h\llle more than >Uffinent Lo miss the tarp;et i(
the rnrrernon had no! been marle
Figure 5 L 1s ~ketcl1ed m 2-D, but 1f1ht> 2-D ~eruon 1~ not ~In( tly ',]ong-dip', in
order Lo he exattlhe mmgt>-ray tracmg should of course Lw (arrwd out m 3-ll as a
}Igurc 5.14 >hows sdwmancally the lwhav1our ofthe nugrat10n for <1 d1p of-30, I.e
t'ITIILLed fiom pomt ddfr<lt tor Dar ,m anglt> of -300 to the \erncal l'hts repray for , refle( tor V.Ith a d1p uf -30 p<~ssmg through D. Its surlate t'merge!l(t' pomt Wllllw at x_,P, and 11s unage on the dilliacllon curve Will he at
d,, .. Ha>ed 011 the pnnnpk hehmd Ku'lhhofftmgratJOn, the pouu 1\111 tlllgratt' to
rhe .1pex of tlw mgr.won hyperhola, wluth at thi~ po!Tlt 1\ll be rangenual to the
dtfli-acuon CUJVt' Ob>enrt' that the tUJvaturt' of llm m1grauon hyperbola wl\ be
defirwd b\ the nHgratmn \'eionty at 1('> apex, 1 e at ilS mgrated posJLion, \',.,)x,.,,,
y.,,,. t,,)
On the orht>r hand, pomt d,Rcorrt:'spondmg LO the t>mergt>nce pomt ol the unage
uy will not moYt' dunng the migration. a'> 1ts tmgra(IOII hyperhola wJ!l by definition
bt> hon.wntally Lingent1al to the ditfracno11 CUJVt' l'he ra) (rft>,ponchllg to ?ero
thp Wlll not ,rnve ex.tttly \erucal at D due to tbe heterogent>ity in pmpag.tt!Oll
\docitit>' It wdl therefore posse>s IL'> own d1stmct tHne-nngratt>d lllldge Comersely,
''htht 1ts ra) Mth !S not rt:'( nlmear, the ra) .lrflVIDg \'erutally ,t D V.!ll ha\ e a prupagation time
u me, due LO Fennat's
nmnple In
hgures 5 14-a ,md 5
tlw nme rmgratwn for
the pomts coHespondmg ro d1ps of 0 a11d +i5"
There IS nOLhtng Lo ensUrt:' that tlwse nugrated pomts should all comude, orto
g1ve~ a plwne-Lype shape
ib
nnperk( t focusmg \\'e aho '>t't' how tlw plume can be dipcahhr.lted, as mdit.ltt'd 111 F1gure 5 14-d In addJtJon, there I> no rea;on why the
expetted to 1w \'erl!call) helo1\ D .1t time
has
234
(a)Schcmaticdcthmodel
(c)Tmemigra(innnfthcrcflectorR....s,
Tiw Hnperf"t>ct fo(usmg prmHled hy the mne llllgidtiOn l'' generally not nOtJ(eahle
'>!me holared pomt diliLulOJS are m redhty rdre None rhe less, Fgnre 5 16 1\usl Tsmg again Lhe prmnple of
235
neglect
~C\'erdl e\auonhnk the coordi>lups, Irst pubhshed by \\'h1tcombe (El91), can
nare~ of tbe pomt lll rhc ero-ofhet domdlll 111d1 rho'e m the tlme-Jmgr.ned domam
and their respeltiYe tdngenrs
rsu1
The not.mon !S rhat of Figure 5 l i, where Ax""' 1> tht> ume-nugratwn dJ'>I.ance
one
error' approach
The ( omerse situatwn 1' ah o'' onhy of artentwn i\fter pKkmg thc po>nmn ,mrl
d1p of a pomt un a refleuor m the tnne-m1grated dorndlll, ,\lld knmung the umevelonry field, ho1\
the zero-ofF
236
(a)Schematic2-DdepthmodU
(b)Timemigratcdstttion
(b)Zcrn-offsctsection
Ax
""-
=t
lhs
mog
1 (~~g dt,mg]'
+ 2 dx .
r:Jt2J
1' 'kwnrwtrl!mtdtrnq;ratwn'
237
[5
1 ~].
fnr the ~ili of ~lmphcll), are >hown lora 2-D llHJdei onlv Ir 1~ llt>( t'%ary
ft'(enll}
.,
heenmtrO!IUted mdustnall
'
f-k migration
Relore lllllllg on tn rhe recwsne methods dts<u~sed n the next chapter, we condude OUI re11ew of global
methods
\ookmg dt an e-::tremely rap1d
rmgrat10n
wlurh operdtes m the Founer
H pre.,uppose; , homogeneous subsur, strategem, ~tlil bemg used, to run Jt wlth le'' re'>trictive
d.SSUlllJlllllS
C:on'>tant-velonty f-k rmgratwn JS a rednnque th<lt Lan he apphed equally well m
depth mig~atJon a'> m nme rmgratwn, 'mee in homogeneous med1a, depth and tmle
mmges only d1ffer by a Sllllpk thange m vcrtJr,J sc,Je (an ,ffJne trdnsfrmauon).
\re n:"turn to rhe wayefield represenred by the ?ero-olfset ;ect1on i'l.p 1 ,.(.,., t).
238
k,'w
'"'"'~--
dtr/dx
, , . Fmtm"n'"l
l =~
or
k,=~:_ V~k'
3-Piaccresultin(k,,k,)or(k,,kT)
[ 4-Kepeatforallpnint;m
fretuency w
The
IS
= ~:n:f
of an e>..plodmg
=0
239
"
()\yous\y, the 1.ero-ofhet sectmn ,1nd the nngrated secnun are not m the same
domam one !S m the (k., w)-domam, the other m the (k., k,)-domam '\lone the less,~,
the 1mages are linked by the batk-propagation of the '>urfact>-reconkd v;,ves frum.''
all. nmes t ro t1me t = O, ,md from all posJtwns at tlw surface (x, 7 = 0) to all depthrmgrated po&itwm (x..,,,, 7,,,)
Bctck-pwpagatwn being etUI\alent Lo fon<.ard-propagat10n, Jt needs tu be carned
out (as mditated m Chapter 1) hy satisfying d1sperswn rt:'LitJon>hip r1 20], wlud1, m
2-D and mdudmg the half~\elonty tem1 hnkt>d Lo the explmlmg rdkltor pnnciple,
will be
Stolt
~P(k ,, k)=
Vlk,l ~r[k ,, w=-"'~J
'
~k:+ k;
2
'
' .
[5lnJ
=~ 4v"(0: -k~
240
[.'i 17]
dx
ro
and
~=~=tane,
dx
k,
r5ISJ
[5Ell
1\hne k, !S the l'ouner var!.lble corrt:';pondmg tu the 1e1m;~l tune vanable T (denored as ~tllh Lo dJtl'ert:'nriate 1t fr01n w) ll can eas1ly he shown that this change-ot~
\and_hle ntroduced 111to rdat10nslnp [5.10] corresponds toa 1mgranon m tnne
241
lwns
a
Lhe ;arnples sumrned along the.;;e \~anablt:'
/t:'ro-o!het trdct:';
yeJocity hypt:'rbolds art:' stnnnwd ,1\ong hyperholas dependent only upon a srngle reft:'rtll<t:' velm ltv, denoled \',"!'
Ttm ft:'quues definmg , dr,mge-of-\anahk, t--+ t' = f(t), such tlJ;ll
1'
t~t'(t)= :~ 1 f-rv!Jr)d.
[5~11
242
(b)Velocit)funetion
, - - - - - - - - - , " ' (c)Stretchedero-off,etse<:tFon
[l-\'erncalstretcht0 --->f 0 )
f-k nugration,
as thdt tllustJated m Ftgurt> 0
1 ht> Tt>Sulr of th1s mtgrdlmn \\Tll be .'>trctched along the ttmt> axb as, result of
tht> lllltTaltr,m,formatlon, a Tt>\Trsc 'trctch !S tht>rcfort> fWrfmmed to comt>rr
tlm 'mtgrawd snt>tclwd' domam mto tht> llme-mtgtated domam
243
"
"
.,.,
..
tina! mg-rated u me 1 ts carrwd out usmg the mvf'rse
---,.,~
to
Tlus operat10n, ~hm\n m ~-D 10 Figure 5 l!J, 1'> eastly t>xtended lo ;)-0, and 1s par\Jcularly dfincnt m teTniS of ldlculaung lllne lompared lo othcr 3-D mtgralwn
nwthods
Despttt> tt-. theort>tKdillnpCJfcl twns, tl11s mdhod rt>mans \\tdt>ly t>mpltJyed m a
number of ltmc-1n1gratwn .-tppheatwns. Due ttJ tls computmg cffi Jt>ncv, tt ts tJften
w.t>d asan mtermedtate stt>p 1n thc prestack tmt> nu_g~ations dcalt wtth m Chapter
7 Stolt mtgratJon can a!..o lw deplO\ed in :1-D ao an mtml skp Wlthm a seguenct> of
\'clonty-ca-.cadcd migratiom, a techmque treatcd m Chapkr 6
244
~<uc '-'~u~,
nocu a
'~'"'""'0
'""'"
~UUOC-<<:<<C<J
o<:;ooCC-UUU~
Ul
(b)
DtllbctioncuneorP~GreenfunctoonforP
245
r.h.,ae.s
thc 'tUTnmg pomb', .15 1mphcd hy prense
l9l::!.l) \\'hdst thc {~J't'en's fum11ons 11111 appear
mcompktc dut> to
sh.1dow zonc r1t>att>d b: lhc ovcrhang, lhts ohould not be a
ma_or Js ..,ue, .'>mee lor thc K1rchholl SlllllHMllOn only the .'>pt>cul,r 7tme w11l conlnbutt> to tl1c
P,
torrespond~ to thc normal ray,
20)
F.ni'Tij)fn fl(n,eFielri
f.xflujmlalwn.l'ru/H
:-.r,
Ed
Ed,
11 tln~ chaptn, \\t> tacklt> a range of mtgratton mctlld'>. whtch as m thc Irchhoff
mt'!hod .JtT
to thc t>ntne 11nagt>,
lll a ft>Curst\C fasl11on
rntgranon tt>chniqtw'
att> ,)~o oftt>n tallcd
Ht>rc, \\t> look only .tt rccUDlVC post-.'>tack nugr,tttons ,tpp!tcablt> to st>tsmtc data
at 7c10-ofht>t, but \\"t> rcturn to prestctck J't>CUf'>l\'t> tmgrauon mt>thod\ n Ch<~.ptt>t 7
at t!lllC LCTO +
of
compo-clwmody di,tus~cd m prcnotl'
n 'enes The teUIJ ston conct>pt ts out-
z.no-n(firt 1echon
that
V,(~,y)
250
J'> hkt>ly to be Wt>IJ beyond thc re~oluuon W1th "h1ch propagat10n vclouues can lw
cstimated.
In briet, rccUl".'>lVe methofh allow us to m< orpor,Jtt> ..t h1gh degrce of hetcro.(<'IIt'il} nto thc prop,g,uHm 1docl!y morlel. vduch expl.uns tbCJr \\Hit> tunt>nr me
,~
Ic.,.,,
nldS> o!
to be numpuhttcd, dcspttc the Lu t
.,JJOrlt>l" \\Jth the Jtcr,lon, ~omewhat rt>ductng tlw ulutl.-tlltmS
'Je,erthclc'' to 1nigra1e rt>cursvt>ly 104m .'>lt>p.'> \\ould requu-e 1!lOO JleratJOn.'>,
u1e,mmg thc calculaton tHnc would be lhe lllllt>' a' long
\fore
as t>ach resJdual 'ecuon IS calcu]alt>d lmm lht> re~ult of tht>
251
Yligr.-t!t'rllm.Jge(l Az
= ~J dz '\')
[6.1]
tlns '>lt>p to samplt>d rla, rcgutrt>s mtt>rpolatum, .1~ t = 2J Jj\' 1~ not gen,
a mulnplt> of thc temporal ~amplmg llllt>w,J ust>d Ths partiCular step IS
inevitablv onl}
rigun () ():1 ~hows the 'kmks' thal nuy
appear on tlw fin,] llll<l);t>
lhc mJgratmn mtcwalchmt>n 1s loo >\!de for a
I"t>g-mn of srt>ep dip~
fht~ dct.-tll m the
ol tht> J"t>cuntvt> mt>thods tllw.trak'< lht> trade-off
tmoh t>d m ch()(,.,mg a
.. tep
loo 'mall .-tnd the m1grat!On bccomcs costl} and umt.-tblt>,
.md the ..avmg 1'\ neg.tted b~ the mtmductton ol artt>facts mto the
In
the
1hc11npactofthcapproxmalc 11nog,ng
mu>l b~ reduced Modem mtgra11on
''"''"'"oloo>gdonmn
252
In It:"<:lii'SJH
thc- W~Idu,J sc-rt1on al deplh 1 = 1 tu. I> med lo c-alcul,ne liw
'>c-Llwn for thc- succt:"S'>l\1:" depth mten.ll <. = (1 + 1) /17
llns 1~ l'.hy Ill'> known a~ a HlUDl\1:" prolOS In ordn to unage depth Z, .di
the \ucceSSl\T stc-ps need lo be- ldkulalc-d
,\llc-rnatl\dj, 111 KuLhhoH' m1gration, a t<nget rnav be dJrc-<tlj and lllll<]Hdy
1n depth lhc- re,pedJ\e arhant,ge> ,nd d1sadvanragc-~ of c-ach
1\eigh 1r1 faHJur m one or other ollhc-m, ,dlhough al pn:-sc-nt mo~t
1 ero-otlset deplh m1grdtumo used mduslrJdlly ,re relllDl\1:" K1rrhhoiT mlganon 1'> used pr rnopallj m 3-D lrme and depth preolack mrgrauono
253
hngc<>[L\~
11~
(h)Zero-offsetsecttonrecordedatZ-0
(c)Zero-offsetresidualsectionatZ=IY.
254
,>-'>
'
255
256
mttial ~auon, wnh lt~ apn. dt~plated towrd poml D's absn\sa
fhe recunmn LonlHiurs w1th fUnher b<llk-prop<lgdllon to rkpth ~ ~z. thrn to
:l/17 On !he 3 ~/ sertion, the rhfTiallwns .tre prrtiraiiY C<]lldl to thr Lreen's hmcUoil thal would be ralculatrd IOr X,. or :t.,. \Vith the next Iteiatwn at nme t =U and
, 1bsnssd X,, 1t therrforr br:-omr'> erltJrelj fon1sed . md 1s finally lllldged at thr lOTre~pondmg depth, Z,
[he lfCUTStl-'f mgrallrm o{ iOUI"'f le111L1 lo thf )Ginf lfsult a1 thr K~rddrofi m1~1almn (01
pomtD
b"I'-P'"P'I<""'"
V,(x)
V1 (x)
V 1(x)
V 4(x)
dcpth
--
0JtTracunncuneoll
re"duJ],ectJOnJ..:'I7
OJITradwncuncon
'""dual<ectwnl\
on<ero-offsetsccnun
._/_j:rr,~n,runchon,IJ-..:'1
(h)Rcsidualscctiondomain
257
we >hould dlso Ldke 11110 dlLOnnt loLdl \<lrtalton, 111 the l!Jdngle cmered hY the
<._;,een\ funltton, jC'I thts 1', a sc-cond-ordn refinc-ment, and 111 pr<tl\t(e llt> U>ually
negltTtc-d The ldter,tl vanatwn 111 \eloul\' ts adc-qu.ttely auounted for by rlte fau
th,t_t the ba:-k-pmp.tgatmn 1dontv m eadt layer 11 fj,, (1 + 1) 81] mav be- arhJtranly
asstgned
K1nhhotl '>ttmmanon bdlk-propagatiOn all(w,., U'> to e.xpl<lm thc- umrqtt of the
rc-stdual >e<.tion and e'>t<lhlishes thc- ronrKltwn bd\leen relUI>t\e migr<~twn, nonW<:'IIf'>I\T 'global' Kn--chhofl nugratwn and nugratwn usmg norm,t! ra1s Whtlst this
ts not ,ts '>ll(h applwd rn pra<:'ttle, thrc-c- dr!kwnt dasse\ of mnhods are
1 hey werc- seen 111 Chapter l
Back-propagation in time
F1gme 6 O:i shows how a wsrdu<ll St:"Uton ts ,]u],:-J fm depth /j,z ln thts
approdlh, the nugratwn veloUij modelts, once agalrl, e>tablt,hed m dc-pth
For tlns and other re,t>ons rhat beuJme clear ,.,Jwn wc- dt>(U'i> fimtc--drffnen(e
nugr<~tion, a cltfferent appro.trh, >llol'.n 111 Ftgure 6 Oi, t'> actuallr usc-d m Ulllt>
nngratlon.
In Llm
l(X) =
258
+ lJ !lTJ
analy'>l> .1nd applaalwn olthe Dn: founula lO
tlns \elol) lunn1on.
1s laken .<; equal lo tlw Illls velocity from lhe surCare
do\\nw,uds We shall return below to Lhe (Oil~lrutlwn ol <1 tmle-nngr<~I!Oil \dooty
lidd, lb ad\,mt.go a'> wdl <1~ ns lnml<IUons, hut here \\e Sllll]Jly no re rhc- c-ase Wilh
259
\~hllh
the H:louty field mav be e-,t;:hhslwd, expldllllllg (lf not fullv IUSillytng) the
pn:-sc-nt-d.r- l'.!de~pread use- ol tnne-m1gra1mn Krhruques
1he- bn thatlhe~e SIKCC"SS!ve !l.~ are not hon7ont<ll mtorhKes errors 111to tlw tnnenngTdUOn poce~~ Thc- Rayle1gh ntegral [3 61, for lllSldllCC, as~ume~ a honzontal
rd'erc-rKe Llse of a non-horiLontal referc-nce pl<~ne ,.JI ]so IM\C an imp<lll on the
two amphtude ami tllnc- tenm m the Grec-ns ftllHlwn, although the efku on amphmdc~ 1~ ,v.,tnnalK.tlly 1gnond (e, en whc-n the WeJght1ngs for the (,rec-rls funcnon
are efleuwely ralrulatc-d m the t1me nugr<~tlon)
The efTeLI on prop.tg<~llon t1me~ <; ol rnme pralllraiLorllern !'!u~ phenomenon
1~ shown m F1gwc- 6.08 The <'hange to , AP Ic-ferc-nred lil time by a (~een\ finKtlOn, >uch a\ that m F1gll!e 6 07, dS~umt'~ t!Mt bdlk-propagatwn of mformatJon toa
grven x po<;llJOII Wlll O(CllrYertlr ally Th1~ as~umptwn dTutyeJy mearb 1gnormg the
rellallwn at tlw m te JIduO AT, whKh OllUr~ beuu~c II.Z JS not l1<1t 1\ote thaT \I'C find
pwp.tgate\ fi-mn one lter.ttion to tlw nc-xt, dnd an 1mage ra~ ront>spondmg to data
w1th vertiCal c-mergence ran hc-n(e lw followed !Iom one APto anothel dunng the
nugl.tlJOn
Thi<; IS lliu\t,ttc-d m F1gmc- 6 08, a\ .. el! as m hgllTe 6 09. tlw laner beu1g analogom to F1guw 6 06 desuJblng bark-pmpdganon m the depth dom<lm 1\ote the
d1fference between the two approlrhes m tune mlgralloll the G1een's luncllOil
llll\eS all ha' e thc- same ,ertKal time T"'' = Af fhc- byperbolK pan hnked to foru~
mg, howe\ei. l'i ~mular to the Green's functwn., u~c-d m dc-pth 1mg:rdt10n
flus mean~ thaT thc- Jff;:rtton froml) ~~ ste<lrhly fiwusc-d during the n;Lurslon
steps, wh1lst a~ <~pex rc-mam~ (;:pproximatd>) at ab~o~sa X," In Hgure 60!-J-b for
c-xampk, the ape.x drrl\TS al t = () rlunng thc- fourth 1teranon step. w1th a po~1IHHl
260
oi the
roncept
d 'Hrtual' ray Withm the tune-1mgrated domdill WdS first mtrodtKed b} Re}naud el ni (1003), .tnd allows exau mudelltng of rerunl\e tnnellllgrdttOn (m denugr,tllon) klrH:matllS, Jn tlw S<lll1C WdY that Wlntunnbe's analYttLal
formula~
r::,
l!J ,nd
261
.. j ~ ..::. ~~
d~plh
_____
____!?itti-;JcttOL1~uneun
re>tdualsecl1un3..:'1z
(b)Residualscction>domain
(c)Timemigratlon
R<~yn.tud'~
262
\ftt"r ttm exteii\Jve !lescnptwn of thc pnnuples ,mrl over;ll .lspctt_\ of reCUJ\IW'
nugr.ttmn, .tnd \Lre\~mg- the use ofKuchhoff sum-b.1~cd back-prop;g-;tmn methorls,
nm mo~e 011 lo tbose
metho&, t 111-renth use!l m mdu~tJT
Note th;t the umclusio11s
rccursi\l" mcthods al~o rematn \ahd
l\l1e11 ex;rmnmg rmgr;non tcchmque-. utJII7mg thesc methorls
IH"
263
swularl)
\Ve rt"t.tll the problem lo he sohed we have d zero-ofJSet stctwn Jecorded at the
;urfale ~ = O, and w1sh to cdl< ul.ne the 1t>< ordmg that would have been nldde ata
depth 1 = tl7 A sumldr pwblem has .tlH".tdy het>n ~olved lll Chdpter 1 (\1orlelling
plpdgatton In the .Founcr dolll<lill' and
1 11), v.here v.e 111\herl to find lhe
change 111 tbe wa,efidd a~ a functum
muea~mg (propagauon) or decreasmg
(bad.-prop;gatmn) time
A sunilar appmach 1'> userl herc, usmg the explodJng-retle< tor model. It amounls
LO statmg that 1\e knl\ Ap(x, 1 = O, t) and v.e ~eek !l.p(x, 1 = 1\z,
the 'upv.;J'
fmm tl1 toO OCCIII'> m a medmm
pwpagMmg
frmn Oto tJ. mohe~ mtegiating the wa,e-pwpagation
equat!Oll 1ll lhi'> medmm trom l(S JtlltWI value Ap(x, f.= n, t) lo lt~ e\entual destrerl
1alue Ap(x, Az, t)
A m.tthematual way of rle~cnbmg thl'> pm!Jiem !Sto use a pmperty of the D1rac
O(z) dHnbutwn f'unUIOn
~p(x,z=O,t) ~ 1\P(k,,z=O,ro),
~p(x,ilz,[) ~ ~P(kx,Az,<O).
u~mg tlu~
[fi7]
Here, we ha1e sunply v.ntten the generah.t.ed reJ;tmmhtp henvecn the mtml anrl
re-.idua[ ~e< tums m tbe Flmner domam. :-\lov., v.e 1\ant lo expn:'>s the fact that one !S
rleduced hom tbe other thmugh h<lck-prop;gattml. 1 e that the tvlo 1\.l\efields ;re
hoth wlullml~ oftbe propagatton thwugh the V/2 merlmm Th1-. 1~ .tccomp!J.,herl by
>ldllng that k, m tlw abo\e exprcsslll mu~l umform lo tbe dJ-.perston rebtwnsh!p.
Todo thi'>, rhe relalmn-.h!p must he modtfied lo ldke accounl of the fact thal, m
the explodmg-retlt>Uor model, the propagatmn velonty w11l be rltvtrled by rwo, as
11ell as t>xpre-.~mg 1he unknown k, as a funcuon of 1he other pa1ameter~ fh1s eventu.tll} gJH"S (for 3D survevs)
264
[ti lO]
Jn,read,
1h1jt
to denve the resJdu<il secl!on m the Flmuer domam
unagmg pnnCJp!e
1 e l<lknlaliml of the
111 tht> (x, Atj-domaul at t =
Ibe ~;Jue of tlw Fourie1
tl,lu~form at t = O can be 1\I'!Lten <1'> a sum of the !l.P's along tlw frequenues We
obtam AP(k,, k,, AL, t = 0), 1\ho.,e Flmner nansfonn m the ,;n;h]e., k,, k. tben gve~
u~ the migrated Jesult 1\P(x, y, ,.,_z, t =O) for depth At llus c;n be ~umnllirlled by
the lollmung >et of ope;(lon'>
1111~
u~
i'P(k"k,,Az,t~O)~'p(x,y,M,t~O).
[6 "1
265
266
~theme
f(r
plM.,e-~luft
m1granon
Hl
The recurs10n, OIICt' hegun, LOIIt!llues >Hth P(J(h tnm m the ~pcctrum bemg
multtplted bv <1 ph.i'>e-~luft complex tenn adapted ro the nugr;uon veloCtt}" \e,
m the fint lave of thwkness 1\z and par.mwte!'> ("', m)
'lhe undglng prwnple 1'> tben appberl ~Id summdtlon to 1al1 ulatc tbe selond
!me of the nugtatcd nndgc at deptb 1\z 111 tbe (k,. z)-domdin
\\'e then beg111 thc nextller.J.tmn, v.here the tiC\\ re~Jfhldl >eltJOII unrlergoe~ .1
tcrm-b\-term multtphlalton by the operdtoi tOirespo11dmg to m1gtallon
1elouty V, m the S('conrllayeJ [Al, 2Az]
Thts 1~ followcrl by an 1magmg, and '>O on
The recur..ion tonnnue'> unnl the fin;] dcpth Z !S rt'dlherl The rc.,ult 1~ the
complete nugtatcrlJm.J.ge 111 thc (k,, t)-dom;m
](complete the proce ..... antmcrse Jioutte, tr.tn~form mthe \;mablc"' ts then
cdrncrl out .tt ea1 h depth lo g1\e the final depth-nugrated nn;ge
lllt' nugratwn \Tiooues \', uscd m each ~tage or the depth tTlur~ton .J.Ie ulent!Cal to
tht' nugrdllon velm!Ucs rlt~cm~ed abo\ e for tbc Km:hhoff dppmao: b
fht' phase-.,Jnlt mis>ratmn method ts extremclv taptd, anrl1~ often u~ed lll 3-D
J(n nHgr<ltJon ,eJoc!ly
Sulh tests mvoke a sean of nugt.J.LIO!l \docltv functltJllS fht~ enables u~ to
1mpact ofthts crittcal patametcr on the final
trnage, ;nrl evt'ntually ro e~tabh~h dtl optnnum Jmgrdtton velocll} ficld
267
d1~cu~s
latcr
Finite-difference back-propagation
Batk-pmp;gatum mcthod~ u~mg- fimte-ddf'creme'> ha1T been lor m.tn year~ by tar
the most w1rlel} u~erl m prattrce The} v.ere mtmrlmerl for tbe fihlllme m an arllcle by Claerbout and Doherty (1972). whKh hd'> since become the Sl<i!Ung pmnt of
morlcrn 1J'a711'-rquatwn-bawd wmmc lr!Wf!,lll!i he'>e methorl'> lll\olve cal1ulatmg the
re~irlual .,ecuon using a rnunetical integratmn ul a modiiied \eiS\011 of the \\ilVt'
equal!on
In Chaptcr 1, \\e sav. h\\ a \\a\ e cou!d be prop.tg.ned fiom <111 JIIJlla] "a,Tfield
268
u~mg
fimte-drtlert>nce methods \Ve <1bo SilW the cqmvalerKe betwccn propag.tlmg111 one dnecuon and back-propag.ttmg m lhe opposrtt> dm;clmn. fnally, we showed
1 1~) lhilt pmp.tgatmn, aml con~cquenlly hd(k-prop<1gauon, could be
euher by propag.ttmg tlw wmdidd m lime slcps for all
or by deplh '>leps for ;]] tune~
deptb~,
Our problern lhi'> time rs lo bad..-pwpag.tte lhe wavefield Ap(x, z = O, 1) hom depth
= O lo depth z = ti~, ,mrltt !S dearly rhe second alte1 n.tt!Ve th<1t we need The first
!'> cqually possible, and lea<!.. to re;n>t-limr trchmques, a'> we will ~ee shortly.
J]m-,, we are aamng at calculaung the wdvefield al a deplh A1 by knowmg the wavelitld at deplh z =O As shO\Hllll Flgurc 1 12, bdtk-propagatumin deplh necessllalt>'>
knowmg the wavcficld at rwo depths morder to tompute ll .tt a th1rd deplh This
tesull'> from the prcscule of<1 selond-order denvati\C m /1\l the WdVe equalion [ 1 171
The authors 1nennoned <1bo\e sug-gcsted an approximaiJOJI to the wave equalmn
th.tt 1\0ulrl allov. d ~1mplc first-orrlei ~cheme to be
Th1s mcthod invohed
k=
'
( l'
~ -(k~+k='),~
V
[ (k'+k') V'J
8w'
''
).
[6 14]
269
[G 151
lt ,m lw rewntrcn as follow.,
[6 16]
h;ne been ddderl to ~trcss tht> f.tcL Lildl Ll1e dbme equatJon rlemon~tlaLe~ thdt batk-pn>pagallon tfom Lhe surf<1Le f =O lo dt>pth At C<lll 11011 be ;ccomph~ht>!l m L11o phase-sh1ft '>Ldg-e~
l"he tii~L '>tep JS lep!e.,ented h} k,, = O ;nd k = 2 w 1\zf\' Thts tmTesponds Lo
a 1erllc;] pl1)p<1gdllOJJ as IH" will '>ee below
Once thts fint phd~e sh1ft has been <1pplted, the second tnm m rG 16] 1mohes
Lhe apphcdtlll of a '>econd transf(>rmatlml to tbe result
!he
p<nenthe~e.,
operator
2-6.7.
'""' =y
to the dat<1 fhts tune 'h1ft 1~ not ne11 lt l'> Mmply tbe tenn we
IM,ealrcad)
tion opc1 ato!
he apphcauon of the second ph.tse-shift opeiaLur e
m fact to the ~econrl dement ofthe opei<ltOI m F1gurc ti 05-b: thc
teuu Remembe1, hOIH"\CI, that th1s operator JS only .n <~ppruxtma-
270
l:z
[617]
~z
l;yer [0,
~1],
~Q
lo
,1n 01 upl1-,h
lfi18]
1 be
equatwn "llu~
dt'pth onlv may be u~ed to compute the \\.tlelit>ld at .tnother depth Thi; JS because the smp!Jfierl dtspct swn rclatlonslup exphcllh (but .tpproxl)nately) relate' k, and not k-, to powers ol k,, k, ,nd w
1\one the le~-,, tbe Midmon ot extr.t tenns obuouslv greatlv ncreases the callulatJOil ttme cq111rcd \\'e recall
Tbe first tetm
dw<ogcof-,,moblc,
edw;ndield
To tht' \\avdield. we apph the '15a back-propaganon tenn, ,ep1-csenllng the
1ht'> lead~ toa '!.)o back-prupagated Fidd'
tbe k.'-tenn n the expans1on
denvatl\eS 111 tune and
271
272
Jhc problem IS greater for den~J.t!Ve~ w1th respe<t ro the ~patial ~an.tble~ x .md y,
wh1th tan be to.u~ely
A srtmphng- mten.] uf'25 m m y 1~ commun m 3D
se~IniC 'lhi~ 1~ <lose to
N}fJUist fref)uem'} (the frequeiK}' alia~ing Juml)
j(n dip'> greater than
.1 ;e1smit frequency uf HO H7 lt 'hould be nuted that
tlw ,Jhasmg condnion~ gnen m Chaptc:r :1 (F1gure 3 06) mu~l be ad<~pted ro thc tl'.o\\dY ume of the 7ero-off~et donMII!, or eqUJ\'alenrly, rhe velouty mu;t be dJV!ded b,
2, dtcordmg ro the explodmg-rdlenor pnncipk
Jt ., theiefore de.,!rrtble to try lo reduce rh1~ trace mtcrval (01 hne llltervalm :)-
P,.
+ Q,,,).
lfi21]
273
lnp~l sampl~
-1
Resol\
J j+l
ji
x.,
J J'l
-'
E
(a)Retardcdwa.efieldatdepth
z~O
&.6.A.+AAAA&A
(b) Rcstdual
~<'CilOD
at
z~Az
tmn on rhc mtc:grauon of tite dtfkrenual c:quatmn, rhc: cmre~pundmg ~ample~ are
ma1ked h\ lrtangle~ in Ftf:,'Ult: 6 12
An tde-ntical problem 1~ encountercd when ,Jttemp!tng to calculate a sample m
lhe fist or la~l <-ulumn m 1', ..An asoumption mu~t be made ahout tht> wavefield's
\alue Q, be.,ond lhe mea~urement 70ne One 'olutton ts ro asmme that the wavefidd ~ 7t:ro In Lhapln 1 (~ce: Figure 1 14), we sal\" how ~ucit a hyputhe~t& alTects
Wd\C pmpagalion Il amount~ lo a,~utnmg that thc: acoustic unpedanrt> ts miimte
hc:yond the measurement zonc:, estabh~hJllg m tht~ 7one a fictt\'e tefleuor of mfmue
All e\.lstu; wave~ rearhing thi~ rdkctor dlll"lng p10pagation or
bocK-pcp<eg<euon wtll automattcally rebound !mm tts tnterla<e llu~ pmvokes the
ob~erved on thc: ~tde~, a~ well
as <1l lhe hottom. ol mTgr<~lcd section~
Olhn, more a~tute <Jssumpuon~ <-<lll he: mJ.dt: lo ltmH the,c: edgc dlecr~ loi
be locally modificd to mrroducc "u/Nnhmg
whtch may allow the l.tter.t] refleuton to
274
1 ~ .tddre~~ed hy ~ohmg lh<:- splem fornwd hy t!Je ;e! of ~unul!aneou~ ef)u.tnon~ tOl
w>pondmg lo lme P \Ve do lhJs by an mver.1wn of rr ln-dwr;onnl mnlrnc, a numcJ'lC.!l
1v r.1p1d operalon
' Another ~tralagem used to r m;umvent lhi~ problem 1~ ro .tdjuSt parameter b m
tocflioenl; .\ and H m rel.ttionship [ 21] .tnd hgure 6 12, w1lh respetl ro llw lixcd
m!-(Ia!IOil prtramcten A7, M .1nd \;lo trtntel out the rot>ffinenl; 1n P .. ,, .md P, ,,.
]1 1s g-1~e; rrn etphnt fqMiwn 111 P,, and an exjJ{u/ numenral sr h<:-me. Suth ~themes
re.,ult Ill further approxnnarwns being- necr:ssary to enMire calu1lMmg eflinenty and
.(' no longe med I<1r linlled1fkrenre nHgratwn
.\ dilferenl .tpproach of an
l'h1~ addre.,;es efliuenrly the
Reverse-time migration
ll~e
275
::~--
:~J
,.---,",-,.,,-,.-.. ,~ '
~
r
7 " '
-- 1
JcmnpuleJotc,., ..-A<
----r"' \ ~- ....
7_-_- _-_ - _-_-."'_ _- - ~j'
__ --_/._\_
1-~~\
..
[',~,:.~, e '? ~~
/
'
"' .
J ,,. "'
-~
~-~
'
....
---
lmgmpll-
1h1s d1agram clearly ~how~ how recuniVe nugra11on ~tead1l) filh rhe (x, z, t)-~pate
followng rhe f"ntJre touroe of the explodmg reflenors' propagatwn from rhetr !lllual <:-m~'>lOll unulthe1r eventual recordmg at the ~urface In de-pl!J,ha.,ed renu.,ive
migTaiJOn, th1s sprtct> JS oc(_up1ed by const.lllt-depth z plane~, wlulst m reverse-tlme
ImgJatJon 11 w11l he filled by planc:~ ol (_Qn~l.Ull nmc: In the lormer, 1maging will be
perlormed a~ the bark-propagat1on progre;,e~. wlubl 111 rhe ~econd wc: ~ee the
carned out automatlcall) al the condu;JOn of the back-propaganon
procc:~>
1.1 hrnt<'
more tune- and romptn mtmorytndu~ll) lor ourl~trc: se~m1c d.tta as,
mtemwe,
276
de~p1te 1l' theOJetKal ,dvanrdge~. Its disadv,uHag-e~ become evcn more marked
when ueaflng 3-D data. l'he melhod h.t~ howe\er lound ldvom m wdl ~eismiC pw<e~~mg, where data quanlllie~ are .1. greal deal ~mdlleJ
z---+T(z)-f~.
0
V(x.z)
' f
~=0.
l6.2':!J
Alsummg that the1e art> no lateral vanal!OJH m velocn,, ar lea~t locally, a JdatJon'hip can be found smular 1n structure to tbat gnen !01 depth 1mgrauon JJl equarion
[6 2!]
A ba<k-propagauon numeru;.J s(_hemc exa<tly eqmvalent to that fo1 deptb
nJJgTauon c<~n then be .1pphed Thc velocny 'dnation hypothe~Jl made herc IS ol tll('
"illlle orde1 <lS that m depth nugiation
the hypeiboiK po.tlon of the
;ev('ral nHgratiOn mtenab
( l('en'~ funcnon ~elout~ vanauons wah
l<mg w11l he thmc ~tKcessfully a u ounted fo1
277
.q(x,z==O,t)=od.p(x,z==O,t+iil)
lo sumtmllllC
thl~
f6'L)j
278
1'>10
t;, , LOncept lit' mlwduu"d m
,n exdmple ol ~m h dll nnpulst' rt>~pon~e usmg
15o pdrax1al equ.ttum Note m
JMitKula1 tht' po~llJonmg error ob~t'rvt'd for d1p.'> ht'y<md 15, a~ wdl .t~ the numC'r-
resp01nc' nught
1dwu unnp;ut'd 111th 1-k nugratmn,
grcat advanLJ.ge ]H.'5 111 theu
to
aetiJlmt lor almo~l ,u y kmd ofvclonty nmat1on 1\owada}'>. algnnrlmts much more
pm\t'rlul than lht' 4!o .tlgonthm ,u-e uscd on a daily ha&JS.
The traH'>111on from a !Jffcrcntl.tl cquanon lo <1 fimte-dfcrcme equat1on also
lnHJhes a numbt'r
1 he mo~t 'cn,l(1\e para meter mvoll'ed \vdl be
IfvlCIHTC toreducetlw;
di<,Unc.e betwt't'll nmlpomt hnc5 \IC would h.tvc ro mcrease thc mnnber of sunev
dlanJalilally. and th11s thc dur.ttwn .tnd co5t ol the >uncv lo le>sen tlu>
tht' lmt' mtt'JT.tl 1~ tommonly redutnl dunng pwu.%mg. b\ the we of
mtnjmfiJfmn
1 he resulting J;tcr.tl Jeoolutinn of the se1smK
un.tge !S demou'>ILJhh
thc n~k of ,uJYey-dcnlt'd data. ahasmg
tlnt'~ remam A< qm~1t1on }J.l1"<HTJCtcrs
dm( non. lwc mtt'n,J, etc) must
1hert'f01e bt' <idd.plt'd to
279
v=K~v:".
f6:!4J
kr =ro--
v:;\)k~
l6 ';!.-)J
11hC're k, J& thC" frequC'/l(\ coiTC'S]JOnd1ng to the tme-depth var1ahle l Th1s vaitahle
ph11~ rhe ~ame role a~ the v,u.hle k, lll depth nng-ranon Ir ha~ the ~ame dnuen~lons
a~ w, as T ha~ thC' dnHensmn of nme AppbcdtJon of rh1~ relatwn;lup 1n 'elleS wnh
.1 veloCity \'. ,md then V 2 k<~{h to the disper~!On rdat10nsh1p,
[6 26]
f'rom whtdl thC' ~elonty relat1onsh1p [6 24]1~ den1ed
fhts fC"mlt ts often appll('d aswe see m Ch,tplC'r 7, where we de~(nhe a pre~tad.
nrne-mtgT<~lon te<-hmquC" whc] consJsts of a pha.,e-~hdt mtgratwn, wtth an inial
velouty hmctwn V,(T) v.n,thle lll tune but laterally constan!, m ~ene; w1th a finned1flerence Illl!_.,>Tatlon, w!lh . wholly ~arymg velouty field V,(x, y, "1) &u<-h thar al every
1, f) the relatwn~htp[6 24]1~ &ausfied for the de,tred fmal velonty fidd
that N
n11grat1ons rould be put 10 ~ene~ w1th a velour~
C.tmhoJ~ (1001) '>lwwed th<ll tlu~ re~ult could he extended ro h1gher-order
d1~perS10n relatwn~lups, and that !l will tend toan exM t solutwn a<, N tends to mfinJl~. In urher word~. by m1wdmg trml' 1mgwtwn ustng ~elontle' lower than thC' fmal
desJed vdonty at each step. a full exact time
The u'<' flfwswdrd migratwrh wrth rr
In
in
~um
280
(/d.P(x,z,w)
a .P(x,L,w)
2
4oo"
~+~=- V 2 P
x,z,w
[6271
'\o denval!H' tenn m w appe,J.rs hc:re. lh1s IS !mked ro rhe prevJOusly mennoned
J.trt dur e.trh frequenry cowponc:nt withm a seismt( ~Jgn,J.l 01 wavefidd w11l prop.tt;<~te mdependenth ol all other fc:quenue~ flu~ 1~ a propert~ WJdely ("<ploued 111
as airead, seen 1n f-k
For our pn:sc:nt case, 1t means that eaLh
lll.t\ he hack-pmpagated Jndt\tdu,J.lh ro ue.nc: the res1dual ~e(twn, .tn ob;ervat1on "'hl(h m lart 1'> rrue f01 al! barkplopag<~ttof' method~ [Je pha~t:-;hft le(hJJt<ue above C:AJliOltt:-d t}U~ p!OJlCI!y by
eAtendmg Jt ro thc: full Founer doma m (k_. k" w), although l.ttFral vdm ll> vauanom
\,ere not allowed.
lbe m'!onty ol finJle-dtfferenCF nugrauon software palk.tges also makF u~c: of
thl'> f<>alUJT The Lew-off~et sedion 1~ urtnsforrned mto the Fourier domam Wtth
th1s
1~
the- firsl lnm uf the parax1al T<1ylor exp,tnswn of the dtsperston rf"l.t-
1' -(2-a)P+P,=-Q,,+(2+a)Q,-Q,
~nnpler
fimte-dTflerenC<:-
[6:m1
1 he: patameler a, depend; on the local velouty at X, lhe mtgrated frequenq w, and
!he <,;mphng and mt!_.,Tl'aOon mtc:rv.tb, ~ and b.L, ~ome ol whllh ma, be (Omplex
tmmbers Only ~1x ~,tmple~ atT lt>.ttured tn tht~ <;<heme, a~ dtfkr<:-ntlatton '>'llh
1<:-'>pecllo t 1~ carri<:-d out h\ mulnph(ation by w m the ahove relatJOn>lup lht~ lorTllltla 1s also an 1mphur equa!lon, w!ll( h ma, he '>olved h} a tn-dtagonallmear sy~
tem lot poml~ X, rt;~ori.tted wllh J. gt~e-n frequel)(~ lt b .t vety mne-effirienl owr.t-
281
:\Jore soph!St!Cilted \.(_heme~ havc ~mee been dcveloped, brt>ed on rhe fmllC-differc:nce temporal '>e heme., 'een abme The lll~<tgmg phasc of f-x nngranon ar llme zero
a~ f01 pha~c:-shift ml!_.,>Tation, b, ; ~ummation alung flcquende~ at (x,
= umotan./ rile IelUI~JOn 1~ then ll:Lommencerl1n tbe (x, w)-domam fm the 'ucrc~Sl\t: e;idu,[ ~ecuon; alllL, 2!11, etc
''""''_!,V
[6 311
ll IS
lenglh, wlnch 1~
not an 1deal ca~e We
u~e a truncrtted yer~10n, wHh a fimle length (2r>.i +
\) sample~ long, as .m <~pprox1matwn The length ofthe ftheJ, gwen by :\1, will repre~enr .1 compromi~e between eflioenq (~mrtll :\1 preleued) and a<-curac~ for large
apertures, ht:rKe
d1p~
:\1 p1-eferred) The ha<k-prop.tg-atwn owrat10n
~P(x,.~z,w)~
[6 3e]
J=N
282
(l~J91 h) thar 11 <an be dll<Iently apphed m 3-0 survey, We renun ,hortly to one ol
1rs '\penli< appi!C.!IJO!l~ m 3-D nugiatJOn w.mg the Hale-McCkllan filter
domam m
vha~e-shtfr 1\ITI(' migtanon TII!s cxtenSIOII ~~more
comphcated, however. lor fimre-dftercnce and <Onvolunon-based ba{_k-piopagatlon~, where vclonty V.II 1anons m al! dueuwm mu~t be ae< ounted for
Finite-difference migrations in 3-D
The lmph<Il fimte-differen(e <''luatmn for f-x mgranon [6 :10J does gene1ahze
ro thiee d!menstons (t~x. y' migr.IIIom), m ths <.!~e wtrh mne samples 111 a frequenC} plane wnhm the .'1-D volume bdck-prO(Mgated ds a funct1on of mne ,amplcs 1n rhe
li-equeng. plane w1thm rhe teJo-offset volume Th1s lmJ.!licit e'luation meam a!! rhe
,md \ 's m rhe
mnsr be cal< ulated snnultaneof rra<es tn rhe x-dne<tmn) wulmeans th.1r e1the1 d hncar
unknowns must be ,ohed 01, .therndU\eiY, the
III\TrMon
d square marnx
mne non-enJ dtagonals must be c.trrted
Oll! Thts 1~ d lughl} <umbeJ.,ome numencdl operauon, evt'n fm a
tion, .!'\ the ptodu< 1 "\!,N, will consist ofat least 100,000 tra< e~ even
''l-D ourvey, and the~e da}~ wdl often be m excc~'\ of se\erdl m1lhon traces
283
k,
[.'\3]
f111> relanomhrp, not ,1pphed m pracnce a'> lnghcr-ordct .!pploxlm.!l!on<o ,re herng
U5ed, 15 g1ven >okh ro demonsrrate rhar rlit> sphr mto two ~tage~ v.ll onh be exal l
284
~pht
1 1 1l 991) ,n,Iiysed tht' rno !}pes of error. \\hJCh depend on the degtee of rhe p.traxIJ.I appwxinMtion used, aml propu;cd a filter to compemate fot them Ht> showed
tiMt the en m~ c<ln be teasonably Vlell Lorret ted lor by appl}mg d re">tdu<tl phase 'htft
,lfler back-propagatton ami bdi>le the nnagmg <lt Len>-ttme !S pedmmed
The vha.,e-~htft ( O!leC"l!On operator devends 011
the hequemv 1t~ apphcanon 1> rhu~ best suited
rntgtahon metllOtb,
rhe par axial e1uattmtused lll~ rlwn ,Jgmithm
!he Jlllgratwn 'tep and the x ,nd > tt<lte
rl1e mtgration ye\otll}
Tlu~ [,ts! pomt makes avpittdl!On ofthe opetatm ,Itg-htl} more comvh<ated ~:uher
a omg-k \doCJt)- ts dwsen ami11 can be applwd very eHi1 tenlly as .1 vha">e-sluft opetMnr tn rhe tk, k,, w)-domam (\en ~mular ro the ph.1se-sluft n11g-ration), or mow
~oplu~ncared tedmllJile,, '>Uth a'> phaoe ">lufl
6 16-d <1ml
raken fmm
(j
l('t;Ul.Irdcpth step'>
285
y)
trans\ei~e
t'>otrop\'
The
286
MoH:'O\Tr, ope1ator Op "'11! only karure a~ a mono-rhmenSIOilal ope1ator "'ho~e [11ttl value~ are used for each taSLade'~ resulr ro provide rhe fin,J convolutlon IeMJh
nus teLhmque or orher mprovement~ on lt (Soubarao, 199()) aJe now userl routinch in 3-D nugianon, olten replat mg- the rrachnonal (f-x-y) !imte-d1fference merhod~
"uh rhe Lt tiltel
sel~miL
nnag-e uswg
.\~
b-
2-D dffr,JCtton curve~ ,nd 3-D rlffacnon surfaceo ('Cheop~ oper,Jton') F01 a
~ubmrfiKe modd assumcd IWlTOJ.!l< and wlth moderare later.tl vdoury vananons,
fotmtddo [3 101 anrl[6 4] sugge.,t thar a \erlcaluno \eloCJt} "'thc mn'>t suitablc
thl> operat10n, where aperrun., are lnmred to (roughly) !W1te tlw depth
1 e .1round 4 5o of d1p
betrer a((uracy and thus W1de1
287
lor rhe Dtx subsmface model, fthc nngratwn scmt-apertwc 1., ,ssumcd to be ofthe
same ordcr as rhe max1mum ofEet m the stat bng velout; 1akulanon, the~e 'tuckmg
ve/outle,\ ought to wnnpond exadly lo the fomsmg tJr/oufn 1equnrd m po,l-\tack ttme
mgmtwn When the mtgranon ape1 tu re become., stgnificantly chJTerenr from rhe offset v.:thw, a coire<tton cou!d he emisaged, h11t 1., ne\er attuJ.l!y apphed m pracnce
There are also ,1 whole scne., of dl'e< rs thJ.L ma; artect thc sta_kmg- \cloCJUes
Thcse \~tll be d1~1 ussed tn Chaprer .S
Construction of the initial migration velocity field
In da;-to-day snuanon~, ti](' wlution ado.m:d to deal wnh tl1ese lumtaltons ts
lug-hly expcnmental, and lfiYohes rhe me ofpartJCtdar 'rcupes' ,lfhcr than a fullytkdg-cd, rat1onahzcd approach Lsing rhe argumem rhat anv llme mtgranon wtU be
'relatt\elv tnscnslti\c to nugatJOn yeJouty', and as.,uwmg no lateral \clooty Ya!la-
288
r1on'> ,re mdeed pre~enl, \\e atm ro llnd a smooth m1grauon ve!outy fie\d, \\hr< h
wh1\e rdlectmg only slow (longwavekngth) Literal \ilTlilliOns also appcar& 'gcologGtlly rea~onable'
01 <oune, SUl h C!liCll<i \\111 mevttahly be subje< 11ve However, once a fldd hao
been <Omtructed, .1 ~enst\ty Leor 10 performcd, mdicatmg the nc<cssary ]()(al or
,ugc-s<ale correcl!ons LO the tmllal fidd lo dercrmme rhc linal mgr.!IIOn vclonly
field
>\ rnore <ommonly used approa<h JS that shown IIl Figure 6.18 Ir umstsrs of rhe
followmg sreps
Choosc ~everal kc; honzons H,, H,
H,. forwhch 111nes TH,(x. y) are J.!l<krd
,nd then mappcd These honzono wtll have heen selected etthci fot thctr
tmpollance ro rlw mterpcrarion 01 thctr corrc~pondence to maor \eloury
<onrrast.,, two <nlena wh!Ch ale Idielv contradJctonT V\"hKII .1nd how m.:tny
hOitZons are< ho-,en 10 largcl} rktermined by expenencc, but >Jmpk, constanrnme honzon~ <1re ofren u~cd
velo< JI)- funcnons fi,>m prev10us pro<essmg r!JJS povalue vcititally bdol\" each vdotity analy~t> at t1me T,,,
289
.....
mavs h,we a chsnncnvc appearance, dLsp\,png ra11d (lugh-frcuency) la!eraJ.
\artatJOIJ~, 1 e 'bull's-eye' or stnpmg- :U:1omahes, w\\1( h 1eqnw: u 1trong erhting
al;onthm so that only rhosc velot itv vanatwns wnh the longcsr ~<.avdength are
ma; he .!UlomatiC,
the possib!lity
well dar.t bemg
or 1t may be entrely
manual, n wl11ch case thc .mJ< cs'>oriLnrcrvreter attempts to rcd1aw !he map 50
as to lntq;\~arc .!'> mw h non-quanttfi.:thle
mlormauon as possible,
such a, annchnal rrend,, large-.,1 ah
\\e can ;ce hm\ problenJs or lilaLtuiaCte' m thc piC"ktng of the vdontv ana!y,es can
kad tu
that d!\ erge locall} from 0\ eral! trench he se \\ 11! need Lo be eiim1
returnmg to thc or1gmal velouty ana\yss p1cks and edmng out the
'""""''""'"'"'' 01 by a stmple mute of rhe olkndtng potnfs IloVIever, th1s oper,
at1on, petformed e1ther m<tnually or usmg geo-statl'>ll<'> too!'>, ts not mltsdfsuffiLient Mednun,fi"<'qllem} anomd!ie~ may abo be pre~enl wuhin !he map The~e may
he caused b; onr of rhe mm1erou~ phenomena mfluem mg- srackmg- velociries
rnent1oned '\V-.,hawd' or 'M-.,h,Jped' anomalw., (Figure S 09) mean that addit10nal
prote~smg-m the frm of re~tdual-,tatl< torre<Llon'> may he ne<r~sary
rhe
for h01von TI,, can also
r2
la
!S] al cach poulf on the map Ome crealerl,
II!IS m!el\al-velotil} maps
tan m turn be edrted, smoothed or redrawn manually. In general, 1t IS eas1er to
appl}
to mrcrval vdot itie> rhan ro rms velo< !les ddined fi<nn
rhe
, smoorhed mrenal->dotty map guarantees a m.1p ofr1115
\doutws from the sur fa< e, wluch !S -,moorhed, whilst the Op!JO'>Ite !S no! netessanly
true 1 he In tena! maps ma} rhen
1he rms vdonty maps defmed
ti-om !he '>urface (ome .tgam
Comments on migration velocities
to IIVPI(I,T~?' Vfion/iel lnformation from \H'lis should be used \\th care n snt ha contexl. = t(z) functlons ntroduced m Chap!er 2
2 02 and 2 03)
mformauon on verttcal aver,Ige velonttes. hui
\dounes for nme tlllg-ratton must not therefore be tahbrated ustng these
:-Jote thar an rm~ velonty log lan be lOmputed lrom wdl ddta, \\luch tS also
all too r<trd} done Ilowever, rh1s approach LKks mfiwmanon on the hetnogeneit}
of !ayer> belween rhe surface and thr firsr somc log me.:tsuremenr
Ah~olute mtcnal-\elm ity values dcnved dtrectly lrom v.elh mu~t nor be used 111
the
of
velontle>, hut tnstead luletol uelont) orwlwn
290
Ab~olute statkmg veloclt}' Vdluc~ ~hould he used Lut only ,frer <trie/,([~ have
been remo\ed
\\1ulst omoothmg I'> a plJ\Ierful techwque, 1t mu~t ,!l~o be prcndcd h} an edil
mg pha~e to clm11nate the most gl<~nng anomahes ,md
them front
rhe d!opl<~v, 1 e bemg redU<cd m 0\Ttall
,fiect
~!dtk-
con>~stenr mdp~.
rhret" ,md ren are nm malfy uoed TIK' mtervals between thc~e bOIJlons ,re therefme
qwte w]{le, often seve,J hundrcd menes tlmk, \\lmh mcdns tlut an} lme,u mrerpoi.Jlton of the rms \elocn; functJon \\tll represcnt a speofit III'>lanraneous \clot ll}
fu/1( non for each mterval ton'>!dered Thi., corresponds, for a hnea1 im reaoe in rms
1cloul} wtth t1me gJ\Cn b;
\do(]t}~
111!, fuflll!Oll !.'> Olli)- a!Jpr\.llllatd)- !mear, !he gr,Id!ent k IS do'e {O (.1 k,,)' 1 , 1e
greare1 thdn a g1adwnt expres~ed 1n Ims velmtty
Other mterpolanons, miluenced b;
LOII'>Hier.!llons, <an also be CIJ\IS,J;ed, e g an Ulstanrancou~ velot ll}
the wnJC
\\'e ohould thcn
ba.,ed on
cho!le of
70~1
[637]
Yet n the maonty o pl<iC[ILJI appludtiOn'> wth ronsuinatwm are no/ tnkrn mto
'lfCmml, anda slrnple hne<ii mterpolawm JS ~uHucnt, ~tgmfpng nnphnt fixmg of
291
un e\\Pnf!all; lmmr tmlrmtunPou.\ vPJC11)' m thr la;'n, wtth a gradzent 1 7 bmes grr.atrr than
-k-
e~
1-
292
eJ' h m1g1-allon step, wlule en:-omp<tssmg tlw vcriKal hctcrogem:'lly of the l<~yer,
Jocs not, a~ we h.~~ e aln:ady ~tated sever<tl umeo, <Ompletely de~<Til>e the propagduon wnes lt~JUStification however hes m the focusing srep of the h<~l:'k-prupagallon
h,mdkd Ly tlns vdo:-ny nus ts after .]] the ongm<~l ;um of unw nugrat1un
[he formula employed ro 1/lHTt velories mlo lllten<~l velociric~ may he numerJt,tll~ unsmble, espeually fo1 ~nMII tl.l' ll11S dTccr Lan he reduLed rhrough rhe \;mou~ ~moothmg st<~gcs carned out Cdl'hcr m the procedun', yn dcsp1tt' th1s, 1l will sull
bL 1wcessary ro perform qu<~lay control on thc outcomc ro remove any abendnt valtiC> rhat IIMY Iestt
lhe enfile sct of operJtmns outhncd 1n
19 ,re 111 f3.Lt ,I((Oillphshcd
,JUIOIIlJU<allv and tr<~n~parently ro thc
s1mply needs lo 111put <1 senes of
smoothed ~ta< kmg \e]o:ity funct1ono m ro the nugranon program
Testing time-migration velocities
A., in any Luhndl) reope, con~trucnon of <1 tune-tmgratlon vclooty field n"qmre'i
a Lertaln cxpenenLe and kna:-k to know whllh fimslung tou:-hes to make.
fhs final 'lin1Sh1ng touch' m our situation w11l very mLKh depend on the pwcedures ~peufic ro each partKular :-omp.my. !1gure 6 20 .,how~ one mcthod that ~~
olten u-.cd Jhc miti<tl vclucity fidd ohramed hy thc mcthod ahove 1S muluplied hy
. '-t:IJC., ol codlinenh, gcncT<~ll) 1n the rangc from O 9 to 1 O.'J rhe st<~Lkd data JS
thcn Illlgr<~ted w1th each of the~e 1-espeLti~e veloGty fichh, w1th the staLkcd volume
bemg seledt~cly s.~mpkd to n:'duce thc nm-tnuc, for mstancc nngr<~tmg C'vel) two
tr,H e~ and two !mes SJmtiarl), for thc (m, x, y)-domalll uugrauon~ descnhcd C'arher,
the number offrequency pbnc~ to mtgrafC' may also he redtJCC'd to savc umc SuLh
J (O~Huttmg C'Xcrnse, though, must nol he allowed to jC'opardlt.C' the valtdtty of thc
te-r and L1.11Tent compuung po'l'.er mdkC'~ 1t mLreasmg-h k~~ nCLe~~ary.
We thu~ obra m .1 <;e res of 3-D ~olumes nugr<~ted with vanou~ pe1-centagc~ of the
fidd. TllC' nC'Xl
IS p<tl'tlcularly ddiC<ltC' ThC' optnual codli"""'d "wmimm' the outcomeo of thc mJgranons The dd-
,:~,na-
!"he Wd)' thal correclne factor~ dl't' .1pphed 10 the final modcl v<~nC'~ A s1ngle corre< Uve LO-effinC'nl
be <tpphcd lO thC' entlfC' vdooty fidd, 111 whJCh !:'a'K' 'I'.C say
tlut we nug~ate '1'.1th
of thc sldchng vdouties", cqually a tnne-~aryng multlphc<~llve funcr10n could be .~lloLated over thC' ent1re inlllal field
The...e <lrC" the two snnplest methods to tmplemC'nt. V1ihcre necessary, we nMy
need tu compute hon7t>n-~peLific COJTeLnon map'i. Tht., 1s ~hown m Figure 6 20
'>uch maps should ne\enhele~s remam Lonu~e The nugranon-vel(XJt) maps seC'n
m h){l.ll'e 6 18-c <~rC' thC'n nmltiplied with the corn:clion maps, beforC' dnother recondltmnmg of the ~clollrle., to g1~e the final nug~atJon velonty fidd
Fxpenence demon~lrdtes rh<~l the cone01~e faltOl' JS usuall~ below one, .1nd
293
~'
typtully dose to 9:i'i{ The uuerpn:tatwn gncn to tht~ phcnomenon ts thatlhe corr('ltlve tenn <;CTITI'i to OHnpensatc for the theotctlul and ;yolelll<lt!L dJ~crepancy
het.,..cen rm .., and <;lackmg vdocit1es (Conher, l9R5). whtht also no doubt compcn~dtmg lor thc tllll!m!C amsotropy scen m day-nch Jonnatiom. a topc 11(' come back
to latcr 11hcn \\t' <;tudy the impan ofanl,Otwpy on mtgrauon proccs~c<;
In bnef. thts fin,tl otagt' m conMruct111g thc ttnlC-tmgrauon vdout} ficld emplflcally compen,Mt'o <1S [;u a<; pos~1bk foJ Lhe nmc Imguuon\ hmlt~ wherc strong vclocallhough ran need~ to be taken m tlu>
wtar;l' lo1!1l(1, / wunolm am U'il)' gunr-
294
295
Introduction
gave a lirst msght tnto prestack ckpth nllgr,ltlon m hoth Lommon-shot
U)lmnuJJ-oJiset domam~ In Ch.tpkr 4, we showcd how <llld undcr wbt(h
,l',.,umptlons we c:an reduce" the oiTsct dnnt:nSIOil ro omiUlatt: 'ero-offset' data
C.h;1ptn j wa~ dethcated to the 1mgrat!on of 7ero-oiT.,('l data morder ro pmducc .tn
of t]l(' ~ub~urfau:~ m ckplh or 111 the non~phpJCal but pr<JgmatiC Jmgr.ttcddoman In Chapter {), we tnlroduced a senc~ of wave-equauon-based tcchlll<jlle~ to Imgrate zem-otlset ddta slep-by-step, whKh W(' called 'rcLurslve mdhods'
J-lo'l'.evn, thc Zeln-offsd \tratag('m' h.ts lnnitations fhese an: mamly uf thn~e
l\pC.,, whtLh are SLhematlcally t!lu<;tratcd tn F1gure 7 Ol
}<,ven m fmrly s1mple
~ettmg~. thc sLatkmg velont~ analys~ JS
performed
IS CMimdted roughly dlong lh~
nonndl ra) tire -ueloctty ann/y.\"1\ n rwl pr1 f(mnfd m a
nns has
unphLatlono when w~ want to u~e stdcking vdocitics
ro build the tnn~nuganon velouty field or to conv~rt rndp; from tnne to d~pth (see Chapt~r R)
Anoth~r conoeqtwnc~ of th-, fdct 1s thal m thc zero-ofbd domdm, mulnple
drrlv<Jb (Fgur~ 7 Ol-a, oee abo F1gures !':i Ol dllll.'J lO) dfe qmte common. EdLh
arflvdl h<~, ll~ own opt1mal Sldckmg \eliXIly, even after DMO, whKh often
mak~s the pitkmg ofstackmg \doCities ambiguom (hgur~ 7 01-b)
(b)Ambiguous
mid-pointgather
(c)Disco1111uuous
d~pthpointgathcr
J( pwdurc <l 7C"IO-o!l~cl d.lt,l~Cl from raw data through the NMO-DMO-Mack
pmcedure, wc assume Lhal the tune-off~et LUITC" of a rdlecllon ha~ a regular
~hdpe Tlm .t~~urnpnon lncaks duwn m Lumplex medJd (Fq.;ure Ol-e)
In rnan~ ca~e~. the fi1~1 dnd ~econd 1ssues are well .Jddre~~cd h~- prcMack_ tnne nugra11011 (Pre~ll\1) fhe thml one, wluch Lorre~pond~ to 1m<lg1ng lwlow Lomplex structurc~. acLes;ltatc~ Lhe uoe o! p1e~taLk depth JTIJgTallon (l'reSDM)
I3oth l'le.'> Tl\1 ami Pre.'>D\1 hecome slandanl pnxemg tools Ttu~ chapter then
descnbe~ m more det,lJI the teLhmque; dl om d1~po~al wnh spenal cmphas1s on
then mleralton w1th 'dooty an,lh~t~
\\'e L'an ]., the~e too!~ aLLordm;- to theu le\ el of complexny (.md root) m accordancc \\Jih the muca~ing kvd of
complex1ty ~<ith whiLh wc are dcabng.
nu~ 1' abo schelll,ltH .llly lt'prc~cntcd lil
7 O!!
In a 'fwrl) .,mpk' t"arth. cxpencnLe
~hown that the '7t'ro-o1Tscl roule' IS
~cry n>bmt lt ha~ mdeed heen apphed to all data'ieh until very n'rTntly,
de~plle t~ thrm't'tK<lilllmt<lfJon~
Thc nexl ~tcp in ~ophioucatwn 1~ thc mcthod known <lS Lhe Moves'" teLhllHJUe,
oticn reknTd lo <lS 'prest<lck tnnc mgrauon' Th1o technque has been applicd
to most manne ourYe\o smce the late I990o It maks onndar a~~umpnons
abom the \elonty modd <lS lhe JllT\IOU; IHC"lhod, hut ha~ the advantagc of
-
~
', (a)~:\10-0MO-Stack
__
_-,1~,;,;;_
~ t \ ""'11:~..
l'od-stack
Mlgraflon
Fodll'rcSTM
TimeDomain
Depth Domain
298
po~Jtwn',
An imponant otep fllrther Jll compkxuy and L<>mputJng efl:u!l 1; 'full KnTh-
hoff PreSTM' Here wC" entn the domam of 'muJt-oJls('t <hllr,J<tlun <;t.!< k'
,here the se heme LOll>J~ts uf ounuiHng samples along C.rcen'; lunoions. who~e
\ocu; m the pn:st.!Lk ume domdl!l JS mtroduLed as the 'Cheopo p1ranud' 111
Chapter 3 In thc La~c of Jull Km_hhoiJ I'IcS rl\1, we a~~ume a Lontmuou~ and
\!llple.
"
too\ ~
lt r('qu1res exphut bu\dmg oJ th(' velouty
modcltn d('pth ,md the culHputdlwn of(Jreen'' ftmLUon~ through tht~ modd.
mdudwg multiplc ,lfn\a]s The Chcop; pyranl!(\ ma1 no longer look hke a
pyra1md ami wdl bcunne multlv<Titwd m mdn~ Ld~C";, a~ soon a~ somc complexlty appea1s m the velo(_JIV modd
'Double fo(_using' IS a method that e~tJmdte~ Gr('en\ lunltwns w1thout
exphntly budding the 1douty depth modcl OnL(' the C.recn\ funcuons ha1c
been c,wnated, the1 mmt lw uwcned mto thC" depth modd for the fin,ll
dep<O~nuge<,uon ~tep
(_mi
~tackmg-',
299
Aht:rnattvdy, nHgr.ltton c,m take place 'prestad,', each cube bemg uugtated usmg
the samt: vdonty fidd and the same mtgtatton .J!gonlhm, except that the summatmn t<. only taTncd out when thts muh iplc llligration of individual tubes h..1.s be en
cornplett:d Such an operatmn reqlllres ).! tmw~ moJ-e t.ero-olhet mlgr,HJons and
kads lo exal) tht: samc re~ull a~ the conventmnal 'post-~tatk' 1mg:ration b('tause
It willtherefore only be use-
300
301
\'doCll\ flcld
rhe final ~taLktng \dOutlc~ ;J]<;o a!Jow the lO/lS[fU(t!Oll Of a final JTUgra!Jon
veloul~ fleld th,lll~ more ~ophl'ilKdted rh,m
LHer
we ~ce to wlldt extent thl'1e neil' ,,docitil'\ ar~ lirttn
-udocit1e:;lotlwtmk
Thc pl"('viom step kavt:~ u~ wHh a Sldlk Lube whtch l"> pani,dly nngrated at
H:locn~ \' ,/TJ \\'e h<Jvc lwo opl!Oll~ ,l( thto olagc
- Thc PreSl M ,t<l<kd tuhc 1"> 'denugi<~tcd' usmg- the
mg d fmal ol<lLkcd Luhc cqlll\<llent (01, I'C" hope,
cube th<~L would be oht<Jmcd ,fta :"-l"t\10-DMO .,]one Dt:JTIJgtation l'i the
revcrse pro<ess of llllgTalion \\'e met th~ LOIKept whcn wc addressed kmt:mattc denugratwn m Chapter 5 Ht:rc, howc\er, we de<~l 'l'.tth the whole
dataset
0
LUS~ed
tcqure~
Lho~en
302
(fgui"e> 5 0!-J to 5 J
begm w1Lh .t
half-olhet h ~ illre.tdy mdt(ated 111 Figure 4
a Du.IC funcLmn lying on suth .t
-,ctwn \\111 br (,msf(umerl by rhe N~fO-DMO pr()(cs' mLo .t seLJon o .m elhp;e
Jh1-. ne\\ ,e(l!Olllrplesenl, a nan-,formatJon Lo Eclo-ofhet of rlw 1n1llal hypo'zeruo!bet' nugr.tlHHl
,1 umYolutwn-ha>eJ nugr,nton J'i u,ed, sm1lar to the ont Jeptcted lll hgure 5 11-b
In arldnion, wc assumr Lh.tL Lite homogrneom medn1m posse<.ses il constam yeJonLy
\ L'nder tlll<; onJJtwn, the unpube re~ponsc for , Jepth nugr.ttwn at 7ero-olhrL 1s
,1uc\e, with , r.tdius plnportion.tl to thr tnnc uf the ,ample to be rnigT,\ted
In our hvporhcllcal C.t>e, each po111t un the DMO operatorw11l tJan;funn lnlo .t
(b) Impulse
re~ponse
ufprestack migntiun
(humo~eneou~
medlum)
,.,
tu ele, w1th thc result that the DMO opcrillOl ~ nugr.mon 1'> rhe erwdope of e.tch uf
the~e t m ]c., A geomcrru.tl .tnillYM" (not dc.t]t WJtll heno) erlilbk., U> tu Jernollstrate
that th1s eu~elopc will be an ellip~c, iluJ mole to the pumt, ex.u rly the s.tmc elhpse
ilS rhat .,hown m bb-ure 1 20-b for thc ~-D t.t.,c ilnJ pre>cnteJ as rhe unpulsc
respo11sc of ]Jlestatk depth nngrat1on Ir .,]IOulJ be JecalleJ thilt ths 1mpulse
response Wils Jcdw cd geomctrrt all}. u..rng- two ol thc propcrtiCs of thc elhp~e
lu the 3-fl l<l~e. thc /cm-olbct Jc.,pon>e JS still iln elhp.,c 111 the \eltJC.tl pbne
Junnrng tluough tl1e .,oultc-ntel\'el .,egment (lg-urc 1 2fl-il), but thc LeftHlff"l't
depth-n;og""'"'' 1mpulse
a1e hillf->phclc., lhe 3-fl
of all
20-c
NMO
DMO
m .t homogcneou~ mcdJUm
Impulse
Jespon~r for a tune mig-ranon 1> .,irnply il \Trt1calh .. netched \erswn uf that tor
304
'-~~'L
'"'
--~~
'"'""''"""" ,. . ;;)
305
Thr Je;ulto; ul Prr.'.TM-MU\es'", namclv the ;haqmrs> ofthc ~rJ>tlllC nn.tge .md the
\.Jlue-, uf thr 'pmt-PreSTVl' ;t.J< king \rlonlle'> l\111 depend on hoy, wcuratdy we
thr actual prop.Igatmn velonty field m thr subsurtace The e.trth 15
306
1 he ;.tme proLe'' 1> .tpphed tu illl other common-offset d.ttil~rt.,, m tlu~ "'"} cornplctmg the fint ,tep uf PreS !'M 1d1ecrwn~ <1t 1' rt'ordcd 1\lth othct olt~ch are mlllalh placed at dli1etent n11dpmnt loLiltiOm, .~., stiltcd m Chilptt>r 4 (Figure 4 12)
None the le'>'i, after DMO the} illl mo\e tu thc ~ilmc dcpth-pomt g.tthcl~ ilnd ahct
tlllg1anon to the s.tme tmage gilther locilted at the venKill ul the tdlcct10n pomt P
:\ote the change 111 tlu; me.tmng and 111 the namr of the g<1thcn
thc ptocs<;
Y> e
.~~.,urne
a humugeneous
dat.t ~~
307
(b)
D~pth-point ~~ther
~l'ter
(c)lmagegatherinXA
al'terl'reST\f-NM0 1
in XA
1\ "\10-D"\10-1\)10 1
(Ftg-wr., 7 07-c tu
mg .,cqurnce m bgure
thc \.tluc of the ungtnal ofhcL 1s
<llld
-:-.JMO orreCltOtl can lhen he 1rmmcd Thc g<~lhelo; are rcarlv tor lhr final ye]ocity
<tnal}St>, hut no\\ fo1 Jenectlon.. 'm lhctr nugrated pu,ition llowcY<>l, nug1 atwu ts
smce wc u,ed <In .tpproxmMle mtgT.tllou \TI()( tly fielJ, w1lh \eJo tl!eS
the final one
308
't\-MO-rle-Lotiecterl'gilthrn
Jn pra LKe, a~ f11r DMO only, the latrer opnon 1~ hmen most ofthe t1me, hut no
throrehc.tl reason~ JU~ttfy tlu~ choicr
ilftcr M!wes 1 '~, .,,kmg \"eloclflr~ are ;ttll
muth 'procc~<.mg.,ub~urfacc. hut
309
a rkpth uf ~\OflO m bclm> Lhe lo(_auou ul lhe tm.tge g.tther fot wlw h wc .,nuul.tte thc
vd()( 1tv an.tlv.,t~ 1hr tnt>J,um h.ts a vrrtta] veJo ltV-gt.tdtcnllunctum er.ual tu\"()
= 2flfl0 + fl 6 Z (m/>) l'lgtrc 7 08-b ,lww, the e1oluttou ot >la kiug vducllie> aflt>r
Movrs'" a> a fulldlon olthc tmtlal N.\10 \'doHy \'~'"''
frorn 1.700 lo ~l.'JOO
111'>, anr! lur .,x inrrrmcJiatt'
1600 to 3600
310
are<l
tu the apploxmMtwm made 111 the p1oce~>, thc ~mear olthe Jeflect10n
uot total!} soheJ .tnd m.t} be not
l'
-,hghtly relaxcd hy t..tktng the foUI th-order tenn mto accuunt, but 111 muw
complex c.t~r~ unl} l'reSDM Cdll ctfiuelltly .tdrire-,., dw 111lagmg problrm
\Zlll<lnt mtcnnrth.ttr nHgratwn \rlouty Juncllon \,.,, anrl a llnal '>p.uc- .tnd tJrne\<ll'!anl \dmlL} tirlrl \.,.,, Js a pr4gnMtJ( v.,, ofrcdw1ng tl1e 1rnpat of ttn~ tlleorctical con~tr,unt m thc prestn r ofvdouty \ariatwn~ 111 tht> ~ubsurf.ter N('H'rthek.,,,
thc lmlltatlon~ uf the mcthud ha~ e bteu -,hov.n m
re<tl LaSc.,, e\ en when the
mrmmgto-war full
techwquc wc nov. descnhc 111
l'Ull Kirchhoff PreSTM migration: focusing at the Cheops pyramid apex
1 he full K1n:hhoffPreSTM method .,a 'dtffrmtum-lt(J(k method' th.tt doco; not me
tl1t <tpproxnnate ~pht oi the nHgTation
Ou the contr<~ry. Jt is,rl) ~nmla1
111 11> pnnuple~ tu thc ommon-uffsct
l'rrSDJ\f techmqur. IJJtJOduced 111
(,]upttr 3 and ]]u.,tJatcd m hgure :1 15
hnw<>vel,tl
1nq11c ,md, ao ~uch, .,
lo
llngratmn,(h,cmsedm Ch.tptrr3
Lhc main feature., of post-'iGJCk tnne nugatmn comp.tred LO pmt-.,taLk depth
llll)\l.ttJOn <1re .ts follow.,
!3 wlth hgure 5 02)
nngr<~llon ape1 turc. It doc, not need lo
dmll<ll!l In fact .t rmgJaton \rloutv field Jdlncd a~ the rm.,velo( ll)
11o11 ol vena\llmr 1~ ~ufficieut
B.t.,eJ on dns .~.,-,umpnon, thr adual dJflr.tCtlon ( urve (Green's fum non) !S
<tpprmnnMtcd by 4 <,mooth ( onl1nuou~ curve th.tl wr t411 (ompute .ttJ.tlytJcall
The Jr.,ult of the Km:hlwlt .,unmMnon .tlong the (l!fir.KtHm L\lne JS po~J
tloned .tr the .tpex uftJu., Jifllactmn cunr
311
lhc maJOl advanr.tge of po~t->tack (LeHHIIher) lnnr unagmg w.t., th.n the actual
dcpth fhJ not nrcJ to hr c;lnn.nrrl .tt .m eilrly ~tilge and il ]llmtrrl knowkdge uf rhe
\clocitv morlel, namel} the \erlLal nns \cl()(ily, Wil> ~uffi, ienl tu f()(us rhfflacllon~
anrl nug-ratr rdlecton
thr vot11al ftmP 1" nt whuh ti'P fJiare
nuh tmn;rd jmznlt\ no/
thr 10ntmr). the
l'annblr
312
ly con&tructed and knuwlcdgC' ufthe verncal ITII~ veluoty functJun 1& &uffioent
rhe <tdvantage ofthJS approximauon !S that the Green'& hmctmn and lb k memal!( p.iii, the 'Cheop~ pp<tmJd', which Js the exten~JOn tu mulu-ufhet oftllC'
dlfir<tct1on curvC', can be cumputed I<tpidly and dC'pend& mamly on the veruas diSOISsed bdow
Data ,JJ'C'
by common-uff~et .,ect10n~, each ul whi(_h b procC'~~ed mckpendemly
Fur e.t<h offset, the result of the Kmhho!t sumnMIIun 111 Pre~-1 MIS, b> delimuon, po.,ltloned 111 /he >atlll' rlomam as 1111' post-stack hme
namely x. y
and the vettJc,d tune t,.,, hom thC' ~urfacc to the
(sC'C alsu figure~
7 05-<t <tnd 7 O.J-(_) Thi'> tune 1~ denoted r, m thC' figure. lt IS unpol tant to note
that the ~um Js placed at the s;mw ]()(.J.llon (x, y, t",) fo1 <tll cornmon-ufhet
cuhes
ConsC'quently, for e.ICh puult lll the (x, y. t,.,) sectlon, we have as m.nr re~ults
,1~ the numbe1 of JmUal off~ets, ami ~m11larly to Pre~l)M (Flgme 3 I5), we have
ane>tmwfi'O{tlu'ri'G/ti(Weltnne\
313
Seumdly, wc mu;t dcnde what ts the cntcuun th.n ddincs thc 'bc~t Jnldgc'
'Thtrdly, wc nced d methud uf lindmg thc optHlMI p<Irameter~ that ydd lJs
'best Hlldg-e' f(n the pven datdsd
\Ve dosctl.,., the llrsr potm m Llw next .,ectoon and tl1e twu othen dre part uf uur dt&cu~sion on '"'lncit~
Pre:-.TM, in the follu\\ng pardgraph
fhc tlmd po111t JS
eqmv<tlC'nt uf stad.mg vdouty <1nal~~h mtrodl!(cd m
for t\ MO (Oil'C'Ction :'\Jote h(mecr that 111 PJrSJ H !he
OP""'""P''''"''
rj)~~:;~~~.r~~~
+
~~+ (xv.p+h
V4
C"'Ct-xnt ::J~,,.+h
v",.(L"~l
smCI-~uf
(<)D'>RUOtlnnm
nndpoml,ofl'llotonduimuth.,.ordm"'os
314
t, hnm the ~ource ~ at (x,, y) to thc pumt D ol cuon.hnate~ (x,, v,, z,) ,md ba.-k to the
tel Clcr R M (x,,) ts the sum ofboth tune<; and L.m be approxn11.1ted by tlw equ.ltton
herc
] 1m eqt1.1lm11 1> cot.lblt.,hcd u~mg the {Oordm.lte., o! the som{e .10d r<XeJ\en t,
the ( .hcop, p~Tamd operator Il ts a fu m tton uf thc shot and reCelVer
rnordm.ate;, of the >eJ"tJCa! time
of thc tmag-ed pomt]) ,ulfl nf tllC' \Tloutr \
OL\ rou~ly. t, =
h =
= X.,
In patJLc,
~ .tpplted to commonoffo;ct d.Ha~ets The cquatiUll should
thctefore he re<<l,t m t1w nnJpmnt, ofhet ami ;uunuth domam (sec FI6'l.lre 7 10 fm
dcsLnbe~
J!Oia{JO)
1711
vm;
315
[7 4]
In tlm t"qu.wun, \' 4, ~ dC'dtued .tn.J.lytiC.J.liy 111 a L1yen:d mudcl trom \ ""' ome
again usmg thC' equivalen! to equ.J.tiun [2 Hl] and then [2 13]
How('ver, f such a modcl ,., u~eJ lor velonty dlldiyss, two tan/\, for mstance
ttm1 1~,. nvw nred lo be swnned makmg the an,]ysis pmce~s much murc
complaated d!Hl tm1e tun,urmng
The 1h1rrl dpproa.-h l> ba~ed un 1svankm and Al KhahLth (1995)'& equatmn
[4
;:]so rccast as .t Duuble Squ.tre Ruut 1n urdC'r tu gcncrahse 1t to preHC'Je, WC' mtruduce exphntlv amsutropv and heterogC'neJt}' m thC'
Cheops pyrannd equ<~llun, through the two ctlet ttve parameten V,rn .. aml T)...,
Jespectdy definC'd by equatwns [4.20] and [4 ~1] 1 he'>e two pdrameten
need to hC' >C.J.nned when thb pdr.J.mete!l~atwnts usC'd :\lote th.u tlus ., nut d
fourth order devdopment .,nr e h" appears di the denununator of equat10n
[4 U:lj
The fuurth appro<~ch uses ~h1fted hvperhol<~s \Ve mtruduct'd the <oncept and
equatons of shdted hyperbolds m ChJpteJ 4 Ag.J.m usmg the not,wons of
FI.gure 7
el, the .,hfted
316
{7.5]
he ,.,.,wnptton of a comt,mt elunty wJthm tl1e opeiator, whtch ts made 111 l'n:S J.\1, le.o~ds tu thC' .l%umptwn~ that Tp, = fp, = lp ami V,=\'"=\',. 1\hah y1cld
thc 'slultC'd hypeihul.t DSR' equaton.
IfiH' ;&sume that \', 1., un1qudy defned as the propag-.tllun vcioClty .l( the ~urface,
then equatwn [7 ] ~ the equJVa!C'nt uf thC' lltxJ.m Lheops pyramd ThC' se.o~rch
p:u.uueter ata gtven tune t., rn the ~lufted pyr.o~mtd' vclunty an.o~lv~rs wdl he Tp
Howevt'I, t'quatlon[7 (ij can be m.de more general by letnng \', vary a., well The
t11u p.r.unett'T., Tp and V, now replace the two p<trameters V'"" and V{, of C'quatmn
[/ 1] J11e adamage uf t!Jl& new par.o~metenl.o~llon JS th.tt 1t c.o~n bC' shown that lll the
the msena oj
Once e.,nmatC'd from the d.tta bv .o~ st annmg
the parameteJs lp and \', c.o~n he mverted mto hetemgeJICit}' diiCi/or .o~nisotmpy parametei.,
formulas, a .... ummg luc.tlly 1-0 medta, are exten~tons of equatton~ [4 RJ,
[4
('te (Sth(p and Bou.,qut, 2000)
317
'"
clescnbt"tlmtt"dnuquc
l he sccond ruute romtst~ ofltet.ttlllg thc RMO routc
In tht follo>nng t\\-o scct10m, Wt" desLnbc tl1t" thret" mcthnrh m more det<1d We dt&cmo tllt'tr re~pecti\C <l(hant;g-c~ and lumt;twns, espcnall~ 111 te1rns nf tlw meanmg
of \",.,,(t" J. lll a foll(mlllg paragr;ph
""
At tlu& stage, un.ge g<~then are g-enerally not flat Jnd anotlwr 'tep ., reque,ted One pus&lblitty .,a re.,tdual muveuut an.dy>& lollowed by <1n update ofthe
1eioutle> a{{onlmg tu formula r4 10] \\le meta similar ~lluatwn \\lth the
Move>'~ teduuque, and ht'te <~g-am the rndmtl)'~ chulee g-enC'r<~llv !anJUrs dll
mverse l\l\10 route a~ follm\~
fhe cumpt!ted 11nage gather~ underg-u an lm('rst' moveout cmrettwn u~mg
the tn!Udl '\IYIO le!Ottty at the11 n:spettlve !t)(_atJoll,, and the ong1nal offset
value Mure preosely, gtven that traces a!l have di!tetent ufT~ets, 11e u;c the
ffil(ldle value of the ofhet tang-e 1 h1s opt'rauun hung~ the g.ithers back ro a
(non-phyMt<~l) non-zero ofhC't domdlll.
'\lext, a tlas~ttal ,eloot~ .Jn.lysl~ t.dll be performed on the.,C' g<~thets
perfurmed b~ the mterpit'lt'r ~1dd the final n11g-ranon vcluuty 1aluC's
mer the mllial co<~L'>e gnd (.,ay 500 by 500 m).
Fmally, V,,, vdouty fum tlons an_ mterpolated (un tlw fly) dl the fin.d x, y and
t '>ampling 1<11<', d Chcop., opC'i<~tor ., computC'd for edth output sample at tlu~
'>amplmg r.Jte ami thL' PteSrl \.-1 Ktrchhotl ~urmnat10n lpphC'd Tlu~ IS repeatt'd foral! output 'amples to produce the final PtC'STYfmage
In mo&t ta~t''>, the H<ltl .]ong the uff~C't dunen.,mn ~~ not pC'ifunnC'd at tlus
On the
<~linnagC' gadtC'rs are pre~,erved dlld undetgo a final
hefore t!JC' ~tack IS t'V('llUdlly pcrformed hrS fin;J
.Jutornated 'fine tumn.( of tllC'
Jl.Jtnes~ ls po~~1ble onlv f the
corrC'~pondmg cmrectJon ts srn<~ll,
tht' ltt'rdnono mC'ntwnt'd m the
prev!Ou'> '>lt'p
the 'fiual
Iod;:n, one or mor(' ttt't.J.Uom ol thC' J.l.l\10 mute ~ Lommun
rrugr dtlon velonty' 1s u.,ed ,., the 'uuttal \elout~' dS mdJCated
the doned !mC' m
11gurt' 7 JI 1 he proce~s 1~ repc<~ttd unn! the tl-\'o 'elouues are ~uHit 1entl} dn~e
Hre cnd products uf tire prote>omg ~equt'nCe <ll'C'
the Pre~I V1Hn.lg-C', oiteu ;]Jcd the Pre~l \.-1 ~tdtk',
319
320
J11e resu]t., of tlu., lughly mterpretJve wsk JS <1 ~enes uf percentage p1Ck.,
unevenly sampled m the (x, y, t) ~olume. The>C' p1Cks die the mput~ to dll
update uf the initld! veloc1tC''> morder to produce the finaltmgr<tttun vclmity
fi(']d rlus procedure JS further d1scussed bcloK
TI1e fui! KuchhotfPreSTM i~ then apphed with the updated field anda& m the
"RNIO mute', we h<tve U\'O opnons at thls .,tage
- C'lther to prodlll.C' thC' final l'IeST\.-1 'st<tck' d1ret tly,
re~tdu<Jl
moveuut
<~lld\y~IS
and
he ~c<tnmng appwath l' more computt"r-mten.,lvC' than the p1evmu> une and abo
more tmJc-con~ummg, due m Mrttu\;r to the inteqnetJVe vdunty )[(kmg phase.
lt ~hould be noted hoKeer th<tt tet hmquc~ ~lKh <~'> the 'a 11011', mJtJally proposC'd by
.JC'.J.nnut .md Berange1 (1994), that tonsi~ts of mulupl~ing the vdocit~ field by a con~tant \aluC' o., sJgnllicantly n:dnce the cumputatnm ellort (AudC'heit <tJH.l. Otet, \996),
\-lmemei, mcluding tllC' mterpretC'r m d<tta proce<.smg is a!Kay~ bendinal FJna\ly,
we \\1\1 see m d fullowmg .>euwn that mtgr<Jlmn velucities \',,, estHJMted 1n th1s way
a e more readily usabk fm Kell-tu-seJsmJc ttC' and tllfil"-to-depth proect., than tho~
obta1ned usmg the R. \-JO tt"dmtqtw
van<ttlUll'>
A rule ul thumb, m \me w1th the a~sumpt1un above. JS to emure th<tt tilC' lal.C'ral Iate
uf vanatlon ol nugratwn lclolltles doC's not h<tve a ,,a,c\engtb smaller than the
aperture
322
ldllor \olume lir~t .md to en&urC' th<tt Jt abo 1~ ~mooth bdort' rnulllplymg the
l"-O fields fh1s should be done on the toar~e ~p..tn<tl grtd
the nugr.Itron vdocit; licld mto an 1r111
u~m~ the Dtx
hi<Ited 1\rth 1\tll dat-1 <;rrc thc latrer <llC average vclont1es 1\hibt the Jonne1
..tre tlll'> ones and we necd nn~ vdolille'> to lunt' diOfJnions p1opcrh
lo ,urn!llatue rhere t'> no onong tlworcttral
e'\1'/t/WI Ill'>lllterlll
th1' l<t,t fine-tunmg '>lep pL1y' a wle ~mul.tr to the
ot 'tacl..mg <tnd nugratwn 1eionty fidd-. plavs m the 'ero-off-
(ll)hnicalvclocil)gradicntdepthmodel
(b)lmagegathcrinX"r=O
323
7I:l
324
lhe cxern~c JS
fm rhc \\hole rangc of ofhets from lOO m to 3000 m
.l!ld for rwo other
(Figure~ 7 14-b aml 7 14-c) Bv fwdmg the tangency
~t\\cen th(' upcrator and thc reflector, we are ablc to construct lhc mlJ.ge gather of
13-U "\Jote hm1 thc PreSTl\f operator changc~ ohape when o!Ect, apex tmc
.tll
off~els converge to
= !ROO mh (hgure 7 14-a), the long
rontnbutwn
tmlt' th.m thc >hort offset, aud conversely for vclocity V,,,=
(Figure 7 14r) ll1ts expld1ns thc ~hape oJ the 1mage gathers as a funltton of thc m1grauon veloc-
100m The Lmre~pondmg llllllKP-Kilther rayo" ..ts we ddined them e,n her, are
>hm1n in Hgm-c 7.13-,J for thr-cc offsets of 1he sJ.mc nnage gathcr and repeated fo1
lnlgr,Jtwn vclooty for a g1vcn modcl, m a very MllHlar manncr to that cJ.rned out
1\ith Moves'" 1n figure 7 08
325
Sensitivity of PreSTM to V
two modelling tests for RMO and sean
The applicanon ofthe re,dual mo\cout (RMO) and the vclonty sean approaches are nol eqmv,;lcnt In hg-ure i 1J. we compilre the t\\O merhoth u~mg once agam
thc samc \ertic..tl vcloc!IJ gradwntmodcl \\'e 'nnulale the beh.wwur of PreSTM as
a funciJou of the nutJal m1grat1on vdonty V.... ,,... by tomputmg the nnage gillher al
a locai!OrJ x.cl
To .,imuLHc the vdouty .,<an route. we analysc dnecLI~ the fbtncs~ of rhe gather by
computng the standard dcvJ,;twH, exprcssed m ms, ol1mgratcd time'.~~ a linKiion
of offsel ll1'' 'ilalne.,s mdJ(..ttor' ~~a wa~ of quarmlymg dlC qualitv of 1he PreSTM
otack 1he 1e~ttlt 1s ~h0\\11 m Figure 7 13-c
To ~1mulate rhc 'RMO route' we .1pply the mvcrsc NMO lOJTtUJon followed by
,; velo<itv ,;nal)-SlS ili,II gl\e~ thc oplimal nllgiaiJon \elontv \,, '\\'e p1ol V, ... ilS a
funct10n ol V,.,,_,.,, 111 lo'gurc i 15-b Then F1gure 7 1~-e can gJ\e us the nill stack
quality whcn we apply the updared V"' tu emulatc the final ~lep m the PreSTM
~equence of Figure 7 11
As an e'(ampk, an Jlllllill thOJrc of
PrcS1M
= 2R15ml~
0 ,,:
326
~rneaJ dJ~tan{C
327
...
....
~1,
2400'..:
P
4000-
v ftcrRMOuoly,.
~-~~
~-~~:~'- "oo'~
25''r~~ .
\-_
---
"'TD
2300 - - - - --------
1600
2000
2400
2800
v,.,._,,.,,
(b)R!V!Oroute.finol\.,,.
"'"luo<tlonorv.,._1,1,f"r'h''"'"'"'u.
fhesc value~ are obviously modcl dependen! amllhe modcls onlv two-dJmensmnal hert', but lhey arC' indJLati\e of general trend~ .md thcsc ;re onlers of m.1gnitudc
lO llC'ilr m mmd \\hen de,Jmg wnh Prt'STI\1 nHgi.IIIon \Clooiies
328
Be,Jdes tl1e conclu~wn on vdonr~-, 1\e dho noted the ofhct-dependent rrn<;poslltonmg problem mdJCaled by tmage-gather r.1ys F1gure 7.16-c further mesrig-ate~ tlu~
ernn due to the a'sumpt10n ol d comram velodtr w1thin the PreSTM operaror,
F1gure 7 16-c shows rhe nugr.1ted nnage of lhe 'egmenr AB ol the rdlecrm
thruugh the PreSTl\f roule. AH could represen!, for m'tance, a ulted lault block
helm\ ..111 unumlonnliJ
\\e proccss thc ~hort (lOO m) .uid long (3000 m) olheh ~epardtcly, Jllltlaung rhe
l'nSl r.J prole~' b~- u'mg a m1gr.ltiOll \douly V, ..,,'"" cqual to 2200 m/s A~ 11c \\OU!d
do m d fidd sltuanon, wc rhcn use thc JTTldge g.nhen ro Lakul,;te lhe PreSTM vclo{the rcllector 1lll.1ge The cm re,pomhng hon?on-coll~lstcnt nugrauon
,., the uwvc m gre)- 1n F1gure 7 16-r The vdoUl)- mcreasc~
thc reflcllor d' expelled, Lul ddTers from rhe veriKal Ims vcloot) ..ts (hscu~sed above
~ext, we nugrate the dat.a u~mg P1eST\l ag.un, but now 1\lth 1h1' l.!Ler..tllv Vdf)mgvclrnlly. and we keep thc rc~ultmg unage~ for oll\ct' lOO and 3000 m. These two
uugr.ned tmagc' of lhe reflecto are ploned m F1gure 7 16-c At fir~t s1ghr they 'eem
,rr!llar becamc, ata g1ven
at rhc samc lime, 11hKh 1~
1\.o
m Cl1.1p1er 8
On the conrr.ll), lhe sJtuatmn 1', c1cn more comploL..ttcd .h rhcellcctl<; nm\ o!T~et-dcpcndenl dud IS more scvcre for fJ.r offset' than for ne,u-zcro othels a~ a
re,ult of the rdlell1on poHit smeanng.
1he o,mcarmg rna)- not affect rhc quality of rhc nnagc of thc rcflcclor, ,, the
l'reSTI\llm.Jge g.11hers undcrgo thc final RMO LOTl"CltiOn Ldorc 'l..tLk
1\everthcJe,~. lhe mtluencc oflhc ofhctdcpendcnLe 1111l be not!Leable mLomplcx stnJCiures allhe edge:. of lhr mwge ofthe efl<-ctOI wgmmt upthp 11e lo~e the
long olhet~ m the gdther and downchp the short onc,. The end re,ult ~~a lack
of lateral re~olution
route
1tcrat1on~ are peifonned),
compared to the ~can route, smce lhe mtgratiOn 1' actually perlormed Wlili a
~ub-oplunal vclouly flcld
329
of !he
;_wfocit~ unn/),11>
PreST~t
lowlwn Th1s
m an unprcrhctablc 11a;
330
off.,et<; Wc could
~"~
ha~
all
bet'n tran,fmmcd mto,; {-yhndn-
331
the summatwn fm all nrcles wah radu m the range of lhc CXJslmg olTsel~ (F1gwe
7 17-c) The rcsult ot tbe ~ummauon IS placed, by cow,tniCtJOn, at the lime l and oH~
to thc tadm~) of lhc gilthct we ate ilrtuallv computmg al lhe localwn
17-d) \\11en a fhllraciJon aclnallv cx1sl' 1n lhe data, 1ts energ} will be
conslmcuvcly summed and pla(cd ilt tbe offset h ..tnd t1mc t '[he ]HOLe~s ~ repealed toral! nmc~ 1 to ompleie thc gather alJ(I tor illllocanom X"' lo cornplerc thc
At th1s ~tage or tbe PSI method we have not yct uscd any vdOCity mformatmn.
So lar, the ilpcrtm-c fhmen<;mn x ha> bcen reduccd to Fcro, leavmg lhc olhei dJmensJon unch..tngcd. Consequenlly, thcrc 1~ still , movcout for the diffr.Kimn on the
gather Th1~ moveoul 1~ dnven by thc vdouty, ..tnd more p1-cCiscly rhc nns vdooty f
wc assume \CI"l!cal \doutv \ilnauon ill!d no lateral \ilnauon (al le,J~t \\llhm the
apct ture) ,\ clilSSical vdoc!IJ ilnaly>JS will rben yicld th1s ,eloutv .l. convennonal
NMO coneclwn followed bv a stack evenruallv prov1dc~ bolh the rms wlouty m the
nugrated po~inon and the PSI irnagc
De~p1te JI> ob\mus advantilgcs, lllilJlllJ the f<Kt lhal 1h" \C]()(ty ,m,Jh'MS tal..es
pldCC m the m1gratcd domam and wrh no miual gue" ot \clocme~, the mcthod ts
not \ndcly used bv thc mdu,try \Ve find sull!l.n hmJI,JIJon~ to lhose mcnlloned fm
the 1\lovc,''~ mctbod. plus 'ome speulic l>'liC' thal mu'r be Midre>~cd \\hcn per-
332
,\fter the change of vanable, the ~hape of the rono;tant-llme Cheop' pyr,md
beco me~ an elhp~c The drawback 1~ th.at the e hange of van.ablc [7 7] doe~ not m.tkc
h tlmt'- anr:l ~elonty-mdcpendcnt The comequcnce 1s that dn Jteratlon of ve!oCJL}
IS reqmrer:l, a-; 1t 1> in the 'RMO PreSTM routc' di~tu~ser:ltn the prcv10us paragraph
I he authon called thc mcthor:l, thc 'equnalcnt oflSet method' {E0\1}, and the
onsequcnt gathcn, 'common scatterpotnt' (CSP) gathen
I he mcthod can be extended to 3-D and Irregular acqutsJtwn data~cts Tr ha> }el
lo find exten>IVC uJdmtnal <~ppl]( al!on~
333
l he 1.-trt that the unagc 10m tnne tan be nw,leadJng for mtcrprders, eopeual1 belov, h1ghkature> ('pull-up;' and 'pull-dowm')
l'reSTM .tssume; fairl~
time-offset cune-, ami fails m unagmg reflector.> heJOI\ complex geologKa] feature~ (figure 7 () 1-c), ;uch .!S saJt domes O!
overthnJ'>l faullo,
!'hese pomb an: wdiJllustt.Jkd w1th the exdrnple m F1gure 7 18-a taken m a (Omplex -,alt tectorucs t:nYtromncnt (r:lata coLtrte~y ol \\'cstern(,ecu)
Only llfe,tack dcpth tmgraltOJJ (PieSD\1) c.m sohe mo;t of the;c dtllicultJeS
(Flgnre 7.18-b) i'reSDM JS, howe\el, a complex Jleranve
\\here an ,~etual
'geologJCal' propagation
are pr(){essed
Tlu~ 1Hll be dJ~< us;ed m
Various PreSDM and velocity analysis method:o.
lo d.ttc, the mosl populm l'rcSDM Jllethud f01 pwce~'mg 3-D
334
data~eh ;
fJ111-
335
They
ar~
addpt~d
g~ometnes
mmt
llandlmg
amphtudco; reqmr~> dll accurate ~>nmate ol w~Jght> m the
KuThhotf swnmatwn Tluo; J> still a poorl} re>olver!Jssue dO 1\Clght> rl~penrl 011
336
-\pplrLallun of tlu; prmctplc g1ves the J1rst ]me (or the lint plane 10 3-D) of the
dcpth-mrgrated Jmage in hgnre 7 1\J-e Recunwn fol!ow> on naturall} f:om thi~
J1-,t st,ge From thls milla) recorr:lmg, the presta< k data volume that 110Uld be
o!Jtamed tf the ;er>mll rccordmg l1ad !:leen made ata depth ll.z ; ralculated hr~ ;
atcomph>hcd through hark-propaganon In tlm case though, 1\e mu~t not b.ttkpmp.tgate onl} the zero-ofhet mformatron a; 1n Chapter 6, but tnstead the cnure
cuhe ol data, mdudmg source~ ami receJ;ers l'hc r:ldta cuhe resulttng frorn thr>
\mkmg expenment' JS ~1-rown Jn Flg-nre7 1\J-d It rs kno\\'ll as apresflrk rrsdud rloM
makmg the dnalog\ "'rth thc re~1dual >ecuons U>er:lm recur>i\c post->tack
mrgrauon Only mlnnauon al 7ero ofEct r; aduaily med to nedle the second hne
dt depth 11.7 on the nnage m }\g-ne i 19-e, but the fui! sct of r:lata rs Tequued f(r
back-propagatJng to the fullowmg o;t<~ge
1 he recurs10n contmuc~ in thls pattern, lrcaung the lme ,t ';! Az, then 3 11...:, etc,
unt] the maxtmum depth to be rm,ged 1S rcached
337
(c)lnltialdatavolume,
cd)Residualdata~ulumeafterback-propagation
3-lmagingatt~O,L=ll7andh~o :
(e)PreSllM
rc~ull
( ornplct]()n ofthe unage betwccn the !mes 1> perfonned m a .'>mula! fash10n to that
de~(ll\wd m Chaptcr 6 for po~t->tack nugrallon, and tllu>tTated lll ng-urc 6 02
338
A'?;""'~'
:~x,,
i~
(d)
recei~er
situatioo
(b)lnotoaldatanlumc
On th1~ d1agraJT\
\llr[acc 1~ ~huwn m hgure 20-b he plane 111 whl< h the ~hot record 10 stmed {unnmon->hot) 1; h1ghhghtcd, ,; wdl as thc unwnon-reLt:l\er pLmc correopondlllg to R
rlw Km_hhofl' :.urnmallon b,tck-propag,ltwn pnnup]e<; dlu>trater:l 111 Figure fi 05,
-,hu\\ that m 01dcr to cumputc thc back-pwpagatcr:ltracc dt tune t,. 111 R, we nced to
'>lllll \ample<, almg a r:liffr,H tion (Lll\t' vd1ooc lra\eltJrne 1> contolled by the velocit}
\', 111 thc la)CI
Al]JU>l bel<m the oource S, but Jt doe; not r:lepcnr:l on thc time t,
to whJCh 1L i; apphed Huv..cver, the1c aH >everdl differcnce; v..Jth Fignrc 6 03
fht" LLileltuues are nov. vne-aay trmr \\C dedl \\11] the '>OUr<e only.
The ,mnalwn takn j1/aa lrl the mmmrm-rnnvn planP, ,mee the back-piOp,lg.J-
ro-
339
non of ~hot S' 1~ computed from thc l'ontnbut!Un of thc vanom o;hm~ at the
>Urface m the aperture (hg-nre 7 ~0-a)
The d1o;tn.nce bet'l\een t'IHJ consecutwe trate~ on th1s ommon-retTJver plane
'n\1 be t'l\llT a~ large .1> m the plane of the ~tacked ~cctwn lhe method will
t(x)
t~ + ( ~
J{$;-),
[7.8]
Extension to 3-D
Flgure 7 20 o;how~ wh!Lh trate~ are 1mohed 111 the computatJOJJ of the backpropagated trace w1th thc 'new' shot S' and receJ;cr R they are trace~ who~e shot
pOMtlon he, w1thm the hnear aperture around S and that ha;e the ~ame receJver R
1 he same 1dea apphes m ~l-D, but llOI\ trate> are ~ought fo- -,hoto; 111 a h\o-dnnen>wn.tl aperturc Tlu~ 1> 1llu~trated m
Flgure 7 21-a ~hm1' the
and F1gure 7 21-b ~ho'll>
th1s data ~uboet would look hkc, although Jt o; not
exphcitly created m pral'lJ<e Coordtnateo x_, }, of thi~ gather are the relative l'oordmate, of ~hob m the aperture w1th re-,pect to the hack-propag-ated >hot locat10n S
l'he Kirchhofl'summatwn "ould he perfonned liO\\' O\Tr the >lllfd<e S still driven by
the ia}er of tlu<kueo~ /17 hdm\ S
that one wetghted sunnnarwn (1\e do not dJ>CIIS~
340
.L~./
F
(a) loitial shot and rccdcr situatiun
~t~orzation_-
~1
--~>,~~F~
~T
.,..
(c)TraceS'R
;-;-cco----;-;-c
wc1ght> here) gwes one sample ofthc back-pwpagated trace of ~hot S' dnd reccwer
R l'hc summallon has to be performed lr all >ample~ of thc trace. When tlw, has
hccn done, the proce>S b repeater:l foral! rercJven R and o;hot S' At tlm >tdge we
ha,c back-propagated one shot ami simulatcd one 'buncd shot rec01d' TIIt: whole
pmce;'> mu>t then be rcpeatcd foral! >hots and when tlm has hcen done, we have
-,[] tompletcd only half of one back-propagatwn, smce the roles ofthe >hot and the
rt:'(CJver mmt be nov. cxchang:ed morder to hack-propagate all rece1ven 10 dcpth
117. There w!ll be as many back-propag:atwm a o; the tota!Jmagcd depth d!vlded by
the migratJon step Az, typKally severa] hundred~ n~ Js obviously quite a tedious,
t1rnc-consurnmg- and mcmory-consurnmg- p1oceS>
llowever, therc are >Olllt: ,holl cuto; For lll>fdll(C, \\'e note that thc proces-, of
back-propagatmg- S to S' usmg nmunon rece1ver R and back-prop.tg,mng R to R'
Ltsmg common-o;hot gather S can be combmed 111 one >mgl~ operator, dependuig
nevcrtbele;s on both velocine; V, ami V,
-\; 10 po-,t-;tack ami p1estaLk rmgJdtion, we can take ddvant<tge oftbe tact that
the summation ope1ator .,tune mvariant, but wbatever the tho;en method, MHne of
whu h are dJ~CU>Sed m the next >eCtlOll, th1s I> ~tiil a lug- computatwnal ellrt dt the
lumto; of pre-,ent-day computer (apabllllleo;
341
Phas~-shift
and
finit~-difference
methods
updater:lto ~pt:dfic p,\UC~ ~tt(h a~ ont:-VId} propag-a.tnd r~(eJ,~J locatmn\, '>peufJL :1-ll acqm>Jtlon
g-eomctJ'le\,elL
Chtr mam lllleJe-,t he, 1ll dlu~tratmg- the notwn o! back-prop.tganon uf preo;tack
data, and 1t 1',
the ~cope of th1s lexl to dJS(IJSS thcsc ;anum method~ and
!~'>lit'~
as we
~dll
342
tht> l'>SUe
would h.11r rrconkd un tlre sanw relet\Tr but 111th a '>hot po'>lllonrd OltT d
gnen node of a Jrgu/.r gnrl
rr\Idna!JUO\Tout correctrou ~mue r..tch ofhrt
for ,di norles of thr gnd
an extr<l cmu.mtng effOrt hr
pre~ent.
JlJS
~tanda1d
m most pro(erng
~et.uellle~
d COJIIIIJOJJOff'>ct h,
now pcrform modclhng w1th nou-zno off.,et h, lrut \IIth d reilecllou cbp ;ud
,uimuth anglc such that the ra\''> hit thr '>urf~Ke a/ong rhe shot-renl,rl /me, we gct
Llw
ofthe extruded Di\10 that trdrrsfonu'> the off~et data h, mto
.\MO 1'> a fmther rxteuswu ofD:\fO. \1herr wc '>1ll1UI.ite uol ouh a cbl1rrrnt off'>f'L but .dso a Jfferent -,hot rrceiYer aznuuth \\e can now compute JlS uupube
b\
non-zew offset
w1th , nflectwu cbp aud .zunuth .1t all
that the rmcrgent ra~~ a/1 lr.r\'e the -,ame
a of enwrgcnce pomh Hm~eve1, the mrdpornt~
rlo not uece~~arilY le ou the mitra! ~hot-receivel
3-D ojN1al01, whu h r~ morr uJsth to apply tlun
343
AMO lau:s the .,,uue ssues as llMO m term~ ofve!ont1eS "1 he 'true' AMO op<:"rator
1s velouty-depeudent, but tlS lheory 1~ develop<:'d w1th a conSI.lnt-velonly .tssump-uon S111ularly lo DMO, ~~~ ptactk.dl .1pph(_atmn ts therefoie spht HilO three opera.
t1ons
.tn Jllrl!.il t\MOcmred1on,
AMO to move tht'> pmnt lUIIdnls all po'>stble nudponus wuh thc giveu uew
dZJinuth .md regulw olhct,
an mYene 1\i\IO correUtnlflequc'>lt'd
In tlns pragmauc but approxim<tte approach, the velonty dcpenden(.e ts handled by
the t\ i\10- tmTne :\! \10 sequence and tlw regulantal!on m ofhct ami az1muth 1s
tt~clt Tl11S approxunauon 1s jusnficd f rhe d/llllUth
lh\e assume that tlJ<:'fe ate 110 lateral veluntv Y<I!Jatlons, the algonthm can be Jevdn tlw f-k Jomam amlts t'V<:'ll more dfitwnt. Th1s tS the techmqne known as
PrcSDM' (Etgen, 1998). '!he as~mnpt10n of no ],\leral velocity vaiiation~ ts a
stro11g constr.tmt that
the method berng ctpphed as ..t final
It -, hm1ever qune
and t.:<lll be used d~ <1 data precondttlntng lll
mJtJal '>lep of the 'mage-gather mverswn' mute uf Pre~D:\f uugwt10n vclucm
anal~;Js that wc addrt'~~ ],ter m thJ~ chapk'I
Advantages and limitations of recursive methods
A~ m post-'>t<lck rmgranun, Tfr 111\IVe Pn:SD.\1
thr ad1<anh1;e
uonatwn
\anatwns are coYcred
J~mg
vaneS n la~er
81] Junng back-propag;tJon,
ro-
344
wh1ht vertwal vanations are addtessed by bemg ahk to va1y th1s lunctwn at every
n11gr.rt10n step
In thc CdSe when 1he aooumpuon uf no lateral vdoCit\' vanatwns 1'> .!cceptable,
phase-~h1ft methods are parttculdrly effiueut
Mor<:'over, there !S no sdcction ola given rdv-path Cuc,ecwncl> ull fm,ubic
lnmdltd
ami lh,, mulliple-path
1~
uwthods
Fmalh,
plexity of uuage"galher analysts, \\e mu>t th<:'refor<:' ddd the neC<:'Hy of findmg th<:'
lo h<1ndle the;r rrpieSentatne 3-D subsurface Yelooty models
\\'<:' hencc refer lo 'moddli'l\ ',Le software tooh .,hich neeJ lo satisfy a uumber of
d'""'roecnteiJa
ro allm~ the display of gcologiCalh complcx StrliLtures. mcludmg mulnvalurd
wdi.tcc~ (salt botheo, rr\riSe fi.tulrs) ami truucatrd ~urfacrs tpmrh-ouls, f<tnlr'>).
ro handle 'yohuuetnc' parametenLatJons of propagauou vdocuy and amsolrop\,
to po~~ess a propagallon velonty pMameter!lal!on cmupatibk \11th r<~pld
C..rren\ lunnion calculalion (ray-tracing calculations),
tu alluw eaw updatmg of thr mude! from onr JtrJatlou ro anothcr. whethct
manuall\ or automallc<!llY,
oca~w~t W<l\
345
(h,optcr7
n,
and to
".,,,"'
fcus
1-D analyt1cal
Ra~-based mude! update\
- travellune lll\'erswn.
steJeotomot,'I.!phv,
- ptcktng amlmveromn of un;ogr g.1thr1~
Velouty scaunmg
~t.lllotual ,ranh
\k dit.cu'>5 these \'aJJo\1~ methods m the next ~rcl10m
~.:ommou
andlY'>IS usmg Pn:'<SDI\1 1s thll'> .m adrl1tion to the~e methods, refinmg thr moJel bY
concenrraung on 1mprovmg: thr lllMge, but onl~ \\lrluu .tnd bclm, the zonr uf
(omplexin
Input J.; to be collecred at th1., '>tage mdude
~ta( kug velonuo, hopefully afl<:'r l'1<:'S 1M <~mi pKked m .1. horllon-tom~tcnt
Jn.tnner,
mterpretillHm aud p!Ck., ol J..r, honwus,
\\el1Yelocit\ d.itn
B1uldmg the mta] mndel hum the,r datasets 1'> a l<l'>k \ er~ Slllllhtr tu , tuue-todepth conver~wn pwe~.:t Con;equently, man} of thr methods we describe 1n
Chapter 8, wluch JS dedU'dtt>d 1o tht.,
t;Jsk, (\Ul br userl here Thev uKlud<:'
the follo\\mg, although this list is not
Simple u,e of thr \)Jx tormu], t!H'>Js thr most bast<- lOol,
cohrrence anal)~!~ tF1gute R 28).
~t.rckmg \dont~ nnerswu (Flg\lre~ 8 :!0 aud R .10),
hybrid methods u;mg post-Std<-k d<:'plh llllgrauon (hgurr 8.31 ).
\n extensl\e analy~JS ofw(ll rl.1ta available in the suney area aud bc~ond, JS a pleJeqw~ll<:' tu .Kqumng the uecessan ba<-kgmund yrJont\ mfrmanon NrYerthele~o
"e should uot forget that thew .1re l\\O distmct t;t,k<; mohed in rlepth nugratwn
on 1he one han d. we need
ou the othe1 hand, wr
the nme-ro-rlepth conYerswu (ore
Flgme 8 01)
/--,~~
~~
1"",
~1
.-1
~1
/ z,..,~zoo!'.',tr...=O,Bs_J
,,t_
i':/ i,,..='L,,.,,""
Z=JIIIIm
'
~:
t,
_____
'
'
1.,.. ,.~450m
(d)Bnck-propagation
with\'m, 0=3000nrls
348
---~
349
lf we n'"' t.rke the prelauton uf raltulatm; ami IOIIIPn'mg thf ne;atne llfnP\ m /he u:1id"
w;{ data cuhe, wr 'ee rh.n wlwn thr lhKk-propagatwn '' couumwd, for miug eventu.JIIy ocrurs atthe depth Z,, = 450 m, and ata lime uf -0 :1~!i s m thc re~Jdual data
e u be
great,
with lli.!X!IllUlll amphtude.
LunYenoch, d depth Z," ex1~b 11hrre foCIISillg doe~ IJ(nlr, but Jt JS not dett"Cterl by the
mJ.ging punnple apphed at 1 =O In f~ct. any focu~mg at dC'pth z,. w11l be tmperfen. although th1~ JS not uf l ruodllotllt'l n m thc Je~t of the Juethud
\\11at h.t; been ~t.ued )wJ(' lm a ponH rllffractur can br I'Aieltded lo u con/muou.1
A reflectm m thc lllltldl data cube <~ppe.rro a; a surfan l: a~ F1gure 3 19
\Hwn we dmlll\li!rd propagare the dat, cubc. the -,urfacc L
m the reoidual datd vol u me ,nd focuses ,tlong the offi..et du't'ctlou, Jnot as
md11Jdual Cheops pytamJd doc~ fur tllr lOrrea 1elonty the Jenenon WJII cross the hne
t = () .1t the corren depth amlwah petfect focusng along the oftset, smnlar toa corrcct ~\10-D:YIO--,t.rck.
For <lll mcolle(( veJocty, th1s uu;ge Vllll not be prr!rctly fonJ>ed dl tune t = O for
zero oll5et part olthe tefle trd ruergy 15 still sp1't'dJ ovcr the offset chmens10u. ~uch
nupetfect foumug re,ult> 111 a non-optunal ,unphtudr for the llll<lgerl rdlecuou
In .:_ontraM, a ba1 l..-prop<lgauon rkpth ex1~ts whcre fontsJng does tak place correctly at ..:ero offset, hut ~1m e tllh foubmg doeo nut occUJ at nme t = O ou the resdu.rl utbe, Slllh rdkctJon~ <lTC not nuaged
Focu~mg aualy.,is explu1h thi~ ob.,tIvauon
u~rd. there 1nll, none the less,
at wluch
[7 9]
l<.qu,twn [I9J makeo ~evcrrtl '>lmplfymg .i'>'>Lnnpuons
a restncterluug-ranou apcrt111e,
wrak local variatJous m velocitte>,
a lllllltocd rhp
l't'f!ector
f'hese
lllOt't' restJllll\T 11hen m1gr.Jllon \elonttes dJVcrge
lrom
Ydotitle~ Neve1 thck-,.,, 11 JS tluo
that ~ explollcd 111 fucmmg
<ll!.llV~I~. and that ha' reve,tlrd n;elf tu be
1mens1ll\r tu \'luchever nutwl
vclocity modd , cho~eu
The method JS a~ folluws
Tiwdepthatwluchrtnevent
the 1esult uf the nugratJoll
350
lf we Ldll tlwn mea~nw the depth ar whiLh 11 1; hcu,ed .mrl ;~ we know lh<:'
YcloCll} we have ugraterl WJth, we can use eyu<~lJOn [ 9] ro find ; n~d'>Olldble
,pproxtmatJOn to rhe r<:'al vdonty m the medmm
1 he depth of rlw rocmng 1S e<>tnnated by ~rurmg m rlw 1omputer .t umch larger
ume ~eniun 1-l!.t, +Atl uf the ?ew-ofl.,et plan<:' at e<tLh h,Jtk-prop;gauon ;lep, lfl~o thdt rllfh.clm focmmg produced ltn overly slm~ velo(]tJe'>
J he~e <!Te what woc cal\ Jocu;mg pancls' (l1gur<:'S 7 22-e <tnd
Foru~mg panels df<:' kept for .11/ b.Kk-pwp<lg"dtJon depth~ ,wd can be Jllterpreted by .,ea1duug for the fouJsmg m,LXIIll.i l'cking a ma>..tmum dJrectiY JndlCatc~ the
t'Jtor m th<:' depth or velouty hilue, cau~eJ b\
the IIllllal >elour} field. h1s,
\wweyer, corH''>pourls to a globdl e1ror
fiom rhe ;urlace
Con~<:'quenrlv Jt ne<:'ds w be bruken clown m ro the respeaJVe crrors for each laver, [
pwpcr focusing for ~ever,] rdkct1om an pckerl on the ~ame furu~lll);; panel
lu practKe, a fir<;t Yeiouty ticld 1'> eM<tbh;\wd, wh1ch can be rerhweJ 10 d funcrwn \.ilTmg on\y 11 1th depth, .md tlu~ IS appherl to the <:'nllre seown 1 he fouJsmg
afl,llysi; JS thentnt<:'rprl'ted for a se1ie' of pancls ,long rhis ;<:'ttlon <tnd for an mitial
H"tlector Anupdate on the "clont} lli tlus fintld~er rldiued bv the relleno! -, rheu
ohtain<:'d A new Pre~DM with foru;mg analpis 10 tlt<:'ll ;tdrted mmg: tlH~ upd;~ted
modcl \\e can lhuo venf) the vahrllt\' dmq ro the fir~t maker and the focusing
anal -,es can be nreqJrered for ; .;ecund reflectO!; allowmg veloCJtih 1n thc seconrl
\.\erro be uprlaterl, and ~o on, unul the ntdXHnurn nyuucd depth i~ aduenrl 1 ht"
fin,\ '>tep 1~ Lhe l'reSDM lhat gn,.e; thP final nnage usmg the l.o~st upddted pmpag:<~
llll vclocin modcl
Focusmg analvsr~ IS cunently perfornwd rn 2-D un\y A<> 1r JS ba,ed on a recurstve
proces~. 1ts cxtcmion to 3-D 1s theorettc.tlly poos1ble bur lughh cxpeu-,lve m tcrms
ol raku/.1r1oll rnne ,md memmy requJH'IIIents In .tddJtJOu. sperifit pKkmg requi1es
wl hot ~oftw.uc pack;ge~ FcKUSlug ..tnal~ol~ hao therefore \Tl ro finJ illl\ mduotn;\
apphc<~tiom m 3-D
\\'e now adrlres~ othc Itcr;JtlYe tecluuques adapred tu 3-D
351
.,.
(l
-
.---~ -?~rrf
-;..~
l '"
'' .. ,-....... '--;
y~~
---1 D~finc{,recnsfunctiOnlnD
.-
'
(u)Shot-;ndr-;;vcrgcoml'tr)-
;;;e~ pr~~~slwt;:
S~ol~ordD
Greensfunttto
____
.. -
-=------
mO
(c)Back-propagationofrecewersfnrh~,
(M'<fJ~uceJ04)
-------- _
~ Rop":,''"H'b:S ~
-
'
~~
-~
''
,e-:,--+
'
fl - 't"~>,-1">,-lf"l"~t
'
V'
:.
(-ne:o.tpomtl>
-~=~-<i-invertGreen'sfunctions
,-bujl_d_)\:1_()-~-1.)
hrst the n'ceners ,re back-pwpag<Hrd tFJgure 23-() lO llusli!g <1 pr<:'deliued
(,een's functton (hgure 7 23-b) Reruember tlldt the Green\ funoion represen !S traye]tJmes (and we1ghts) liom a pomt dt the ~urface down to the unaged
pomt D.
352
If both travdwnes agree, then the two other operanon~ of the classtc.!l
Km_hhoff surnmation can be perjj1nned
- Ftrstly the pmpag.ltton of the <,ource, whKh t<, a wetghted tune ~htft l1te
wetght-. and ttme ~htft~ ,re gtven exattlv by the corre-.ponJng trace ol the
Gteen'~ funcnon.
- Secondlv, thc summatmn of the cuntnbutmn of e.1ch -.hut
In the CFP rnethod, the two operatwm tan be carned out m a ~mgle correl.mon
.,tep to pmvtde the rellectJvlty m O Remember that eath shot (arrie~ mf(trmation
that ts .\VA dependent Cunvcnlton<~l &tack.mg ytddo; the average reflecttvtty and
\\"A anah~~~ rcqwrcs that the contnlmuon uf each IIJ<"hvJual shut 1~ kept (m fdtt, an
!ter<~ Uve
phnt~
1'
353
PreSO M
---rl-
Updatrd'\-~,mX 1
Updot<'<l V~X 1 )
=\~~
rf . J
:::
--"--~
&_____
Depth to t1mc tonvei~on ~ n1ade \ertKali}, u~IJJg the loL.J vdootte' dledlVdy used
111 m1gration J he jmtification for rhi~ is that the depth nngralmn, e~t>n for an
appruxtmate wodcl, \Hll h<~vc cffecl!vck removed mo;tun~posJtwmn.; dkct'i <J.5SOuated w1th ovei]vmg laye., and bwught thc mgr ated data for ead1 oftset to a po<,ltmn close lO theu real 'crncallmation
lt !S <Jt tlu& 'tage that the tmJ.gc gatl1ers are .malped and lorrectmns apphcd
354
'\ re;Jdual vd{)(Jt} aJMiy>~~ tnuld be perlollned hetc, hur m t.Kt, we preler to apph
,mmvcnc 1\' ...,IO tOIJ"ectwn, t!Jell to perliHm thc ~tand.1rd \clouty .malp1~ Oh~crve
thc sum!aolv 1\!lh the P1eSl M "RMO ruurc' dc-,nbed ahU\e Tl1e 1\l<\jOI difli:-lellrc
1'> th<tt untllno\\ rhe tondmon111g ot d<tt.l plwr lO lclocJlv
ha., been {\\e
appm'<lmanom
lllJI kedlv bettcr J hi-, !S heC.!lhC PrcSDJ\.1 i1J~ fc\\Cr of
PrcS"lM
lhe <tl!ll ; to find a \eHJL<tl rrn-, 1elour lt ; tllerduic Jl,lfllral lo ,1pph .m
m 1 cr-,c 'J ...,IO unrcdwniHth <tll "\J\10 1clout cqu<tl to the loL,Jiltil'> 1clonr} lot rhe
\,,
nlrHid th<ttmusl therdorc he L<tkuldtcd at thi-, '>l<~gc
depth dom,nn
would
1cl0< ll} ;roo snMII nnage~ fmm l<trge olhet&
35B
fmel T(X,,, h) {11r vano u\ oftlels wn1t1lule1 thf mJut &Ita ofthe method
In tlw invenwn pn>ce-.~, omwon-undpomr ray tr<lcmg pruv1de; the ;o]uuon to
namely Ldlculaung the mudelled travelt1me; T"'"' fur the pre-.ent
modcl
diffeJence bet,...een the real data, 1 e the tJavdurnes p!Cked un the
con;t.mt-offset -.ectwm, and thc S\ nthetK data .Jculated u-.mg rav ti.ICJng m the
356
mo[[z,[, ,[v,,J.:.,j.
17111
\\here T, (m)<, the ;et of uavelume'> computed thruugh the rnodcl m and T 1" the
'ct of travdtune'> mc,;ured on the real data Fmalh, m,., Jepte;ent~ the yector of
depth; Z and vt'lucllico; V uf the mJtJal wodel
lf for m;ta11ce, the ;lgnal-l-110l;e ratio uf the se!SJiliC d<tta l'i poor and p!ckng
ofthe tra1cltillle'> T JS ddficult, 1t doe~ not makc ph}'lC.!l ~en;e to fi11d a rnodel that
perfecth cxplam" thesc U11Cert.1111 mput 1alues rhi& eiTect C<tn be quantified h, a
11.1de-off betwet'n
Cm,,1 In rln~ U;t' the mli.!l mude! pla" a
l.irge1 Ile, which me<111"
rnu;t be e;tntuted hom .mother ;uuHe uf mfonnallon. for m-,tance \\CJI d.!t<l, "'1th a suHinent degee of .!Cll.ll'<l(\ Cunve;dy, f the
d.dta aJe of 1eT)' good qu.]lt}, the mJtialrnodcl wll h.!\ e le.., we1ght .1nd the data WJII
drn e the model buJdmg
\:mom optml.r.atwn techmque~ can be U~t'd tu fi11d the modd m that lllltllnH7es
the cost functo11 Co;t(m) The wost commo11ly u~ed une opetate'
At
the denvaU\e& ofthe
e.1ch 1te1atwn the modcl ; updatcd h\
3.1l7
358
Stereowmography
Srereutomugtaphy ts an extensmn of bolh ttavdnmc mvenmn and IdY nugTanon m the sen;c thdt 1t e~ttmdte; velocines b\ using not onlv tro.neltimeo but aho
preslack tune-dtp& ptcked a-. ~lope; of evento 111 thc dara;et Atwthcr tmpoit.u\t dilfecnce frorn trayc\time tn\enum t> that now we do not mvert contmuou; 1e!lectun
(ln the lOlltl<lry, an\ ;egment uf thc lolaiJdieLtor R, that L<ln be tdcnttfled tn rl1e
pte~tack data;et \\ti\ be u~ed l'he l un-.equenle -, that reilntur depths <11e c~nm.ued
ptecewtse, Lhe mam objecnve bemg to e<,Lnnate ,e]onncs Lontmuuu-.1~ on a gnd
1 he techntque prov1dc' ns wtth a gndded velotit} modd, whid1 ,n sub;cquentlv be
thl' 1nput to rnap Illlgr<~tlon, 01 prcferahlv PeSDM Iu the lattcr ca;c, honzon-. aJe
chrecth on the P1cSDM
beluug' to the
ol 'slope romog:r<~phK ntethud;'
(R1alnnkm,
19HG) }oral! the;c rnethud,, thc ky po1nt 1; to recogm.r.e
rhat f'."o ;\ope' of an cvent p10v1de u; witl1 information about the ve\o<.:il} 10 the .. ub~urfate
he n1ethod ; oulhncd 111 Ftg:ure 7 :!6 ComHiei an event on <1 ;hot g<~ther, fui
''hit h "'e know the source cooJ<hnate " and the offset 2h, aml hcnLe the teceiyer
uonlmate x, 11 "'e nlt'd;urc not unlv il<, tune t, but also 1LS t1me-chp dt,,'dx (Ftgwe
dt/dx
Modei:[Y,.I:[(x.,z,.ljl.)\ 1
~"1
l'nSD~
---r--t
~~a>trac1ng 1\fodelledda;:- -lC~'
------...
(,radJents
-1
lim~st J,"
;lore,atrccenclp
slope>atsnurcer
-<>
lla~foreaehloxalntl~
w'""""'' """ "
rcceJ\ercoordmatcX-
NO
1
(c)ln>ersoonprocess
359
7 26-b), and tfwe know thevclonty fidd V(x,z) m the ;ub~utf.u_e, we lmow the emergence anglc .u the rcCe!Ver and can hack-propagate rhe ray 111to the ;uh;urface
(I<gure 7 2G-a) "1 h1; ; ;~m[;u to rhe normal-ra} mtgrariun tl~<tt ~<-e met m Chapter
5 (Fgure-. 5.06 and 5.07), rhe dtfference beng that we are now 111 the pte5tack
domatn rhetcfore, ~<-e need tu repeat the operatwn \Hth the rav that cmege; at tht>
sou1ce locanon, for whKh 1-1-e measurc the slope on rhe ummun-reCe!ver gather.
Th1s mvolve; sortlllg the data as common-reever gathers, ;eiectmg the trace wuh
the ~ame ;hot and rcce!Ver, pKkmg the event at the ;ame u me t,, and me.1sunng the
tune-clip dt_ldx of the e\ent \-\'e stop the back-pro>.~.garum when the t\.vo ra,-s cross
and sum the two travelttmes. lf tlus ;um 1; dffetent from the measured travehime
t,,, 11 means t<tt \'(x.y) 1; nut orred and needs tu he updated The d1stngushmg
characteristtc of stereotomogtaphv, compart"d ro other rnethod-., 1; rhat u cunsiden
rhe nusfit of .tll t}pes of data parameter. the slopt>~, the po;lton of tbe source and
rece!\ en and the total traveltnne; The joint mye;~on o! ,e[ocl\ and reflector segmt>nl.'> ensttns a greater robustnes-. of the method
Btlletre and L;unba.r
dlied the method ;tereotomograph~ by analogy
~<-llh opt!C'i whcre using n-vo
angles uf pt>rceptwn (m uur case the 'vision'
[wlll the ;oun-c and the recel\er) .!lio~<-S an estmate uf rclief and d1st;wce of ;m
ub1ect They posed tht" esumauon of velooUes a; an mverse pohlem as follows
(F1gu1e 7.26-c)
The data cue a ~et of p!Cked event; fo1 ,...hKh we knuw rhe ;ource and rece!Ver
oordinate; x, and x" the total tr.!velume t, and the tlme-thps p, = dt/dx and
p = dt/d>.. at rhe rece!Ver <tnd ;ource loutiuns re;pecnvei}
"1 he model -, mm not only rbe gndded \elocity ficld \' but ,lsu the set of
p;urs of r<l~s ddined b~ then '>tarnng pumt (x., 1,.), tht>ir tiaveltnnes t, and t,
and theu anglcs y, and y, m deplh (that 1n fact corre,pond tu as-.ummg local
reflt>Uols wuh d1p 9 and rellection angle 1p)
"1 he forward modcl ts the dasstcal ray traong from R. tluough the velocny
wodcl \',, for anglt'& y, and y, and dunng tlavclume t"
TI1e myeswn prohlem h t,l find pa1r5 of Jay& (.!lHl cono;equently the locatwn
and dtp of ;egments uf rdlecrors R,,) ,md the gndded velouty ficld Y,, that
after r<~v tracing, produce rnodcllcd dala equal to the mea~ured dau ;ource
and re(t'!Ver Imauons, total ttavdtnne t, and tune dtp'i dt,,(h <tnd dr /dx at the
surface. llllS wili be mathematically addte5sed, as in travdtime tnverswn, by
nlllllllllE.lng a cusr funcnon that mclude5 thc;e vanous terrns
!"he non-umquene"" pmblcm t<, al'>o addJeo;;ed by <tddng n pnon 1nformatwn
m tbe fom1 ol an Jlllt!al model and the mverswn IS st.1bilized bv data and IIDttal model covanance matnces Heme the co~t hmctwn !1.1& a 'tructurt' ;filiar
to equation [i IOJ, although there are n1on data lerm;
l11lletre and Lambar ( l \:!98) proposed ;ulvmg the mtnliTIILatmn pmhlem a; an
\\htch nece55Hate& cmnputtng gr<~dtenb, 1 e ho\\ mucb do
tl1e
data thange \\hen we change one of the p<~Iametes of the
rnodel (Figure 7.2-c) n.e cornputanon of gradJents 1s a b}-product uf ray
uacmg
nt' uf the mo<,t l,honous
uf the method 1; ro collect the data. !"he authun
prupot.ed .local
to mea..ure tmethps. Ths metbod, aho known as 'r-p
and','lll', con;st<, of omputmg the (po;o;thly weghted) sum uf ><tlilples .!long hneai
slopc; p wnh mtenect tnne T <~nd pKkmg the ;lope p th.ll g1ves the lnghCI ampli1,
360
m the
(b)Cunentionageg"thers'panel
361
and conceptual dMgram ol une po;<,Ible appla;mon ol the method Here, we are
dealmg w1th a h}b11d modd rhe par.tmders to be mverted are tho;e o! tite nlocJty update fidd AV(x, y), l'.bich 1., to be apphed tu the initidl vcloLt} mudcl \','""m
order to 1mprove lhe ll.ttne;; ol evenrs on rhe 1mage g.tthen Th1; vdonty update \S
defint'd O\er <1 grid uf poinb, whKh ma\ (lr cxarnplc) be the nude point<. uf tv.rochmen<,Imwl sphne lunnmm, ll1e node-puml \.!lues alt' denoted 8V,, 111 Figlue
7 2:1, \\ht'reJ, Inlt'rf.tce; ,Jre defined as tuneo; (ot surface; m 3-D).
P1eSDI\f w1Lh the llllll.tl rnodd outpuls a p1clunmary sd of muge gathen The
modd 1., a;swned to be .,uflinently do;e to re.tlity tu gl\e <Ul mtcrplt>table Iffiag-e
th,lt ma} be p1cked Tlus pwv1de; us w1th Lhe uuent depth map Z, ot horizun 3.
l'he
gathcrs are thcn mterpreted <~nd pKkcd For e.J f>OSillon X, t"llcach olhet, the non-llattlt''s 8L (x, h associatcd with the IniLial model
1., me.t<,Uied fhe .unnol'\ ;tu upd,lte tht' modclw >uch a \.\'a~ that dunng- the nex.t
depth wigratwn Iter<~tum, the&e erron w11l be glohall} reduced ore\ en dumnated.
Onct' agam, th1s .n he pu.,ed m terms or .!lllll\er;e prohlem In tho; Ill\ersion,
the dirtct pwblem mvolves lindmg thoo;e thfterences ll,7 (x,,h) 1nduced m the 1mage
addlerente m vdoLit\' from rhe Initial rnudd The unknown; m rhe probaie
la\ ti The cust funltion 1; a llle.t;ure of rhe flatne.,., of nnage gathe1 s, poo;o;bl) mnplemented h~ a cunstr.int on the dep;u ture ftom
the Luuent rnodcl, ,s m cquatwn [7 IOJ
In orde1 ro reduLe rl1e ll,~\ 111 the ncxt teatJon, "'e tvaluate the 'grathems'
d~L,.iib\',,,, whuh define the rate of vanat1on ofthe error; ll,L. from the hunzontal at
postJOil x .tnd
lhe mude! at a node
puinl 'nth uurdmates (t,jl
thc currenr modcl
by'"} tracrng.
Suwc chalienges 111 tlu; pmce;; mclude the (amomatedl pKkmg of1mage gathen ,Jnd the cakulatwn olthe gr.tdJent;.
1f "e mtend to take account of
the lact that 7, change; .lt the same time
Anuther d.J..',~IC problem in Jnver;Jon 1; choo;tng thc number ofparametets tu In,ert .\~ al\\a\s, there ;
no unuue ~olutwn tu tlw problcm and comuamb un the
>muothmg m
the final modd ur the ~eparatwn thal Wlli he Loler<~ted m
mHMI mudd, mmt
theicfore be Inhuduced
Une of thc Interc&tmg fcaturts ; rhat the method ,n be ea>1h extt'nded to
aru~onop!C rnvt"I'>on "11m unphc~ addmg amsotrop!C parameter; to rhe modd,
rlm; tncre.l>mg the non-un1queneo;s prublem Mole data need tu he mtroduced,
t} f)!(<tlh the depth of rdlector., at the welh when the.,e ale .tV<ni<~hle, amsotropy
mfor matJOn fmm borl"hole '>tl>mK, ur even core lahor<Jtory mea'>urement;.
Sud1 >thcme~ h.!\ e heen
mdustnalh 10 3-D, etllt'r ISutwpKally or
,m;otrupiCalh (e g
19Y9)
lnveiMOn tuols ,re ne\N ~tf.!IghtforwaHl to use many people p1efer the more
<oll\Cntwnal '>Clnt\Hlg <~pproaches that we (On.,Ider In the IWAt <,t'ctwn.
Velocity scanning
Scannmg ,-duJttes and chetkmg ,...[11d1 one be&t Jlatten~ muge gather; and provde~ the 'be'>t' and 'mu~t geologiCa!h ~ound' unagt' uf the .. ub;uiface s a metho1t
thar Wl' h,we lllct alrt'ad\ for PJ<:STM and th.tt comes rnmt easil} to mmd \et tlus
l'i rnore ea;Ih ~aHi tiMn dont' 1he nmnber uf po.,sihlc 'cloclt\ fidds <; mfimte,
362
1-llil~t
eH"ll a >mglc tC>t {_Orrespnndmg ro, {_Omplete mtgr<liiOU met <1 J-D d<tt<J \niunte ts a!teady not lar lton the turrent lmllt> uf morlern tumputmg taMCH\ lt 1~
tlm~ c~seut1al to ICstrwt the fie!J ol 1elontv murlel~ to he te~tcd "lo thb cnd, \>e unte
Ne\tla~e.-s
-----------
---
~~4}inalizeV,andZ,~
363
l't('SDJ\1 ts rlflerent m the s<>use that 1t has tn be perfotmed layer-h,-layer down"ards we musr detetmme the vdocity all(\ the geontetry oroverlymg layen before
lnl'reS"l "1, the pllk ur,dnoty ,( .1 ttnle t can,
at any uthet lime, aud ~ume geulog1al the momeUT when "e aJe ddimng the thm:l
bycr that has heen
an nniial ,c]onty fuuLtwn V, f!1ts fumnou rnay be
cun~t.mt, but It ts reLomrnenrkd that dt least a \TrtKal
should be tn~erted
m tu 1he functwn for rhe redsons outlmed .Jbo\(',
latnal variations
detcrnuued by a standard prcl11ntnary >tudy lt ts tmportant to make thrs tnltla]
murlcl
to restrict the nunther of vdouties to he tested
too
rapully calcuWtmg nnage gathen jor diffnent fJerufltage} of a lt(riiUilal }/!/ of vdonllt}.
Ths concept was put 111 practiu' in vduoty scannmg . .1~ pit:"sented by Au~eben_
d al (1996) and kd to rontmwms PreSDi'dve/(J(d'j"nnaly_m At prese11t, a hmitauon of
both l'reS1 M and l'reSDM I> the spatial samplmg of \"elocity
whether a
~can oran mvel-~IOII teLhmque 1s .1pphed hgun's 1 12, 1 27 and
all highlight
the necessary mterve11rton ol an mterpietcr In the migi<~Unn velooty analys1~
piU(S. Lemal&tre et al (20111) and Jones el al (2000b), on the other haud, have
prmed the value ul h1gh-densitv vclonty piCL.s
Sem1-autnnMted rechruqnes then need tn lx- devdoped and appled, both to
1-eduu' the spaual samphng of analpe> and, at the ~ame t1me, tu keep the manpm\'er tune (and cu~t) aiHi the pro1ect's turuanmnrl tune w1thm reasonable bounds Ar
pre~e 11 t, mdustry'~ prefere11ce I& ddin1tdy towards automated p1cl..~ g111ded by ~eed
value~ p~eked by the tmerpretec l'br a given ueratmn, the mterp1eter can piel.. the
11me or depth honr.on of ntere>t anrl the mage gathers on a 1egubr but coarse
gnd Amomated prm.esses (an then \martly' mtcrpolate these }JIC!...~ at much den~er
bm Jwatwns, he11ce producmg the h1gh-densJty or 'cnlltilmom' vdunty analys1~
In PreSDM aiHi PreSTM, tlu~ wdl be done 111 the domain uf mage gillhers as
hgure-. i 12 and 7 2t! suggest. In PreSTM, we have another optwn, whKh 1~ the
RMO mute, usmg mveislOn methods, such as those presented 1n Chapter 4 (Figure~
4 08 ,md 4 O!J)
De Ba.r.elauT el al (2001) d1scu~~ed the opt1mal dens1tv of velouty analysi~, shuwmg thilt the mtnnsJ< hmJts on resolut1un (infonnatmn nmtent) w1thm the data only
as small a~ A/ta11a, where A 1~ the venwal wa,elength uf the carner frequem:y
a 1s tl1e Ill!gratwn aperture In other wonls the lateral extent uf
the post-angrauon Joi"t~nel 7one litmh how much resolntwn we can obtam Conseque11tly, there 1s no pn1nt ll1 ~antplmg velunty mure findy to get the fullmtmmatwn
tOIIttnt. Howcve1~ 11 1~ prof1tably sampled mm"t findr fUr qualltv control purpo~e~
as l'igurc 7 29 (ta~n fi-om J.emal~tre el al 2001) llustrate~.
Statistical search
all poss1ble mudds to ti11d the une
optHll17es the flatne~s of event~ on the 1n1age gathen, >mne anthurs
suggested usmg st.ItlSIIcal 01
opmnv.aton rnethod~ Purely stat1St1cal
dpproache~ mvolvmg 'andorn
of paramctcr~ have been umsideied, e g
Monte Cario te~hniqnes, but
adapted lo lhe tlnle ,Jlld co~t
con~hamts of the tests
OptlmiZatiOII re~ean:hc1s h.1ve cumequentlv begun tu ~earch tor mme Pffinent
methods. There are tKo cnucal factun that mu~t be tal..en 1nto lOII>!{leratiOII"
the cuq ufthe CJ.kulatwll uf eath test-ru11,
the vcry larg<: number uf paramcten requn-ed to rldine the nwdel
The~e two tacton have the di~advantage that ~ume 'nptInllm' ~ulutiuns, 1 e thu~e
solutrons for whKh the f1amess of event~ on the unage garhers appears to be rcallled m fnll, do 11ot currespond tu d real mude!. Th1s ~~ the probkrn uf 'local mmlma' encountei"trl 1n 1nverswn proces~es .Jul and
publ1~hed .Jn
example of an optlniiZiltiOn tech111que, where
are apphed tu .1
panicular depth mig1atio11 pwbkm Cenetit
optnmzi\t1un effectivdy
prevenTS an mvenwn process bemg bim ked by a smgle so!Wioll lrnL.ed to a local
365
366
Anisotropic PreSDM
In the uext Lh,lpter "e <tddre>> tlnK-to-depth LUil\l'f'>IOH methnd> aud <Oll'>JdeJ
l'1eSDM as a toollm tln'>
We '>ho" th<tt
1~ ..t kcy clemeut uf Llw
mudd for en~unng d
data, cspeo<tlly
dtps
mtilf{Jng toob currcntlv u~ed m mrlmtu<tl <tpphc,llmus mduck
,Jllt>utropu Pn-S l \1, ami abo am~otrupK PreSD"l (e g lla'''hn-,
1 clonh
hrsth,
Sccundlv, (.reen~ timnwn cumput,llwu tuuh Inmt be extended tu handle the
anb<Jlmp} Th1s effe<ll'dy IIK.tm de,elopmg <1 dynamJL ray-tranng pad..1ge
111 an .JnJsotropl< model
.1\\nmedru thc\aStlnaJoritvofcascs,
romhtrKrUou uf these, tncludmg Y] and thc axe'> <hrectwn'>, ~ce definllou~ [2
l4
need to be esurnaled lor each bycr
the.'>e value~ 1~ uot an casy ta'>l.. ,\s mentwned prevtou'>lv, h C!ll he
e>lmt.J.tcd m
case~ dunng the tmte-pwre><,Jng pha>e S1hql
uJed d guod Je\le\\ ur .tlll'>O(roplL llllle pruH'>Slll!{ lloweH'f,
n .. tracuun of the two ncce~sary paramctcn req111res the u~e uf borehole d<tta a~ wcll
mne-to-ckpth nHnerswn 1'> ch~cu~sed m Lh<tptcr t! The<,e tC'churquc~
to exrend thc tntt1al modelm
l'reSD:V[
R.ty-tranng-b.J.,ed uwcrston o!
am-,utrup~ (Sextou and \\'illiam'>nn,
trop",
.~~
367
CIHipl~! 7
"'
a Stlot- receover..,.mtlth
8
n:lkctm'<hp
<p
rellector'.,.zomu!h
11'
noncru011.-n~h:
rdlecuon.vJmutb
lu stnM: shuutmg, all ~pen1lar raypaths are m the s.tmc cell uf the faulted
zoue. Hence the t1me-ofhet curve Wlil be regular PreS fM can be >uffinent to
resulve the magmg probkm and the velo< 1ty 1111he <di may be well e~tlmdt
ed
o Hu"c'cr, stnke velunTy hncs' are not adapterltu perfurnt quahty control on
the
and the vclunt} analyscs stnke line~ runnmg close to the
ofpuur quality and are very diffi{_ult to interpret
o D1p
veloe~ty hnes are theref(re recommended, but as III the ('a~e of
~tnkc shuutmg, thl\ ntean~ ('untphcated rc--,ortmg of data for the PrcSTM prondurc tu produce int.tgc gathen in the au1uisitiou cmss-lme drectwn. h1 fact,
thc naturdl sa1lline set-up 1~ wdl smted fnr eHiucnt handhng nf data 111 the
Kn-chhuff summatmn
A~ \\C are rle.tlmg wnh 3-D pnKc%mg. .thdsmg mnst thcn be avmded 1n all
du-cct1ons, mdndmg the d1p drectwn lt should be remembcred that in stnke
~hooting, aliasing m the dip direuion IS cuutrolled by the line tnten;al, whKh_
m nun, ha~ a <hrect 1mpa< t on the number of !mes tu ~aii or the number of
streamen to tow, and ulwnatcly ou tl1c co~t uf the SIH'\TV
Cumcrsdy. d1p shootmg 1mphes the applKatlun of l'reSDM to mmge the
rdkdun m the vJcuty of all(\ anu~s thc fauit the hypcrbol1c ume-ofhet
curve as&umpllon 1\ not !oat.Isfted
Theonlv>\'ayto
cn.,ure that v.c get the mu'>t
a ref1ellwn
he to de\Ign an
th.tt v.e reLord reflccuons ovei all the rcfle< uou <oue> defiued for a
huu-ufl>dumu>m lhtlnngathen
"'"'"'""'~'""' \\'e ha,e ~hown the advantage~ ,md abo \orne of the
Owe agam, l'reSDl\lm principie g1Vl'~ the mo~t accuratc rcMJit'>- 1n rsotmpiL medta The e>..tra k, e] ur <omplexttv that am<,otropv
arlrls tn thc Imagmg-vdu~ity C'>tlnlatwn prubkm .,hould uut be uudere~tlln.Jt
ed
An1sutmpy has a lm11ted (but nut totally ucghg1bk) llllpact on the unagc qualIlV huta ~uuug unpan on the aLcuracy of the estunate uf \Tlooty aud depth
In th1~ respe~t, 1t ad<h tu aud mtcrfeR'~ w1th the mtrm<,K Iesulutluu hm1tatwn.,
ufthe .,eiSmic merhod
369
Biondi B, Fomel S and Chemingui N (2001) Anrnuth moveout for 3-D pre~tacl..
1magmg In JD Se:,m( Explmatwn, pp 439--448 SO<Jety of E>..plordtlon
Ceophys1n~ts
Biondi B and Palacharla G (1995) 30 ckptl! nugrdtron by rotated \kClellan frltcn Gn1J/tywal Pro,peclrng, 43 1005-1020
Biondi B and Palacharla G (1996) 3-D p1e~ta m1gr.ttmn of conunon-azmmth
d.1ta Grof!hl'\111, 61 1822-1832
Bloor R and Deregowski S (lq95) lkmrgraton to tero offSet ti..i" SH, Annnal
lntc'rnatwnal Meetmg, Fxpanrled Ab\tr.Jcts, 1433-l43ti
Canning A and Gardner GH ( 1996) A two-pass .tpproxunatwn to 3-D presta~-k
nngratum Gmph)'Sin, 61 409--421
Castle RJ (199/J) A thcory uf normalnwvcout CrofJh'JIICI, 59 983-999
Chalard E, Podvin P, Le Bgat S, Berthet P and David B (2002) 3D ~tl'T-eotomo
graph!t mver~IOn on re.1l dat.t '>d i2"' SF(, Annual lnternatronal _\lecnng,
Expanded .\hmMts, 9'16-918
Chauris H, Noble M, Lambar G and Podvin P (2002)
fmm loc.tlly oherent cvents 111 2-D bter<dly heterogencom, meda, l'.trl 1
retw.1l a~peLt'>) and P.tlt Il (apphcanon'> on ~ynthetK and 1-eal dat.J).
67 1202-1221
l.nh,mlt'd Lompo~te 3D
Houllevigue H, Delesalle H and de Bazelaire E
61" }';\(,}' Annual
cubt' dt'IW<:'rl frmn multt-aLmuth ::ID mannc
Confercncc, Se~~ton lOOH
Jeannot JP and Beranger I (Jq94) Ra)-mappt'rliocu&Hlf\ ;\ rmgratton vclotll)'
dnctlsi~ for Kuchhoff pn:stctlk dcpth tlllctg-mg :':ifi'' E..\(,t Annual Mcetmg,
t.xtenrlcd AbstLl< t~, H02;'J
JeannotJP, Faye JP and Denelle E (1986) Prc-.tctck llltg-Jatton vt'l(JC\IJtS from dt'pi.h
fotu~mg an<tlysJS 56" 'lt.G .\nnual Internal\onal Meeting. t.xpandcd Ah&trau-..
4:St\-440
Jin S and Madariaga R (199:1) Backg-round veloCJt) mvCI<;Jon WJth a genct1r ,[gouthm Cr'oPhJS1cal Rner!l(h Letlr'r>, 20 93-96
Jones 1 (2002) ~lD PrcSl)M morlt'l bu,khng techmques a ITV\ew Subunt1cd toFml
Bn'ak
Jones 1, Baud H and Adler F (2000h)
lnlt'TnatJon<tl \1et'ttng, t.xpanded Ah<;~r,u t&.
Jones 1, Baud H, Henry B, Strachan A, Kommedal J and Gainski M
cflt'<l of acqntsltJon dnc<tton on 3D prc'!DJV[ Jm,lgtng Fu:o/ Break, 18
Jones 1, lbbotson K, Grimshaw M and Plasterie P (1998) ?o-D
mtg-ratHlll and vclooly model hmkhng The Leadmp, Erlp,r', 17
Kosloff D, Sherwoodj, Koren Z, MachetE and Falkowitz Y (1996)
Hltcrface dcpth ddt'rmmat,on b} tmnograph) of dcpth ungratt'd
Geoph)NO, 61 1511-1!J2~l
I.afond C and I.evander AR (199~l) "vhgrallon movcout anctlysJ<; and dcpth
focusmg- (,poph_\'110, 58 91-100
I.emaistre L, Hanitzsch and Lehec A (20tH) Automan< anrl CollttlllJOU~ unage
<tlter presta< k dcpth tmgrahon 63"1 } ..\(,E Annual Confcrcnce.
Le Rousseauj and de Hoop M (199H) Morlehng and unag-mg 1\tlh tbc gcncraltzed
6H''' SEC Anrnlctl lnternanonal Mectmg, Expanded Ah-.nact~,
Le Rousseau J and de Hoop M (200 1)
Marcoux M, Godfrey R and Notfors C ( 1CJ87) :\Itb'"lalon tor opllmum vt'!O< 11y cvaltution <lnd ~latklllg (MO\'E'l'") 491h F"\F(,J\. nnual "vkcting
Milis GF, Brzostowski MA, Ridgway S and Barton e (199:1), A velO<ll) model
btnlduig- fm pn:stack deplh nugrcttton fin/
11 4:J;J--44~l
Mispel J and Hanitzsch e (l 99fi) Tht' use
for prcsla< k Kin hhofl dcp1h uugrallon
Exp<tndcrl.-\b~tracts, 319---321
Mispel J and Williamson P (1998)
bascrl presta k dt'pth nugraiJon 60th
373
(j,jl[(I7
~tctck Gmjih)\11~,
45
;)/6-:19:1
637-660
Tarantola A (1984) lnverson ol &C't&nuc rcllectton data m thc ctcou&ttc approxrma19 l:l'iCJ-1'!66
Tarantola
~c~swn
1.001J
(;nvcntt)
seJ~lllK
tla~IIL
l-focuing~umming/Aij
~~.. ~'''
de~cnbc
Thc vanotJS ron tes are .,< hemat1t<tllv rcprc~<>lllt>d m Fgurc H 02 lune
ng, \1hethe1 usmg 0~10, \1m e''" PreSTJ\f or lu!l Ktnhholl Pre'!TM,
Jmage lll tune that l& mtcrpreted Thi& mterpretaiJon step re~ulto; m 1he draw1ng of
'tune nup.,', v.tnch <lte ouh~cquerrtly anslorm<>rl Jnto dep1h maps Thre<> techniqueo J.Jc ,nadablc fot pcdonning tlu~ la'>l <;~ep
vcTtJt,ll tlllJe-to-deplhum\t'l,ton,
llOI111<iJJal ICilllf\l.IIJOil
378
379
cune' dcnolcd r ==
- rlpmckJ dala Nole
be consJdcrcd ht'Jt'
'iCJsmll data
lunc-depth
IalhCJ than SlratJgraphJC d1p., must
ronJdor<;lark'
Jnl1:,'"1<1tlOilllOISe
'fhe Wlong lypt' of sg-nals uscd m the <onvo!JJtJoll 11 1th 1he rcflcr IIVIIY log-
380
~nnply
cX,lJTIJilt' !hose l&&uc~ purcly rclatcrllo the acquthere art' no Llter<tl velocJt) vaiJatmns and !lt'mc tht'rc
381
<;<><llons
mo<;t
nnt
-,hould he rmrl) t>.l~) Ohs<>ne Jll FJg-urt' H O?o-h thal a<>l nugJatton
,llongrlrp T't'flt'<lwn tran&t'Ct~ lht' wdl
al the rerorrlt'd \t'IIua!IJmc 11ltS ts
onlv po~~ihlt' bctausc the <on't-><1
,el()(illt''> havt' ht't'Tl ltscrl and
tht'r<> <lrt> no later,d \ctnatmn&
In gcnt'raL dw cvt'nl obscn<>rl m the \\Cll di rlt'plll Z and \erlt<al
not he <1t 1lw; vt'JlJ<al lime on 1hc
2-D .,<>Ltwn In
di&ucpctm got'' !Jmn O ms tm
382
Figure H 04-b
~ho"~ tlu~
lhe
nu~fit <t> d funuwn uf the d/lllltHh of tht' .tU.JUItll(TC,I~t'~ r,tptdl} \\lth dtp <tnd
vt'lolit\ vanatum'> otiiiT l'he lit' cannut
Umt'
huudred metre., For cx,uuplt', on our rnodelm Ftgurc H 0~)-a, rhc point seen yerttL<tlly belov>' the well on dw a = 4.?' ~une) hue corrt'~pond~ to , rdlt'Ctlon dt Q un
on tht' .,tack ~<'Lllon Ho\\C\t'r,
blOOm
3-D surveys: why do seismic data still not match well data?
The dttlicultit'., m t)mg the ~tdlm rhe examplt' abovt' art' ,m~t'd by ~-D .tnwsitiun :l-D sun;eymg ,md nngratton ~hould theort'lc,tlly rt'~olvt' thc'>t' prublem~ <tnd
ver it ., .,Jl r,ue fm \\t'll nc' in thrtT dnnen.,wn; to be madc with case \\'here chfliculnt'' occur, the lir~t Lhmg to cht'< k 1., tht' r = f(L.} Clll\T wtlh It~ u.,ual pttLJlfs
Lhe <:'1<:'\dtJOn of the scJ~rnK ,lll\t'\' of the ~t'i'>tnJL d,tlum plant',
tht'
and that
[~)m
the tnne-nHgratt'd
383
.;w
:-~~:--
(b)Timemtslilasafuncttonofa>.mutba;
~
.
(c)Map""""f"ellttell&afuoctiuoofu
"
(d)Appnentlatcn~lhiftnecessarylo'tie'tbe"ell
Lht'
p<~r.rme-
Lhe nonn<~l ray-nwddled >la< k rmagt' a\ \\t'll a~ thret' llrnt'-nngr<~ted un,tgt''> of Lht'
rnade wnh a \t'rllt<ll rm> Yt'loutv
Tht' nugr,lflon formnla\
prorluct' the\t' nn,tgc~ ait' tho\t' m hgurt' J
>dm h ,lJo" u> to >~mubtc a 1\..rrchhoH
Lrrnc llllf_.,'T..ttion For t'ath moddkd rdlector, Wt' keep
II.Kk ofthe
P 111 tllt' "di (tht' dot cm Lhc Tt'Oector>)
\Vhen tht' LOJI"t'Ct m~ Yt'louty -, nscd. nol
(no bft'rd! ye]onty
ch.rnge') tht' mugt' of l' vnll lrt' Yerlrc,tlly hdow
of the wdl and 1t
<~ppear> at , tnnt' t'qu,d ro dw \t'rlic.Jltlmt' Howt'Yt'l.
tht' \t'locuv JS altt'red,
the hori.t.on appedi ~ on tht' St'Isrnic 1.? m> too ~h..tllow when " """'""'"' '''"""''
by JO% 1s sdt'ctt'd_ and
~low
385
<01000
(c)Timems-heasafundion
ofmigratoo,eJocltyerwr
velodtie~
(d)Lateralm.positioniogaHfuncuon
nfmigrationHlocityerror
386
IS dl~
tit'
o F1rstly ht'cau'>e tht' lmgr,tnon veloclt) obL,unt'd Lh1~ 1\:Jy "11l only gudrdntct' a
!le fcJJ Lt'rtam r\1p~ of thc reOt'ctor lt "11l thus not tocus dlfhaLtiOns "ell
o Second]y anrl mor<:'
ilw rmh OTII' pm,dl{e al/he
u'el!,
ncg<~tYt'
uf rhe
~tdck
\alue~
dppro<~che'>
Flgurc H.Ofi-d qu<~ntlfic~ Lht' Huhrdl approx.un,ton f(>r Lh1, modd L';mg 1t.,
n11g,-rdted po;Ition 111 the Llmc domain, thc
for
P ., 'depth-Img-ratt'd'
as 1lln;t1atedm
387
(c)t:rruninlimeiJeandlaleralposilioning
inducedb}timemigratiuo
~.
ofV ..,,
(d)Residualerrorafter'imageray'
depthmigration
Figure 8.06 lmpac\ ort1me nugra!IUn m a mcd1UID w11h la! eral velt>ell} varat10n'
!he lateral nr~atinn ~ nduced h}
Vdlh ddl~rc-nl migrat1"n veloc!lic>
Jocatwn(c)
theelkctorcYeno>cr-correctsll
rt"matnmg aftt"r the COIIectwn fo1 a nugratton at l()(J'r~ oftht" vertiCal rrn'i vdouty,
am! as a funllton of Lhe .,Jope a of the nlocuy tnterface Fr lO\'>' \alut"~ of u, the
unagc-ray cont"ctH)n show~ lhelf tu be enttrely <ICCCplable, w1th
po~itmnmg error of less than 50 m
cnbtt"d ~ynthetJL ~t"I~mogram bt" loc<ttcrl wttlun Lht" mtgratcd dala cube, <tnd at what
ttmt"? Or, alternaliYt"ly, where should the JlfOjt"{ Ion of the well lrat"ctOJ~ he WlthiH
thc nugraled d<tl..t~t"l;> \\'e return lo tht~ dspect uf Lht" problem btt"r
388
Impact of anisotropy
The prest>nce of anr~otropy m the ~ub~urldLe, Tdr-ely takt>n rnto 1on~1rkratwn m
tune nugr.nion, at kd.,t on ,m mdu~rrial SI ale, "ill abo havt' a non-neghg-iblt' ell'ect
on well tit>., To rJlu.,trdte tlus, we um~rrkr once ..tgam tht' model ~hown m Frguw
,r.,.,urnrng rlus trrrrt' that tht> ~ub~urfdce ahO\'t' tht> blod, 1~ homogeneom but
H 07-h ~how~ Lht> ~tdck rmage of tht' rdlt>Llor .,egrnt'nt that ~~ cakulatt>d
l'ht> rc.,ult rn thl~ L<tSe \\111 bt' gneu b) tht' 'lOO',{' urnt> m Figure 8 0/-h The llll.,\'>'lth Lht> t>Xpe!Lt'd
trc t'rror r~ a.,~t>~.,t'd by Lompdimg dw It'Sult of the
rt'.,ult, re thc nnag-e for \'t'rtiLdl Lomersron of dw
modd In rlw
ht'rc. the tit> i~ dt>t'mer\ acLcptablt'
rm), \'>'lth a ~rnallldteral rh~placcrnt>nl
rn Notefir.,d)
~~abo .,ho\,n,
companson
In thi~ t'x,unpk, the dll150tmpy r~
tht> .,tacklng yf'loutK'S <tnr\ tht' Limt>-nugr.rtlon
rt>~ult1ug from tht>m r tus
wJ] be tnic f(>r small d1p.,, \'>'hiht tire purt>l) kmt'manL efl(>ct ,~~ouawd with
nol ht>mg t,d<en mto ..tLLount beunnt>., ~rgmfiL,mt fot d1p~ 111 t>Alt>~~ ol
by Frgme., 8 07-c ami H 07-r\
Lht>rt> rn,y be d LhoH t> of llmt>-mrgtalwn Yt>loollt'~ that
opurnze., tht> wt>ll ne
rnrgrat1on tt>~t., could ht> carr1t'd out \\Jth (hfl(>rent \eloott'~ ro t'Stabh~h Llu~ oprnnum \eloul) In rlw t>Xamplt> ahovt', for 20' of
d1p. a tlllg-ralwn velooty of 2160 n prov1dt'~ an appart>ntlv
fiL, dt''prte a
rn/s gn't'' an t'Aalt
latci.Jl pmlliOnmg euor of 2.? rn Lon\er~t>ly,
late;rl
but Wllh a \ertKaltempordl llll.,-tlt' amountmg to St>\eral nulthaLJt vnll nol bt' po,.,Ible to find a Yt>lont~ that opLHmze~
~mrultant>ouslv .\lore
i~ Lht' bct rhal rlw
389
(c)runeaodlatenlmJSpoSitloning
intlmemgratHJnduetoanisotrupy
(d).\ligr~tedprnmionsaafunction
ofellectordlpundanisotrop~panmetc.-s
j01 al/
dtjl\ In pi.ltWt', wh1l~t a \erttcal m,ttl h 1., rel,lttvely t'a~y. ldlnal postt!Omng
JE'llldillS a great dt'al more problerndi!C
11 ~hould bt' rt'mernbeted tluL , nugr.ttcrl .,CJSillJL
whtch by definmon Lorrc.,pond lo all
A Lomll.n~ o! tlu~ 1~ that whtlf an:,ofmj!Y , j!inenl,
( on.,t'quently. the J~otioncally mg-ratt'd
f,uh will alw,y~ appear slightly 'blurrerl'
390
ITII.\\IriRIIn
~IH)\'>''>
the resnh
ur dltern.Jt1\'t'
391
392
393
Once rhe ~el'>miC-tu-v.clltw ha~ been s,msf'<lcron\y petforrned, tlw next step ~~ the
llllle-lu-depth converswn 1l~df :\1usl teclmtque~ mak.e u~e uf ~l;~ckmg \ducme~.
which we return ro in the nexl >tction
Surface anomalies
mmld riMt ,JOW'> ro what e;..tent 5tackmg vdoo-
m.~
394
Cump"'"""vdtlmt>t
t'-off""'' t"<~<Oss.ioo __,. ,,.nd v ... "
v,.,,=J800+o.&J7~Z.,)
(a)l)eJ>Ihmodel
(b)v,, .. am\V""'-""horit.uns(ml>)
V,,,,,
th1~
Vd.lue when
lht> c.au he
395
396
I
' ctv") 14
Vruno (l",p 1=~
.\r""''' J-(p"
[8.3]
In th1, formula, t,(.t.J IS he tmw ;lung the rw1rnalray enutted fwm the reflectmu
pmnt <1t depth z, t,.,. 1> thc vertcal tune frum the ~;me
pa.-ametcr alung the nurm;l r;y lu the reflector
of the med1um ca11 be explT'>~erl a> a funcuun
llw
Hgtrre 8 11-a show~ the model U>ed and Figure 8 !l-b 11lustrate~ the mflueuce uf rhp
un these d!lTereut vdoC!Ue> In lht>; d1agram. thc deprb Z JS fi;..ed ;t 3000 m a11d thc
397
"
"
<
'
(a)Mudel
(c)\docitic<asafuncttonoldq>th
mod<l()wtth\.,~1500m'.:IF1s 1
ndeO"
= l9~191n 1 ~,wlwrekJ5chosento
C\ulve \\lth depth In thi~ latter
figure. the pardmeter5 arel hmen a~\ = 1500 m,5 dnd k = 1 ~'
~urne cuudustons can lw drawn frum tll!~ moddlmg exero5e reg-<~rdmg the mennWiontwlnftrr DAfO
mg
~tackmg vdooty ~~
ne1thcr to the H'rtlcal rm~ ,dontv.
Ir 5 ne,rel torlwlatter \clunly, hut
'he
lil>un tll-L It become>
O b ~' (hf.,'Ule t!IO-b) fhe
and \tit!c,l rm~ \eloCille> 1> ~nll
,md 15 ~).7'1 ;nd !O',f rc-;pecUH'h for the
tlw small dtfl~renre bet>,een the 'crtc,[
\\e
398
C<lll
aftn 1\110 1s
,\lso ob,erved 1' tlw pleVIOU>i} lited plwnomcnon (Dietrlch ,md (,ohen,
1~19:!), v.here
me<t~ured wnh l,rge ofbet> mav beco me 'llghrly kss thrtn
\',,, .. fur d1ps g1t>aler rh,m 'lOo llw,
moreme1, by the fact th,t m
this Gl>e the >me,nng uf the rdknor pumt
tlw
homogeneuu, modd 1 he plwnomcuun rcm,IIll'> true !01
me,~ured rtfter D\110
Thc d1ITeience ben.>cen the avcr<Ig-e <tnd nn~ vdont1e' c;~\cul,ted \erliC<tlly or
m !or d rca~unabh ~rccp gr,dent o!
~tackmg
tun\ersiuu~
399
come from a Jdlecnun 1one, v.hirh bccomes >le<lthl> rleeper ;s the rn1g-1al!un veloclt}' mcre;,e~. a~ 1llustrated wtth 1rnage-g-ather r.ays m
!\, we stalerl, thrn p, a ,el of pan~ of pa1 arneten
\CrtiC<Il rms vduuty bdow the \dunt\
clu~e
400
the t,ulrupK C<l5f', P1e'i'l :\1 velunly (V'""'" (1~0) ) 1emams .1lmoo,t cun,lant and
to V,, ;s expccterl The dt5crepancy tS agam duc tu the 'st1a1ght ray' oper;tor
.,.
v~ ...... vn~
,,.'""~ :::L/:1:~;;:;,
: :::-rc~ ::~~b::"
.
~~--
' , _ _.=:NH.lM
----
(a)2-D~erllcal ~radien!
rnodcl
~-
40dipll0
005
used m tl11s sunulatton Conversely, DMO ,elouty decr<C<tses v.Jth dtp he<.Iuse the
teflectmg aJea m depth becorne> increa>mgl~ ,hallow ,s the dtp mcre.1,c,
In the am,otropiC case, a1motmpy pldys an mcteaMngly tmpurt,mt role a> tlw
d1p mcrease, Il part1ally cornpen,ate, fur the elltcb uf a po~utve velonty g-radwnt
un DMO veluCity (\'n"" (amso)), a, aheady noted by ,\Jkhahfah (19!JG) On rhe cuntJar), PreSTM largely ovete~umate velocmes These conclusmn~ should not he tilkell
a~ a general rule a~ rhe resuhs'in Fgure 8 12 are very dependent on the mteratliOtl
betweetl the chosen parametel, (\' 0 k. t, b, fl, Z) The le~~on ro learn from }u,
morldling exetnse 15, <mee again, amsutropy ha> a le~<; than mnutive 1mpact un
sophisticaterl algouthms such a, 0110 and P1eSTM Ir 1s tlwn advt>abk to run a
~emlttvtty test ~mular tu tlldt 111 Hgute 8 12, tf the pte,ence of antsutwp> l> suspected mlhe -;ubsurfa<:e.
Influence of lateral velocity variations on DMO and Kirchhoff PreSTM
velocities
Figure 7 IG has ahcady tllu~liated the d!5appomrmg fact that de,pttc tt, sopht>ttcatton. Pre~T11 ~rill proHrlc~ m wtth a velocity that can <hlftt by a large amuum
from rm~ veloclltes
Figure 8 13 furrhc1 endmses thts poml Ftgure 8 13-a IS a model of a flat honton below a dtpp111g 111terface, and Ftgure 8 13-b >how> the mtgiatwn vdocll> honton after Pie~T11 fm vanom V,,,_,"" m the RMO ruute The DMO result> are alsu
rll'>pi.I)ed 111 the flgute
In tbt~ exarnple, PreSTM lead, tu velonttes that are clu-.er tu rm, \dontte~ than
tlm~c ohtained by Lhe DMO process They are however ~till slightly rlfltJent (greiltei
b> .1hout 1%) Note rhe added po~stble error mtroduced by the choi<e ofV""'-'"".
Hgure 8.13-c reproduces the modd uf Ftgure 7 1G-a, hut now we compare the veluClhunzon~ m Ftgure tU 3-rl B\ chang-mg thc dtp of the reflector cumpared to
13-a, we come toa r:ltfferent conclu~mu the Pre~ TM velontte& now dnTige
401
1000
lmage
1000
2000
3000
(a)2Dtv.o-la)ermodel:oodp
U)< lor PreST!\1 l'ith V,.,.= 2450
~ath~r
(b)Vclocityborizonsaf'terDMOand
PreSII\lcomparedtoV,..,(nodlJI)
more ilom the rm> velootle~ th;n the DMO velontJes' Thc efiect ofthe eallh compkxil} on PieS 1'1\1 \elont\, bec;u~c lll~ ;~
\d.n;twus poorh, 1~ han! to predJCt Note;:-;
by the RMO mute, j no neratmn IS peifurmt>d
402
403
as
<o~lready
slal-
datn lo ll'ells
404
surfacevelontyanomaliCs,
buned velouty anomahes,
the C'nects ofthC' geurnetrv ofrdlellOJS
Dependmg- un the ungin of thC' anom<o~ly, \anrmo; remedies can bC' C'm-tsaged Fm
smface anomaltes, thC' ulltque solutmn Js tu n:prnceo;s the dat~'l u~mg surfaLe-cuU~IS
tent M.JtJC cuneltlon module~ Th1s can be dunC', nut onlv fur land dat~'l, hut .thn for
o;hallow mauue ~urvevs In rkeper nMnnC' data, the ~~nface coiJSI~teucy a<;sumptlou
breaks clown <o~ml we .tre cunfronted w1th <1 'buned anomaly prublem'. Tht~ problem
~~('Ven b.trder to solve Sulutmn~ such a> data re-d<Jtummg clown to the anomal~, followcd by surbce-ronslstent sl.ttlc cort('Ctton C').bt, but .tre seldom apphed m pr.tcll{e. Prest.tck rkpth mtgratmn 1~ .t poss1ble <dtern.ttl\e for Ydoclty anomal1es nf .1
fairly large wa\ekng-th l'reSIJ"M, tor lll'>taULe, neatlv solved the problern of the
channelm Ftgure 8 !O
l'he most fi-equently u~ed remedte> rem.tm edtng arul smoothmf!: Altlwugh popular, the)' a 11' neverlhele>~ 1'1'1} n~k)
Ed1hn; ~tmplv cons1sts of rho;uJ.n:hngvalueo; m the auomalou~ ar('a 'll11s I> .t dd-
ficult exeJLSC' Even f(JT a surfdct" velodtv anumalv oflrrnitC'd extent, the starkmg vdout~ anoma\y IS spread over a length equal to thC' ma>..nnum offset
FurthC'Irnore, 11 ts \Try rare to ha\'e a un1que, \el} localll-ed o;ud'aLt" <o~nomaly
amlthe lombm.ttlon of many anomalres often rn.tkes JI nnpossJbk to know
whetT ~WLkmg vdocii!C'S are anumalou~ and where they are represent<1t1\C' uf
thC' \TTIILal nns velocity of thC' subsurbLe
Smoothw; SC'emmgly reduces an anornal~, but unfi:Jrtunatdv ofkn by
sprC'arhng JI over a wder atTa Figure 8 E:i uses the mudd m
1l111~trate the prob\cm HC're we take a JetleLtor al a depth
rns <o~nd
assume a mute (m.nnnum offset) of 3000 m 'llte correspondmg st<o~Lklllg
wloci~ horizun JS shuwn m ligure 8.09-h ln Figure 8 D-h, \eJSillK depth' JS
estunated a'> the prudurt uf unC'-w.ty tune p1ck~ and starkmg ycJoCIUe<;. Note
dK dramatJC Jmpact un the C'Stlmated dC'plh of the surLKC' anumal} which has
length of onl~ 200 m and .t one-wav ttmC' amphtude of ahout E:i lll'>
Smoothmg, here m F1gure 8 1:'1-b mthC' fo1m ofa polynuma] fitt1ng, does not
ami cannot solve the problem
405
Weother<d
"'~o.1>;~~om
""mal~: v~,~
70U nLio:
1~200
:~;:,~~::-~:~ ~
deplh
-Cnmpule""~ltm
(t 1 -offoot 1 )regn"ion=:.t,ndV
-Compnle7H,-t,v,,"',l2
v,.,,~tsoo+e~I7~Z..,I
2800
1000<111500
2000
2500
3000
~<>< mHuenoedhy:rnomal~
(b)StacJ..timehorizonandestirnateddepth
406
ered smrc- the quahty of the ~taLkmg \elonLJes w1ll often UlHe5pund to the
;../uJS\' ~e1smK, \\lth honono; lad.Jng- ronlmtllly orw1th pooJsuppressed mulnpks wtll autumdtlcallr ~ug-g-c-~t that the rc-5ultmg st<Jckmgvelocitic-~ WJII al~o be nmsy and uf poor l"t'hability
Incrc-astng the den~H\' nfthc- >tarkmgydm 11\ pKls t]u<, dues nut thrertly sohe
the Js,ue of 1he ,utdact" nuted above. It allows moJe poss1hilitic-s fur perforrnmg quahty coniJol on
Surtace anurnal} artef,H h,
eJrors m pKL.mg. enors m pruces~mg
n.l'>l) die mnJT e.Jsll} detc-ctc-d
C leanmg data u~ing gc-o~tatlstiral filtenng, such d~ f;u ton,] ro~kriging, m.ty he
more dlinent (Coluu, 200~)
Rernernber th,Jt
.JstJStnJCtrate ,\1
wlul~t at long 11mes, nm5e,
lmuted m.rxn11al nlhct and the strungly nonlmear rdatiorl',hljJ ben.veen the :'\!MO COJITCIon ami ~tarkmg ,eJocities .111
play .tn Jdt>lliK.tl role In the rnappmg phasc-s, qualay f.tcturs mav be mtrodll{ed by gJVmg gre.tteJ st.ttistlcdl we1ght to more rehablc value~
.\11 a\,Ul.tble tools should be u-,ed to 1mprove thc- yc-JoCJry 'pect1 a and lauhtate
p!Cklng (>ee
4 !ur deidd~} <;embl.mre
Jmenwn, hornoutonst<;~c-nt
pKkmg, the o;hfted
leLhnnue. hJg-b-den~1tv
JesJdual
.tnal}SJ<;, optm1al
and zc-rn-ph.tsmg desgnature,
Once .tgam, carc- mu~l he takenth,n lhe>e proce~<;es do
not tna~ the re~uh, a typ!Cal example bemg- thr rderence wne lor velot tly
an.th~ts m l.md proce>:.mg (f]oatmg d.tlum plane)
Once p1chng h completed, a correctton 1<; rc-quned to ehmmate the ~ke"
between lhe ~t.tckmg \'donllt><; .tnd the rm> Yt"lonues fhl'-. 1'> done b} seekmg-
407
l he qual1tv and rehab1htv ol dal~'l JS .tnother key [;u tor m tHne-to-depth conelSJun
~1gnal-to-nmse r.tUo <o~nJ the
pn:sence uf multiples m the scismlC data, the prucessing sKps that data ha e undergone hdore veloclt} analvsl'>, thesc- <ne al! p.1rarnc-ten whtch affed thc- tlme-to-depth
conversion and should be consirle1ed durmg 1he \\holc pwress
"Methods can he- ci<Jsslfied as follows. glob.Jl ersus b~t"r-cakt" appn:Mches, method~ th<o~t u~c- horehok vduty mfoJrnalion onl}, methods tlldt use- hoth se1srnJC and
borehulc rneasuremenl<;
l'he matn prohlem whrn usmg well d<Jta only 1~ the1r sca!Clty Imelpolanun
between wdls and, e\ en mure- ~o. e;>ctrapolatton away from wells IS dlfficuh \\'ells are
tlw tup of struttuJe~, pro\ldmg no m!tnm<o~tlUn un thc- fl<o~nks of
StJUCtures ur on '>edunent \Tlucilie~ lrl ha~ms llus m;ty be \C'l'Y jllc:JudJCia\ for
an accur<lte estunate of depth and gro~~ rot k volurne (C;R\')
Twn str<ltegle'> can nnprue the mterpol.ttion/extrapulauon '>tep.
Ftrstly, stackmg docltles .tnd <;elsnuc umes can be u~ed as gutdes m the mterpolatwn process In part!CubJ, ~c-tsmK stackmg velocme~ have \\!de <11ea coverage, wh1ch hdps m 1he mterpolation pmcc-ss Hlmevel, thc-y haye then hmllatmns, a<; dtscussed m anous sc-ctmns abo, e- In the methmh desu!bed lll
this ~eLUon, when ustng ~tad,mg docities, tbc- Yen t!Ude .~~~unptwn s m.tde
th<o~L \',"''" \'~ where \'""'' 1~ the statkmg-vclouty lield esumated dunng the
o;e<;mJC 1maging step, and \'""' 1s assmned lo be- the root-mean-squ<ne aveage
velocit,. measured
This crude approxlrn<o~tlon ts also di.,cus~ed at
kngth m man} '>C'cltons
A correct rel.tllon~lup betwc-en vertiCal
tune and dc-pth
"" whKh Lan
408
c-d m Chapter 2 'lhev aJe ddined e1ther dnectl~ .ts donty functton~. or sunply ,..,
analyucal tnne-dcpth nolattonshtps. Titese equaltollS .trc m turn expressc-d etthci m
the depth ur the wne donum
lhesc- dlcctl'e modds .tn >UJHmart!ed by equatmns [2 30lto 12 491
.\ cla~~IL.tl e\.ample,
encomle!ed a nmber uf ltme 111
gr.1ph;, 1s thc- cumpactwn
a ltnem
of
J his modd was dJo;cmsed at length lll Chaptcr 2
2 12 a11d 2
The iStlnctwn between comparlton and
,., >hown 111
We u~e must ufthesc- modeh oJ coJuept> m followtng 'ecrions
409
Kriging
J he rnm.t tornrnonh ll';ed rnelhod, ho"eve1~ '' kngmg Kngmg a~ a mappmg
tonl wa<, 1ntroduu:d b~ (_, MatheJoll m lhe J960s .tltcT precursor} worl h~ O(_,
!1 1., bevond the ~copt" of1h1s book lo pre~ent
C:lulc~ dllli
presC'nt.tiJon oftllC'Irm mappmg .-~nd othn .tppliLalions
the~e aulhon, \\e w1ll ~1mply noentwu here lhal tliC' 'l....tigC'd' value at
gud nodC'~ C'>Imaterl from lilC' >Caller of mpul v.tlue~ wlll t.tke aLtount of
0 thC' geomeii} of lhe mC'<ISllled \dlues (wcll locanous, Ydoutv analv~1s loLatmns,etc),
0 the d1stanuo., bdi'.Ten diC' f,'Tlrl poml whe1e lhC' C'SIIUlatwn JS l<t!TIC'd oul and
<Ill the dal.t d\aJlabk (global .tppwalh)
0 a deLompo~!Ion oflht> map mto lwo mam compnnC'nl<; a 'dnfl' modcl oll thC'
oue hand .md tltC' flucluat1ons arounrl tlus dnft modcl 011 thC' other hand
ly an.-~lv~e lht~ eolul!on .~~ .t funLtmn of d1~tancC' '1 hts \tmiiUNII anal)w , repealC'd for
calkd
m!luenLC' the \alue of the mapped paramdeJ .ti a ne1ghbounng gnd node
lht> o;tructlll.tl aualv~,., mav bC' global (al! mput dal<i)\nlh onC' 1a11og-r.Jm lor lhe
whole map, or local (pe1formed on regwnal subseh o! d.tt.t) \\'!lh a spaualh yanahle
1he stntLtuJal aual~'>I'> L.tll be hu ther refined by >C'ardung the evolutmn
ol dueclwu as wcll as dJ>tauce, le.tdmg
Aru~olropiC <Ind loLal
help lo lak belter account
tu res n the mappmg p1otess
the use of an amsotroptc \ a1mgr .tm w1ll
make 11 pms1bk to mlerpolale 'clontles along a gJ\en strullur.tl .tXtS, 01 .1 dommant
chaundling dtreltJoll, dlfferent local 1a11ogram~ may be used o\er faulled blocks
:'\lote that faull~ Lhem~ehe~ need spen.tl treatrnenl lhey are
thrmtg;h whith 1he iuterpolaliou does uot lake pl.tLe
\\'e \\'tll >C'e 111 lhe t"Xdrnple> bellm Lhal >ometnnes we want to map 1110 par.tmeteJs JOmll~ (for m.,l,nHe 11ell ckpth<. aud seJSlllK Lime>) Tlus C.tll be dnliC' e1thC'r
through .1 multiYall,Jle exleuston
called
'thC'almg' lhe
Thb method b rekrred In as 'k11gmg wth exlern,l drift'
"\\'e see nexl how these lll.-111\' rnodeb aud \'.-l!'louo; lool~ and
\t>ltlcal lllne-lo-depth tomerolon >tUd1es
pk~
410
= J
to
welh~
F1gure'> 8 16 and 8 I7 Jiustratc thcse pomts s< l.emancal\} Figure 8 1(j d!>pi.tys <1
<,lnlple modcl wlteTc- a ycrtlc<tl ,e\ocit;
but no lateJalLhangc, 1> assumc-d
tn e&h lavn. Hm,ncr, the gcomctry
two d1ppmg layers mtrodtKCS !.ttc-r,tl
velociry yariatHm> lu Figure- t\ 17-a, the actual ume-to-depth curve- .tt well A ts
~hm\11 logethc-J w1th a Tegrc->Stoll of a be>t-fit ~etnnd-dcgree polvnonual of lhc form
Z =\',,T +a P
'1 he lit loo k., good, actonlmg- to \I'>Ual as wdl.is mathcmancal t>XaltlJU.'ltlou (rms
error R' = 0.9997) Nc-\erthc-kss. the regre.,>~on lead5 to
o A..tt e>tnldle of thc m.,tantanc-ou'i vdoul,. at tlw ourlaLC \'" of 1433 j
rns,
m<,tead ol the c:>.act 1600 m/5
A dl'>rnpanLv al thc wdl locatton of ahout 1O m for layer Z., C\Jil'>tderc-d au
un.tLLt>ptable rt>sult m sorne- l'C'>C'nmr deYelopmcnt contexl<, (<tlthough m thts
coutext ,_.e would gc-nnally use- more than onc- wdl)
Thc- depth of la}f:'T Z," thc-n L.ilCUlalcd u~n1g thc- llurd mc-thod above aiJ(I the rc-sult
~ shown m Fl!,'llle H 17-b AV>ay f1om thc wcll, thc dtouc-pancy ma~ lllLTease, 01
dt>trt:'asc, as ou thc left ol the well 1he lattel J<; pmch .t fortundte Lon.,cquenre o!
the regrc-><;wn, whtch m thl'> spct tfic <,1~e ,., bctter .tt dc-pth a dt:'pth prognosis would
411
(a)l)eJ>Ihrnodol
(b) V,.,.
~telllocations
be ronfirrnrd by <1 ~ub~equent wdl, dnlled downrltp to the lcft of wt"l\ A. Nrvrrthekss. th1~ rloes not JU~try thr present tune-to-rlrpth rnethodology as Lhr tnrrt>asmgthe 11ght or "el! A shows
thr d!~llepancy may aho (and nften wtllm real ltk) mcre;br drasttt.ilh when the g-eomell\ of the reflector .-~nd the \clonttes
~lg-mfic.-~ntl} aw.t~
!rorn the tt>fctrnce well 1 hen .-1 smg-lc = f(/.) flmctloll
o;utlinrnl
412
1
,~
m"'''"'"'"'"' m"m
\'
413
companed lct)Cn
[87]
b, 111 rnall)
tel. reqlllrt'~
J.
f01 .111 wdl~ lr dfect, 11 r~ d good QC !01 thc rimc-depth funrtion More
num1dcs the one-\'iiY\Cltwal setsmu
houton of mtc1est at the well locatton !'he lfi>IIW rr~ernp,P
hon7on <tt tht~ ]o(atJon ts dernt' ~rmpl; il~ tht' Idtlo ofthc t"ovalue~ (F1h'lire 2
414
()~)
V
= Marker's depth at borehole
" "" One-way seism1c time p1ck
[8 81
~hould he notcd that the sC!S1lll< a\e!age <1nd ],meholc-cknv<>d avt->1age vel()( !lle~
~hould be equal aftcr a pcrfect .,ei.,mJC-t0-1\dl t1e J\eyerthdc~~- m p1 a< llce the ~t'I~
HllC average Ydoot 15 u~cd 111~1ead of the borchole-denvcd avc1.1ge vt->]()(1(), d' 11
<ompcnsatc~ lor any po;,Jblc mi.,tl<> thdl mctv
1111SpOSitlOillllg, non-7CH)pha~c ;c1;rnu dat.t, enon m
It
'lru<lure, etc;
A tlldtll!al ednmg of the map can bt> perfmmed ar thb ,t,Jge, f m~orprobkrns
are nolJCed. (Note that this mteq>relJVe 'lep 1' not ea'y and alteinatlvcs do
rxt'l They dlt' prc,cnted 111 the ex.irnples below)
Fmdlly, <ompnte thc map of tht' depth of lhe hoJJLOn ll'lllg the str;ughtfor1\ard reldtJomhip dwl as,wne~ lildt 'ci.,rmc tnne' are expressed n tw0-1\ay
travell!Tlle'
415
416
from the
dl!wdl-
J he method a~surnes a sLmple and umque rdatwn.,Iup betKeen tnne and seJs\clocltlc~ Note that th!s dpplOdth unph<Lrly maJ..es use ofa conJ= V, + a l (eqnation [2121)
tKo parametcr~
~~ reconnnended to a~se,., the \ahdny
assumpuon Onthen 'hould he detected .md the cause~ of the mJsfil anctlysed
e g pool ~eL~mi< -ro-wdl t1e. cornpleA 01erbun:len. lilteral hthologL<a] rhanges,
JffeJelll geologl< al ~ettlflg~. etc
HLJC ave1age
417
ZA = Z,.,_,. x ),A; ZFI- Z,.,._H x A.H; etc (note that general! y A.<-!),
o! alternatJvel) and
les~
rnap
""'"''Gdly-,Jcm
JS
[8.10]
, ~o that
[8 11 \
thar
[8.12]
An cqun alelll mcthod JS to cahbratt' chrcdly the ed!lcd vdocJlY Jnap \'
the averdge \dounc; at thc welllocallo!H: thc choice depcnch on whcthel
prcter plt'fet~ ro pclfoun quality control on the 1e~ult m the dcpth domam
IC[O(l\y dollldln
polatwn
dS reasonable .ipproxunatwns to
rm~
1\Jt}
01
m the
~e1ere
F1r~tly,
418
depth csumales, reserve \Oiume pn:chctJom, Ct( 1 he task lht'Ieiore requne'> dll
analy~1s ol the reason~ Udund thc ;kew ohserved lor each wdL
Thmlly, 11 does not expiren\) anounl f{r natural (ompdctlo!l and buual
effecl~, phenomena thdt wen: dJSLUs,ed n ( haptci 2
Finally, Jt !S a global method. "hich accounts poorly fo1 anu,d lateaJ thang-e'
m the O\crhUJden
1 he next method addres.,e; ~ome o! the'e \umtalmn'>
Example 6: using several wells and residual (de-trended) seismic stacking
velocities
fm the ld)erbemgdndly,cd
419
In thc
ond step <~ ~nnpk rdatJOnslup lxlwcen vdonty and time, for
hnca1 funUtorl {~uch as the modd ddined hy equatlon [~ 43]), IS
'llte rwo parametcrs o! the trend, \',,_~,ami k, are oUtaincd b; linear
'>e<
m~tance <~
~ought
regTC~SIOll
V,.,,_'"""(T)=V~
,,,+k T
[Rl3]
Th1s bu11al trend l'> rcmo\ed from th<> '>tackmg-\docuy map, producmg a
Ie~idual ~tacking-velocily llldp 1he process 1~ rdf-rred to as 'de-trendmg'
velocltle~ lf l {x, y) 1~ the lllne map ami\'" (X,)) 1~ thc resJdL!dl rnap, we <an
V,(x,y)=V..,,,(x,y)-(V_,.,,+k T(x,y)}.
[814]
suipe~) dnd
are rdated to
\\'e saw pre\JoUsly that ~nrbce anornalie~ 01 renr< toJ
penod effects, bemg a potent1al pltfall
lhe result Js (1) <~ 'smooth' rc51duo~l veloCJly map and (2) , 'cleau' stackmg
\eloClt) rnap. a comb!Tlalwn of the trend and the '>lllOOth rtsKlnals, gJ\en by
l he followmg ~tep corNSb of calibratmg thcse sta< kmg velocltles \Hth well
data, a){am takmg account ofthe burial efl"ect Fm this pu1p0se, value~ ,re m
turn <IO~s-ploued .tgamst ume Smularly, seJ'>Hll< d\Tiage YclocJtJes <1re e~ll
mated at al! \~elllocation~ alte1 ,1 carelul seisrnl(-IO-\\ell ne 1he \alues die
Depths may ~t11l not IK' at well~, wluch w11l nece'>'>Jiate d last line-tunmg <ahbr<ttlon
Jt ~~ ~Jm1lar to the one de'>< nbed 1n exampk j resJ(lual con e<are compmed at each \\ell. rndpped and lmall) apphed
map to pwduce the final ckpth nldp that ne~ at all welb
420
~t.J.d..mg \dO< liJe~ The vaiJO\lS CJO~~-plob (V.,., and \'"' vc1~u~ umc) ntu~t be used
a., chagnmtJCs fm th1~ purpme
lt JS .t~sumed tlwr Jes!dual \dOC!tH'~ aJe snld!l, w!Hch rcduu:s thc nsk of error~
geneJty,
se\er<tl
gncs us more tlexJbilny to mtloduce m thc modd moJe
and Intcprcrne intoJmatwn and both horuomal and \ertJ<al heteJothe JCasonable hope lhdl the 1fack ofla)'Cn ll'llf lit a more auuwtt
\~llh
vntatwnof!ht,lllbjurfare
each ld)el
Lhe~c
- Al each wdl .\, B, C, etc pwk rhe depth of thc top ami ba,e of thc la) el ol
mteJc't ctml the <olfe~pondmg one-way \Crticctl mne~.
[ = I(Z) functwns Thcn eslunale rhe mtenal \dontle' \,,"
d~ thc rat10 of the ]ayer tlllckne" to the la)er 'tune thKknes~
- C,ud (mHccpobte,exH<>pol'o<ej
421
l<~Yei
by the
mtcn.~J
'clout; map to
alllaets
lillcknc.,.,e~
get horuon
method
apphcd
lhc
l
{x,
[8.191
~~ay
1 he ,),.]] 1n these
422
metho!l~
he., m
423
(;~ propo~nl
424
-=A~~~.':
T,_, ,,tcomt's.
67:,
\\llh
T,
[8.20]
(T,-T ,)
)T,
11hcre V,, T, V. <1nd 1, ,.ue thc rnc;J5ured sLackmg YclootJes ;md Limes dt the bollom
and the Lop, IOJlCIIlvel}, of thc !ayer, !J.Z 1~ b cstim<~Led St'J~mtc thitkness, b!J.Z,
bemg tht' enor 111 Llus e~tunate for a >et of eiTOlS &v., &V," bf, .md bT,, rn;dt> on
sta1 kmg lt>loCJttes .md tune pKks
Th1, fonnul<1 cm bt> appltcd to smg-le la\t'l~ 10 c~tunatt' e1tlwr t'lron m; gwcn
Il c;m ;]~o ht>
ht)-t'l thn kness. or t'llon m Lhc dcpth e,tlm;llt' m a
u~t'd in d 1 umulatlyt> way
\\'t> slJml the rc~uiL of ~uh a
puLwon~ of the vahw~ of d, b,
8 22-a, we cornpult> ;md d1spla) Lht' um.t'rto.illlLV m thc deplh t>St1mate~ as 'probabilny dt>n~llv fumnon~ 111 dw ~mglt> and rnulula\el ca~t'~ >1ht>n t'ITOIS m Lhe mpuL paranwLers art'
a~~urnerl Lo be ranrlotn WJLIJ a <;~andan! deyJ;JLwn of o,= lO rn~ lm thc ptckt>rl Llrnt''
.mrl/or n, = 10 mis fm tht> lllt'a<;ured Sl.i<.kmgY<>ioCJLIC~
In th1~ ~pcnfic 1a~e. a~ m man; llhtdlllt'~, thP depili f~trmate ~~ mwli more >emttnw
to vdouf)' errors !han
For m~wnce, an error of JO rn/s m the <;laiking velonLy, wluch would
bt> an acumltt> lt>loc!Ly ])](k, wll h;vt> ;m t>fft'lt on
rlq>th
10 ,m ernn of 20m~ m tht> lltllt' picks \Ve cl1t'Ck ,]~o !ho.t mndom
,/rrndmd rle~r
Kot<>lww
rlt'vtauon, ;ccurnulaL<> 1dwn botl1 vdolllt'~ and tnn<>~ ;rt' a~~unwd Lo bt>
ma1 1urat<> (Flgurt> H 22-<. nghL)
lt IS u~ual to ~tate th;Jt tht> JVt'l~t' Dtx formula [H 19] bt>corn<>~ tillSLablt'Wht>n th<>
!ayer thckiW<;<; lall!she, ln [;el, a~ 11e luYeJml ~t't'll, liw (1b1ofute umerlmnf) m tht'
du1kne,, t'~llmaLt' lS ;J!rno~L mdt>pt'ndent oftht' layt'l thKknc~~ .\.~ an t>x;rnplc, n
= !Omlsontht'
425
LC
LoLtom clcpth
~~ t'~timawrl
Example 9: using wells only and interpolation via a V,., == f(Z.,,u) function
Buual t>tft>tl~ 1.-<lll bt> t>xphuLly mtwduct'd usmg the modc\ of cqu<llton [2 :11]
fJlt',Cntcd in Hgult' ~ lO, 1dW!t"rl} inlt'nal 1elm 1t1e5 f.<lll bt> c<lkulaLt>d a.~ .t funcllon ol rhe dt>pth oftht> l.tvcr's nud-dcprh llw metl1od 15 rlemon,rrated m Figure
8 2:1 anrl JS c,Ullt'd out.~~ follow~ for an mfhv1dualla;t>r
Avetagt' llltt>rval vdoctlv .tmll.tye mtd-depth aJe emmatt>d aL t'ar.h \ldlloratwn mtht> .trca undt>r <;111fh, mtng liw dlatl.Jblt> 1 = f(Z) functtons
Tht>~t' valut'~ art' di~playt>rl on .t 10~~-plot
10-b) ;md ; luwa1
rt'gtt'~~!Oil 15 pt>rtiJrnwd to t>xtrau tl1t> btnt.tl
Mramt'Lcn V, " .md k,,.
Tht:5t' p;n.tnJCtt'rs dt>fint> tlw rt>gJon.tlluwai law 11ill( h bcst dcsCltbt>~ Lhe Yari,ttmn lll tlw h1Vt'r'5 mlt'rval Yt'ioCI} "1\lth mtd-dt>plh
dt>IIOtc Llw depth' aml Ytrtlt.il one-w,y umc~ for the
1 + 1 ts calutlatcd
thPRilue
ln~t
l -Establi>hwell-seismictJesand
pickT",1,andT..,,. .,aodZ,.1,andZ
forcachla}crandaiHiil>ells
426
SumiL~rly,
tbe
time~
rs 211
From lhe-,<> lCLitlon-,hlps, lht> 1<>qu1rt>cl Z, '""' Y.tlue JS dcduccd hom thc pat.Jmct<>I'
alnMiv <>~l.tbli\ht>d
[8.22]
1> convenJcnt and suuple to put mto opt>I..tiJOil, yt>~ 11' underl;mgtheorv reheo on c<>rtam assumpt1on~, 1 e
that thc lmea1 r<>gn.s,Jon of thc mlcrval Vt>loctty ,gamst tlw l.t\<>r dt>pth ,
>Uffi(tCnllv accur..ttc.
thaL tt can bt> apphed only 1ftlw lawr cover<, a -;ullicwnLiy wtdt> rangt> ofd<>pLhs
f011!p11CIWII O(C/lrl
Tius ts a qtwsuonable
compacuon of bed~ occun
tl11' nwlhod aulom..tlt(:\h 'olvt>~ lit<> problt>m of mt<>rpolaung~ITuttur<~l geomdry 'ITlt<> mletpolatJmJ 1' 'g111dt>d' by lhe vt>llcaltnw<>ltmle map
ami herll<> by dt>pllt~. m .t mannt>r ~um\,r 10 the mdlmd ot t>x.unpk 4
Example 10: 'layer-cake' with linear vertical gradient (V0 + kZ)
In tlw modt>l oJllrol\t>d b~ t>qu.mon l2 ~Hlu,t>d m the pt<>VIOUS cx.nnpk, thc
.l55Hillplton of: ><>rlical g-la(hent in,trl<> th<> lavcr 1,, tn pnmtpl<>, not rcquin.d IL1s
po"-1blt> Lo tefint> tht> tHn<>-tO-dt>pth onv<>rsmn bv not f..On"dt>tmg- the \:y<>r as:
'1\lm\e, mmg- H~
hut lllStt'.trl by t>'ltm.mng m~lanLan<>ou' veloctie'
lll t':Jl h JavC\; and ('Yt>Tl a huuaJ t>fft>t t kh'""' TI11~
Lhat ti we :tct'pt tht> compattlon-.tnd-buttal mod<>l dellnt'd m Ftgnrc 2 08, Lht' r<>grcs,cd V_,., .md k, valut>' al<> a cornhmatJon ofthc \',
TheV., +
427
428
Oncr V,. <tnd k yalurs bavt' het'n obtamed, the ckprh convero,101l procrss heglll~ hom
thr laye
Relationsh 1p [2 50] expre>se~ the ventea! tr..tvrlttme t..T=l,"'""-1,"
tnl;ye
Werrwnteit.Jslolhmo,
il1e Z,.,,,,,,(x, yl m..tp lor tl1e ha~e of thr l<tye1 !<; eastly derl\ed, usl!lg the deptl1 m<tp
for thr l,yet top Z ,[x, \) and thr T, ,(x, yl and T"'""'(x, yl tune-mt;,.-rated map> fo1
thr top ami basr
zbot<om
"''t-V[1ll+-y:-k
zro>
[8.241
Qf COU!Sr, thr c\I,prrston of the ~OmC iog-~ ;long Lhr n~ge~wm'S trcnd-!Jne UklV be
the drpth r;mge m;~ be too sm;Jl!, for <i rehabk rrg-trss1on In tln~ Ca>e,
,hould be brokrn rlo'l\ll m1o sr\rl.tl Mlh-group~, or altern;1Yrly, Jt
may br better 1f srver<tl c\fkient formatJOn~ arr g-rouprd LOgethri In thr worsL
1 ;ses, Lhr meLhod ma' h;ye 10 be abandoned
In
evmt, thr 1trmrimd
devwtum o( tite \OrtU toi aboul tite
rdwb111f)1andauural)l
;\ qur~LHlll ohen po-;ed JS ~hould tl1e tn1erval
'\',, = V,
app10ach or the lllSLantaneou~ velonty
= V, +
approach br
Lwo mt'1ho(h ate tlworetJcallv dtffeent,
m pr.tCL't' yiclrl Vt')\1 ~mul.u l"t'~Uits,
pmv1drd the ng-h1 formula 1~ appited Lo Lhe ng]Jt modcl, rqu;Jtmn r8 24] beuig
~omrtime~ apphed Lo the V, = f(Z,,,,) modrll
1'111> rlt~t usswn lc..td~ to tlw frt'quent mo(!Jf<.dtHm5 rnadr to thr rnethod m pr<i<.tlle
Tlw mo~L wJ(Irl~ uo,rd oftlw~r 15 Lo condu1 t a glob;l analvs1s mri thr welis to r~;b
hsh a common comp;JCLJon codftCJent k tora g-JVen fornldtton; follc:r,_ng- thl~, \',,value> aJ"t' tndiHrlu<tlly r>rmaLrd fot each wdl [or lor .t group o! ;t\pcrnt we\ls, wlwrr
thr trg-resswn requtrrs ~tabth11ng) PosLed V, v;dur~ ;re obtamrrl whll h <.an thrn be
mappt'd over Lhe arra bv kngmg Lo neale ; VJx, yl m.tp 1 ;eh pmnl on the m;p JS
fed m Lo tl!e rrl,nwn~lup .Ibovt'.
Con~LrtlCLton ot a V,(x, y) map usmg wrll rnr;~urrrnents 1~ .t h1ghly mrrrprdaand <iUtoma1ic m.tppmg i~ partJCularly haz,nrlous V,, va/11n
,md thell ya]ur n1a; 1n f,t t ht' negatl\'e for la)er~
eJJtOrnpassmg a stlong comp;KtJon trcnd ..tml ~ufli11entl) bunwd (r g ;s Jll chalk)
<\ nun1ber of ..tppro,uheo .tre ton,equellll} usrrl ro rase thJ> t.tsk anrl makr !La mote
can be wferemed to tbe drpth z,, of Lhe Lop of the laver, drployt!Je '\'.,.,,+k('/.- Z, ,(x, })l' modrl ahradv rlt~cm~ed [equatwns [2 50]1o
1
morld can br turthrr Jdint'rl usmg the compact1on-bun.tl conccpt pre>enrrclm Chaptrr::! J'lns !> sthrmancallv exrmphfied m Scen;uio 2m figure
429
8:24 lt Js .t w.ty ol
Llw tluce par.unctrro,
lt 1~ olten a<,.,urned rh,t
-~k [(l+_k_
Yo z
lx.,kom-
"oop
[8 24]
z"""""'
[8261
rea~oning,
r-.
m..tp ,\r1 t'X,tmplt'
lrthology O(Clll in rhc fonnauon :Vl.tp~ ;rt' >ougln fo1 V,(x,
wllll h wlulc
tl1c '1\ell ;onrt log~. ,tJ~o rt'l,un ,
th<>rn
tht' lcchmque
19$)6
430
lfthe modelt5 COIICU ancl bIS <JCcur<Hd} r<;tunated, the nounalued \clout;
longet depenh explJC!tly on tite re;J[ rkpth llm 'depth de-trcnchng' dlrt JS ve1~
~uml.u m Jts objeCl1vrs to the rnethorls of examples 6, 9 .tnd lO
manon on othC! f<ILLO!S ,Jfcctmg- thr yelm1ties, m p.trl!culat
msL;me, Jt llld)' pro\'lde dll mdtcatton of thr >halme~s of a clastl( senes, as 11ell <IS
continmg- and pore pirssmTs (see Lhaptri 2)
At
later;] \.tl'!.ltJOih m the normaliled velouly f01 <1
velo me'
depth, 1L 1~
ro do MJ
u~mg nmmalurd vcloclt!es, S!llCe tlwy prm1clr an lllr:halJon
\..tnatwn~
with hthologv. hopefull} closer to \me;nity fiHs 1~ ;m .t~pect rrmforced b} tlw exprltmrntallmear Han and Cast.Jgn<~ law~ (wl.tlJon~lup~ [2 f\$)] ,md
llw lJme-depLh omersion IS carnerl out layCl-'m-layri, throug-h
for
t'.t(h la\t'l under ~tud) and hrlo thc b~t LJ\el proce~~rrl
.\nalyst~ of the wrlls ,nd rletermmauon of the pai.tmeter5 n and b (tltr mwrusmg line<II' reg-rcs~wn 111 the bt-log;uthnuc
dom;m. Pal.tmeter b w11l be Y.tlul for the fmmatmn
431
zlx"'""' - z"'P
[8 28]
T"'""''" -T,,P
~:le1t>n method~
of Vt'llJ1;] tunt>-to-deptll
Methad
1-Smglewclland
analyticaiV=f(T)
.':omplcg<nlo!\)1 l'ewwt'Jl,avdllable
/.(T) = \'
L +a 1
funetwn
2 -S.,cralwellsand
singleZ-Z,,:f(T-T~)
polynomial
No.1((UJ.1<YTt'<jlilt'nl Toh('U,t'cllo
lmges(al<'h.l.<mo;todJt'>
432
IOilVt>r~mn
Appluatans
3-Wellsand-
l.nruted<omplcxrry,lllli<iendy~m
averagevelocity
maps
4-Wellsaod
interpolatioo w1th
Map\' .,(xv,r... )
pledby,.etls lrnponan<eofwetl
tu'Pu'"hle<xtrdpolanonproblem'
away lrtomwelb
(,loba!
p!ck>
Y. <orrebted to oct\miC
~""'
plot Che<kkngmg
!""~mete>
lnnrttd<ompk>aty>uffidemh.
interpolationnsing
's~mpled' b~
calibratedstacking
w<ll"" h"P"""'"''
velocities.
w.ckl"g
welb lmponancc o!
param<>tns
6-Wellsand
V,~,
Gl"h~J
ilnutc<lwmpl=uy
M~y
work wuh
de-trendedstacking
velodties
Z(x,~)
{V .... m+v_._.,(>..,\)}
paranwt..rs
7-Wellsonlyand
L~ver-c,rk
interval\elodties
=O 5T,., lc(x,y)
/'J.Z=O 5
(T,~ ..... -
l"')V, (x,)
Mau~
Em!S~gccombm,mon"uhmethods
5aud6
8-Wellsaod
1 \',,_
Lt~er-cake
(T,~,
interpolatioo nsing
/'J.Z=05
calibratedioterval
T ,)V"'"-""(>...\)Ic(>..,y)
seismcvelodties
'!>Ce<,
lmpm
1 ""'
t~nceofr<hahihty/ed!!mgl""ooth
tngofsracbngvelo<ne>cllldQCof
lnt<n,,J rm>
9-Wellsand
L!yer-cak
V,= l(Z."""')
velocn~
1-otu~llvvarymglayer
g<omury,
hlltfarlvstahlelaverthr<kue\>
Se,er,dw<>lls Che<kvahdtt ofV
=f(l,"")rdanomlup
10-Wellsand
Sumlarw<"<ample9,h"t"'Jth
V,+kZ
,,,nablehye. thJCkne\'
ex~mple JI)
11-Wellsand
1 a~<"r-<,tke
Stm!lar to
oonnalizedvelocities
\'"=O. Zm}
modelhetterfirothedata
C!J<ck whKh
433
It ,., 11orth nuttng that tfw;f' ligure~ wf're df';tgned ro Jl!U'>trare the well-to SCJ'illltc tte
m the lllllf'-mlg-t<Jtlon dom<Jtn Whf'rf' the prohlf'm WJ.'> tu find 11here a Wf'll trdjf'rtOIT
, ptujf'<tf'd 1n th1s JonLam The same mformatiun tan obv10usly be u~ed fur the connow. wlwh Ll
5.08),
They
mlg-J.o~.twn,
l~
434
The du11Ce hctween the thle<' methods 1s gmded mamly by tlw neerllu mmntam the
tune map to he
and tlus computatwn mar bt'comc maLcurate dlld
even 1ery uustdble for rugged surfa(t'<. HuKPier for dlllmdg<' rap, thc r,ry parameterbSimplyLPro
A sccond ft'dson lor the unagP-ray lPchntqut' to rcrnam so pomlar JS that the
tlnJC demip;r<tlion equatwns that are tlP(C'i~aJv for
ttw nonrldl-IJ.}' tcchmque Kcre publJshed eJatJvelv rPcPntly
and hdve not bcen
1mplemcntedm
looked by llldllr mer~
435
ls bt'tween three and ten l.;:tyer l (the shallowcst) 1s depth-m1grared first Then layer
2 1<. dcpth-nugrated thror1gh la}er 1, and tlus ts LontmuNI downwdrri~. untli the
deepest tJ.rget hmi7onL'> processt'd "lhe proccss is shown l(_n nornldl-ray JlllgratJon
m Figure r, O Th1s tmphes that laye N must bt> defined ovcr the whole area of
ln\f'rcst m ordf'r lo he able to mtgrate horl7on N+ 1 thmugh Jt Tlw; JS asevere pracIf there are dllV 'holc-;' or shadow are<ts m the n~<tp N,
tllf'map:;..+[
'lhad011 dl'CdS llldr rome
stef'ph d1ppmg fJ.u\t-; or too rugged honzons, wlnch
lllake 'd}' trdcing tm.'>labk So lile poss1ble rcllledies tu d\ o](\ tt'achmg the t<trgct hoitzon wJth no mformJ.tJull at .l dre
omoothmg thf' mtermedtate maps (rf'tommended),
lllanual ed1t1ng of 'boles' dmi ~hadm1 ttmf' (requmos sume Jntcrventwn of
mterpretcn),
using more ..,tahlc ray-tlacmg tools, ..,urh as wa1c-fronr-based une-; (gener<tlly
not availablf' m mo->t mterprett'rs' w01kstattom),
replaong ray tracmg by at tudlly pmt-stack dcpth-nl16JTatmg the ->eJSmlc
ddtaset Tlus IS a recolllmemlf'd approach to which Wf' w11l rcturn
Estimating layer velocity
In pnnnple, thc mt'thods de->tnhed ahme to f'~tlmatf' the la~wr vclonty for
iart'r-cakf' vertJCJ.ltune-to-dt'pth comcnlon ..,huuld a !so he apphwhlf' m th1s case.
Tht'rc are, hov.ever, sume maor dttfen:nces, e'i'ienually due to the fact that
normal-rav ll!ap mtgratlOn takcs benf'r account of refkcrur dtps hr1t 1'> St'llSItJVf' to them,
mtgratJoll JS .li!HSitll!e /11 vert1ml arrd latemlvelor!iy varwtwn1 an.d to thf pult'nt:e of
am~vtmpv,
corrcctton.
[( ;Jrhlt'\C th1s
the velm ny modcl
methods.
436
1 .
l
k~O
.o
~~
0.3
Tn~e
--~~
:::..
k~O
omequentlv, un errvneom
~tage, nnfe~s
dipmder
ff11C now mtroduce a Jnedr grad1ent in the larer whlic choosmg \'., such that the
,vcage vclocar\.,, L'> mamtamed, the tC'>ult 1s mort> corrcct (k= O 3, V.,=2170m/s)
,md even perfect fo1 the true grad1ent (k= O 6) and wluctty V0
437
(u)
Het~r01:enoous
(b)f.stimatmgfhicknessfromstacking~elocities
layered earth
'
'
7:,.,,
(c)F,JTec1iHmodelwithagradientk
(d)
Eflect~
V, and
as a
438
e~flmated
run~tion
ofk
depth
Sccondl}, 11
:,
the fact rhat tht> lareral ->htfr L'> f,r lrom nq;-l1gtble (200 rn 1ll thL'> examplc)
rnessage 1'> clear do no\ ft'jotrc tuo qmckly tf yor11 d1pnng ma1 ker ttes tlte well
J h1s 111<1}' wcll ht' \het>r chanre, and as, rc<,ult ol am->otlop\, the tltdl'kei rnar
not he wht'rc }Oll thmk Jt 1->!
l he nonnal-mOVC'oUt
\\'(' WO]d ohtalll hum
orvl Agam wc ale
no more succf''i:,iul m gettmg thc nght answcr (tuu dcep and latcrally dL'>-
\iotf' that tlw abo1f' tommf'nt> arf' not relev,mt m tht' rast' of
(~f'f' Chapwr 2 fr df'mtmn <1nd dtscu;:,Jn) In
11111 df'pth-; 1an he corrf'ctly t1cd to wcll df'pth~ by a vertical :.trf'tch
lt IMs been ~hown thdt m many r trcumstan<.e:. tht<, 1'> nota tt'pl'f''ientatlve mude!
rml eat th anl'iotrop}
hgurf'; R 2.1 to H 2i ,w prf'SPntNl ro lfmtrate ->omc of thf' dtllicufnes m tmw-totkpth piO]f'l t:., hut <1bo to emphaS17t' llw simplf' mcs ..,agt' that tht> more we mtrodt!Ct' tf'lcvant miunuatwn (mamly heterogenf'lt)' and amsotljl)') nno thf' mJg1at1on
Vf'loutv fif'ld, tlw do ..,cr the result t'i to the true dC'pth rlu; 'rule' kads to thf' Jcvf'lopment of mOI'f' :.oph!stlcated approaches. whJCh 11e d~;r U'>S now wtth rcference to
furthcr example-; uf dcpth com'eiSton method~
439
(a)AnOOtropicmodel
2000,-
Iwtropicrtormal-~aymigratWn
wilhVm,.
'""1
1
0000'
.,
(c)Verttcalandhorizontalerronlnduce~
h}isntropicmlgratiouasafnnctionofVq
(h)Rosnltofnormal-rxymigrationwith
variooswlocitiesv ....
440
Depth-mgratc the n'' hon.wn throug-h tlw ( urrent n-1 layf'rs ;:md thc ( omputcd mtcrval ma.p of 1he n"' !ayer usmg one of the two te( hmque~, nnage-ray or
followed by nonnal-ray nugration
at the wclllo(atwns
[f we a.re
the map-1n1grateJ dcpths and Jp; 1\lll mdt(h 1hc well
and
J1ps di all wf'll lordtlons wnhm tlw u'qucstf'd dCCUidl)' and Wf' can
to tlw
Once ag-ain,
-,hows that this l.'>, unfortun<ltf'ly, nor always the
c<~<.e.
reason; can
to explam the dJscrcpancv
F1 rors <tnd 1naccurancs accumulate from laytT to !ayer Rccall thar map mrb'lauon oftf'n 1mphes manual map editmg (Hgtue 5 07)
l< 1ror<. m tht" p1ckcd honLoll A short( ut m the ~el'imw-to-well tiC perfonned
depth Remembf'J the numerous pafalls
Denugr.ltlon,
1ty field
441
the lfliHpJ.uwn LoPffkwnt k, uhen (hut not neLP;sanlr) <1<. J. ton,t,mt lor tlw whule
<Jred uf mtpre;t
Thc
d omt nspectKm uf ;on!C ruiTP<.
plutted
1s then esunuteJ ;m h that tire
i'fliua{rr.)e/fl{!,evpfoolyl\
uefoo/,all'achr''Pl/luta/wn,as
h.1ppened m tlw
, , l' e\elltuallr obt<JtneJ by kt~gmg
theSCI'<tlue<.
If tt d]l]l<'dn rh!liuJltto <l~stgn <1 umqtle k v<1h1e tor tlw 11 hole b~er, tt l<lll he brokt'n Jmn mto '>t'ler<Jl ~ub-l<J)'PrS (with or w1thout mdl\ulual vPrtJr<Jl
enstll'P th,11 l'd\ wfr,lrUon LOI l'Prtly po'>lltons d1ppmg reflecrors, whtl;
d\Pl'tH<ll
442
x,
1--- Ti 1~~;
',
( _~~~.~~;=~~~;r;;_:_;~d __ ,1
--------~~----
x,
2-Normal-ra.depthmigration
with\',. 1 ,\'u,elr.
4-Mod~ltnvelttmes
6-RepeutforallV,at"'
:\
-----~-
-.1 ? Fma-;-\,(x) 1
443
Nunercm~ 'dndtlOns ;uf' posMbif' Sf'mhlancc (f'quatton [1 4]), or 't ohctemc' cdn 11f'
cakuldted ~lt V\ a<; tht~, 111 fact, whtch g-rves Lhe methorl1ts n,!lnt>) 1ather t!Mn 1hc ~um
matton a< !U% the tht>orf'tKal times A
r.~ther t!Jdn ]oca!' invt>r\IOll can be
pe,formed hv looktng- fm
entin lavcr m evcn ove
expcncm e ,J t"-pertl~t'
Tln-. mcrhorl d<Lu,tllv Ieprc.'<cnb an exlen>!Oll of (011Vt'llliOnal ,,Kkmg-,dx"''
dtJ,tlnc~, vt'l 1!
rcpLtce thcm bccduse, d~ nuy llave been
llal
t!Jatlhe
'fno-uflmlt;'
1~
(d!Tlt'd out
~lmullaneou~lv
1""1'''"""""'-wlxt>
,~~OCl.ltt'd
lth sta<.king \eloC!Ilt'~ dnd thc l)x lormu!d, m p.irticul.ir, thosc reLiling Lo bcd
geomcny,
dlll>otropv and prot csomg- ~equem e
lt io ;m
Chapter 7) 111 11hu h 11e ~edn.h ror the sub~udace
ckpth velocnv model, or macrommlel, Lh.il best expl.im'< Lhe d~d!lable d,tt.t ,md the
way thq havc bt>en obt.J.mcd The~e d,tt.t ,tre
444
445
The dnul pwhlem nm~r~ts of Laknldtrng ~ynthcnc stad,mg velontre~ for a grven .10
~ub~urface morle\ Thr., rs solved by calculanng tr,nelnnre~ m the model by r.1y tracmg For the rna1 romodd, only mtcrbce~ will comututc cflectors ami conscquently
be unplre<tled rn the <,tdd.. mg-velmlty 1alculauon
,\lthough app;uenlly ,nuple, \tKh a pro1edure w!ll be romplrc,tted by luvmg to
t,tl..e mto dttotmt the krnenldtiCs
umkrg-onc by the datase!
Dl\10,
it i~ e~scntia! to t,tke account of proce:s.,mg canied out
lo vdoCJty
\\'e do thrs by lindrng the ray ~ct a;~ml,tted v,nh tlw~e rdlectrom th,tt, ,fter
the proceo~1ng, teatnre m the velo< rty dndl}'\1., rln-. IS the conl"ept of'irn.Jge-gatheJ
ray~ mtroduced 111 Clupter i (F1gun:~ 7 06 lo 7.0R) '1 he nMge-gather rayp.nh and
1ts a'~oCI,tterl pd.l'amt'ters \\1\! rlepcnd \Ok!y on the ~ubourface morlel, and are determmed by rhe 1m tia! tr.tvelrinu: and tmrcdlp, ,.., well ao tire
(NMO correctloll veloCJty, I'Te~T\1nugranon velonty and mvcne
correctron
veloC!t\) 1 he equdllon~ govermrrg the kmenutrc' of lhc "J\10, D!\JO and po~t-~Lick
,md pr-e-sL!ck migr<~lmns ,-e wdl understood Mmt of thern h.1\e been g1Yen m the
precedrng- rhaplcrs .\ {orre~p01rd1ng ndVellune-oH-.et {urYe ~~ 1akuLtted, ,md then
'l<l rcgres~on, the modclkrl ~l.u klng vdocity" obtamed It !S thr-. techmque, 1\h!Ch
rs employed 111 Chaplero 4, 7 ,IJld R to model, m .my mcdrum, the dl'ect ofproce~s
on sla1l..mg vclwrtu:-. whcn llMO m 1ariou~ PreSTM methods are
,maly~rs
446
447
T1u~
lughly ~unpltfit>d dt>scnptwn obvmu~ly md~ks a number of dillirultws assocMIcd W1th tht> mver~mn, t> g the \t>lonty-fun<-twn p;uanwtenz,tJon, the ddinwon of
the constramt~. ao we\1 a~ the ~tr,tegy (global vt>nus la~wr-by-l.wt>r ll!version) nvolved Rav tr.1cmg (UilStable anda poor rt>pwsentatlon ot wavt> propagatlon when
medi,1 ,ut> E'XLt>~slvely tomplt>x), the pre~t>mc ofsh,tdow .wnes under f,nJlts on the
m1gr<ltt>d maps and the h,mdling of mu]Lvalued tr,tvdtllllt'., are among otht>r diiTieulties lo bt> takn mto cons1deraton
The v'etght betv.een bort>hole d,1t.1 and otackmg velocJtwo, t' <~nother mtt>JT>tmg
fealUre of the method. Idt>ally, a tero we1ght on stackmg \t>loCJty VJeld~ a modd that
fits all well depths {<~utomauon of examplt> 12's rnethod), lrrespeCL!Ve of stacking
vclont1e~ Convcncly, d tero we1ghl on v.elto doeo, not t>Usure a gofKiseJ'!lllc-to-wt>ll
F1gure
shows an example 11here stackmg-\elooty mverswn softw,ue !S
apphed to a zone of lughly complex tectomcs, v. ht>re a Ox fn1mula approach 1s not
valid.
The lllVt>fSio\l tcchwque outlmcd ,tbovc allow~ , numbt>r ofproblcms a-.~oCJated
wtth the use ol stackmg Vt>IOt 1ties to be resolved
It perfonns an estmunon of propagatwn l't>lot 10cs aml depth map mgranon
;unultancously Th~ dt>pth nugrauon JS mdepcndt>nl of the lllltl<li tnnenngrauon vdocies chosen (at lt>a~l 'kmemaLK<~lly')
lL aLcount~ fm proLe~smg already applwd lo the ~t'IMTIIC datawt and Lhe
asooCJated p.1ramcter~ (time-migratwn velouty lield, NMO vt>loetty, l'r.;J \1
mlgranon velonty, t>\C) In particular, u takts accounl of the fKt thal the
vclocHJe~ are esumated as a lu!H uon of tero-offset tmws (po~t-DMO) 01 .tre
partlly nugrated afle1 l'reSTM, and hence w11l not bt> coherent 111th hontons
p!Ckd on Umt>-rrngralt>d cubes.
It handle~ 3-D -.ub~ul[,tce gconwtry, 1 e the o,hape of mterf,Kcs and veloCJtv
vanatmno, 11tHch can~e tht> non-lmea1 (h~torl1ono bel\\t't'll stachng and propdgauon veloutlt>S. lt allows llllerpolanon ofpropaganon velont1e~ by mean~ of
thc choJLe of p.tramelt'nzanon u sed m the modcl
It 1~ mdependent of <Kqm~H!On geomdJ)' SL!Ckmg velounes, whcther rccorded 'along-d1p', 'along-~trike' or at anv other onentalion, should theoretic<~llv
,]\be equally t>dSY to mvert, smce tht> ~ource-rece!\"t>r ~pread coordmatc~ can
be mcorporated mto the modelhng ol Lhc ~uck \eloc!ly ITown.ct~ we ohould
not rorget that only vt>locny mfomtatlon properly samplt>d bv" glVt>ll aequlS!nwthod
h
mcoipor.ltlllg heleloget!COU<; or amsolmp!c
parameter~ nto the model
These nuny <~dvanlages \\onld appear lo make 1l , reeommended method 1(ol'>t'Vt>T,
fin ti y not rnany emnmt>J"C!al package~ ex1~t 10 carry t out, wcondly the accw d{"Y of
!he result 10 \t'l)' dt>pendent on thc quality of mpul ~tacking- >elotllJes (thio 1~ not
opcnfie to thts Lt'ehn1que), and fin,tlly ray-t1Mmg m~tab1IUy renMm' the ~'>eak lmk of
the method fhs i<~tter i~sue C<lll bt> remcfherl by using poot-stark depth m1gratwn,
oiS W(' dt>~{ nbe !l !ll the llt'Xl t>xampJe
448
449
u pO\t-~Lu k rmgratton pat k<~ge .mi tht> computer powt>r nect>ssdry lo run !1
att' notan rntetprcter\ basK looh
A mudern ~-D 'morldler' palk,,ge 1~ noeful for h.mdlmg velouty modcls ,md
lll<~P' m a ~eamk~; fa~hmtt
Hm1t>\ef, the ,Jv.ntag-t>-. ofthe mcthod are rmportdnt
ln\tabrlie\ u ray ongtatwn are avo!dt>d, at lt><~.,t m the final mapprng- ,t.age
<1,
a medns of
450
uficnoblt'msoftJme
and illmtrated througlwut
do not exist
Although av01dmg dus hurrlle, the laLC"ral po~monmg wdl only be corn-ct 1f tlw
vrlocHlt"S, .J.nd r~pt>Clally tht"lf latcul \arMtwm m thc vJCmHy of
.J.CI ountrd fm \11g1 ,ttng m drplh wJth a vrlouty
dJ!krcnt l1om dw nuc
mt"VJL!bly mr,ms mtwdu1mg posJtJonmg
eaors 1nto both latr,J pmn.onmg ,md dt'pth, 11hethrr nugi.tlJon JS carricd
out pw- or poot-stack
1ht' next qur.,LJon 1~ how can wr t>'tlmate tht' vt'loclly modd morr ,J( 1urately thdn
\IIth otht'I lllt'Lhod~ The tlJcory rhct,tles h,u vrlo1 Jtlt"., rstun,ttrd .-mg Lh~ mcthod
..,hould mrvlt.Jbly bt' mow cxad lhan those drdw rd fwm mort' t1 .J.dition,tl melhod;
PirSLack nllgi.J.lloJJ mrlerd cflectlvt'lv <c~vOid~ Lht> m,t]Onty o[ probkm., hnk.cd to
nw,tsurmg s1and.J.nl ,ld<.lmg \doutJt>~ dw an,tlysl, !S dont> m L!w 'nngrated positwn' a' m PrrST\.-1. but thrrt> 10 no wfk(tlon-pomt d1~peromn, ami the geometry of
flt>ld ,md thr undt'rlymg u:flector~ 1~ Jlldt't>d t<c~ken mto ,Jccount
.J.rgut' th.J.L Llus LHtt>I Lon;Kkr.JLJon 1~ Co\eit>d by ~t.JCkmg-vdouty
1mcrs1on, f tlll., lllt'Lhod llt'!"C not lnnHed by Lht> (hfficulty ofm kili)\" ~L.Kkmg vclocJtiO 1!1 tht' fint pl.iCt>, or rvC"Jl tht> lllt>Ie exl~lt>ntt> of .,L,td..Jng \t>lontit>., lll compkx
70llt"'
Howt'~t'I, tht> p1t>ci~ion WJth whJLh pwp,Jg.J.twn vdoCitlt"~ mdv bt' rsumatcd wnh
l'rcSD!\-1 ,,[,o h.i~ 1l~ linm' duc tu lht> muin~ic lim1kd l"t'~ol\Jng pov,t'I ofthe scJsmK
mcthod. mcnllolJt'd m Chaptcr :'o F1ntly, ~t'Vt'r.J.I modt>lS can fulflllht' mam entena
.U our d!~po,,tllor .J.~~essmg a vcloclt\ modt'l I!.J.tnt>~S ol inugt' gatht'n and wcll tic'
(lllclwlmg dcpth\ .J.lld d1ps) Tlus 1~ It>krrt'd
Seumdlv, van.J.t1om around a gHn modt'l .J.rt> ,]so <1t 1t>pt<~blt>
s:.:.
F1gure 8 32 prov1des .1n J]u~tranon of !he p1ecision we may rcasonably expt>U m
thc 'patldl poslt!Onmg hom .J.n event m PrcSD\4", evcn f tn th1s t.1oe t!w vt>lootv
model io
"mu!LJ-IIJ" techmqnt' ratl1n than tnw .1-D modcl buJidIS t>qlll-piObabk ollCOI"dmg lO JU
,md yt>t thc dt>ptli tt'~tordtwn 1~
451
pk V\CTC C"-dnlUWd by
J h1~ non-uniqut>nt>~~ s, nt't>dlt'~~ to
cncountcred vd1t'n ,tttt>mpnng to
wt>lllo ~Cl~llllC Jm,lgt>~ rt>~ultmg hmn
1L JS unportd!H to notJ(C tlut IOIW' ofthe rem/11
ni m 'uou-cml'o"'"'/'h;
IW ,
452
453
depth~
lwtween
,m~otropy parameter~ f
andO
from I!HJH'
lithologwal content .nd eopeCJally shalines~ log;, petm-ela>tiC l<ibOiatory
measurcment> hum core~, etc
Long ofheh help 111 nnpro\tng \'elocny me<l'mrement~ <111d .so;e<;Sng
454
~~,m
Jnterprctl\e proccoo
le<t>l a
~nMII
numher ofrmgr.Hron
rteraton~.
.!pproatheo,
mmg dol'.tl
PreSD~1 ha> Jt> !JmJt.itJOn> m th..tl n Lannot ,dlnw <1 model I(J tlw wloolw~ or
<III!Solrop to be con~lrulled WJth tlw preCJ~ion ,Uld rcoolulJOtli'.C Jlllght like Despne
tlm, we w11l no doubt -,ee .n~otiOJIIC Pre~llM gradtul!y repl..ttng more um\elllH!tl<11 plo<e~smg tovb, d~ we nm1 sec tu\1 Knd1hotll're~TM 1epldcmg ]'rc:i I"M. whid1
m turn had repldced the uoe ni DMO Lone< uon-, dlnnc
PrcSDM ~oft11are and lhe
efll\ftrref/e/nnlrofthr 1Ub111r{me
455
dnd we ~,tw hmv th~ c,m bt> bld~ed by ~urra<e ,momoverlymg l<~yc-rs or Sllnply by the pnxco~mg dpplwd to
da u
lo n<>gkr t ,uusotropy altogt>tht>r
In Jll!llrple.
anal~~,
bul rather
conver~1on t;Jsk~
on
Id~'> ddt,tlu~
lwen
.t~~<..,~ed,
for
m~tance
dJTectHm Th15 1~
" "'"""''' ,,.,,,, "' An exampk of tlw
456
nugratwn d!oplacemetll vector~~ shuwn m Figure 8 27-b, a, the \'eclor thar JOm~ the
various '1mages of P' when the Illlgratmn velocJty changes
Stackmg-ve!oCity 1merswn as desc11bed abun (~ee
adapted tu unccrtamtv analy-,~ Once an 'optnmnn' set
ohtained, the method can e.t~1ly be extended to
2000) Formotance,
model can
run by randornly v,uymg thc mp111 ~tackmg \elmltJ p1ck~
ous realzatJons of the honzon~ thus obtamed can subsequenlly be analysed to estJmale the 'mmt prob.tble' result and 'error bars' ,nnmd 1t
Uncertamr analysi~ hecorne~ .m
ot tune-lo-deplh convers1on
'>lud1es Undouhtedly, ~tudw~ hke the one
(2002) W11l be
aliCally perfonned Tlw apply hol'.eVel to traditional PreSTM nnaging.
fin;:] lornment, \Ve pred1< l lhal Figure ~ 32 IS a precursory exampk of what 111 the
tiJture nuglu be .t statist1cal approach to aosessmg the uncertamty m both the qualITV of lhe unage and the estnnated riepth, when l'wSDI\1 w11l have hccome the 'ulti11, and tlwre are still rnany oppor-
457
rel<ltwn~
1n
'\e~tcrn
C,mada
28
A-H\
Desrousseanx G, Lemaistre L, Sexton P and Williamson P (2002) Pre-;Lu k depth
nngr,Jiwn \letherla11d~. an
()1'
1~
the 'AeiF
1'
458
~atelhte
Hanitzsch e, Robein E and Sexton P (2001) 1-'rc..t<lt.k dcpth nngrdtmn for lllll<>-lodeplh <<m1er>1011- thc ulnmatc LOoP 62"' F.AC.F .\nnual Lonferetl<T, Se~~~on I\'1
19
61' SEG
Annu,d lntenldtJOnal Meel1ng, ~:xpdnded Ah~lrd< t~,
Landa E, Beydoun W and Tarantola A ( 19H9) ReferenLe Yelo< llJ model estnnatwn
frmn pre~laLk '>'>avefonns cohercncy optuniLallotl by sunuLtied annealing
r;eoj!hpll, 54 981-900
landa E, Koslofi"D, Keydar S, Koren Z and ResbefM (19HH) A nwlhod f(r deiermmatJOtl of
,md dcp1h from setSillll reflect1on d,tla r;eojJh)'llltd
P1mpntmg, 36
Landa E, Tbore P and Reshef M (\993) ~1odel-ha~ed sla<k A melhod fm <otlotructmg .n accurale ?ero-offset occtwn for compkx ll\erbmden~ r;rojJhy1ua!
Plo>peclmg. 41 ()6]-GO
Landa E, Thore P, Sorin V and Koren Z
frorn Lohercncy JmcrsJon
56
Lamer J and eohen J (l!.l'd3)
error 111 t;lllon-,ed
med1a WJth !mear \clocny 1ana1wn \Vllh depth
Levin FK (l'dll Apparent 1eloci1y from d1ppmg
36 510-516
Maeland E (l!.l'd7) SeJ<;llll( wgratJOtl and veloCil\ ,m.tlsJ~ Droph)'lllll/l"r()jjJnlmg.
45 611-631
Marcoux M, G<ldfrey R and Notfors e (19H) Mtgralmn !or opltmum \donly eYalUdlJOn ,md stackmg (MOY~:s ~19'" E.\EG Annual
Marsden D (l!.JH'd) Ltye cake depth conYerslOil
Marsden D (l!.l'd2) \',-k rnerhod ordepth con1cr>ion
Milis
Brzostowski MA. Ridgway S and Barton e
model
1~
ll'l'lf
dnla
459
Shultz P (Hl!.l9)
38 812-H25
Model
11.\
ShurtleffR (1984)
veluot dtlalysro.
Smallwood JR (2002)
comenHm from shelf to deep-\v,l(er. how
deep 1~ th..tt brighL spot;;. Fn,\1
20: 0!.l-107
Thore P and Haas A (1006). A prd((Hal funnuLttHm of nugraLJOtl errors dueto
\docity uncefldltllres. 58'" }_A(, E Aunual Conlence, ~:xrended Ahstr;:cts, X016.
Thore P. Shukta A, Lecour M, Ait Ettajer T and Cognot R (2002) Stmctural u m eJ!dltltJe~ lktermmatrun, nunagement ;:nd apph(..t\ron~. GMjJh)'-'11\, 67
Whitcombe D (l !.l!.l4) fast rnodd buildtng usmg denugratwn and omgk-step ra
JIHgratlOil (;eoph)'IICS, 59 130-140
Yilmaz O and Claerbout JF (1080) l'restack p.utaJ rnrgraLIOil GeojJhJSu\, 45
1753-1779
460
4.\4,141
''"""ll' nrowd.uHc 20 .'lf ~17 4h 47 101 104.
274,)1!0
l(qlmLtiOto 12,,{()7
acqtmllloni<><o!utlli' 111:143
\\10117 i
~w>olmp'
Jf2%fi,11G417
420 131
demL;taltoll 222 2%,2H7,ilH
j!J~. 4.11 441 110
dc-IH'llthn~
thflLlc\Jon<tnck H llb
Dtp Mov<"otn ) :,1
~02, 20H ~09 210
17'), 1:,11
1H~I
190,
1)1222221,201
CFP:l4714!J:ISl
( heops wrdrnd 12G, 21-1 2'l'ol 104 .111
Ul 119-100
"\2~
461
l"pu-{h~op'
!JO
HO
lllumm,ot<on 1~0
g.tthcr 122
un.tg~
310 3%
D~R
1~4
'"
~11
12'i 1% !Wi
)11 '>l'i
~JO()
~tlg<,
~74
2Hl
ellecmemed1~
e!kon.tlequ,ounn21!
eL"ll'l''"''""'(er,ll232H4",,
~ 1 H4, :,~, JO!
m-fill,\C<]LJ""Wn 111
mwmpe"Jbthn 1~1. ~o 23. b:>, 90 '11 92 Dh
lll>lIII(Mle<Jm """''' 19 ~>4 "il 7J '17 111
)2.",().4:-11
mwg<aled"'nl'- C>7
nuerral\elonh57biGlfiH971l'J,2'll421
nH
an~>otrOpl
In,2<H
l11"'"""10111211Jbll5
111\<"''"
fk llllh'l,tUOll 2.\H
J02
~-10
NI 242
21~1
279 2HI
-14-144'!
la\er\nud-depth
L"el-b,O>edmo>dd
<.<krnclhod'
rroodel77
L~,m';
l:'fll)IO,,,,,,,""
(J"""''ll l<otmul.i
'1~
f01mula 1/7
17~1
:l'l'l
:.n~c~
h<l~rogeiJut'
~!Ole>
!TTTH7
mHhl-fo!du"'''~'
462
17 .- JbO 2H7
122
rrgJdUl2'1
R~l() lh7, :lOO
rm' ull~"''l wh '"
'"" ,eJocJI\ h~ t.:\
'\~.f
ITLLgJ,Il<
'"'''P""""''JG4ll
(,\
l~J'l
plumt
~,~::::,::r;1:.:::::~" 2 -~1): ,
' 2~6
llllfilar\
Jd1~1{[0)1J
117 ]13
P'""'Jll<oi"'J"''P'"'''""'g4o+lil\iiJ,-14
21'
2~
1,
~:r,
111,177
11~
JI 1
Jj(
]()44()'4()7
463
ourl.ae;
~~-
t<"l<!f'Or,dw.i\ekl
"Tlwm"""l'"'""e(ero M,t>5,172,17> 17R,400
thr~e-tetm .mahl" 171
36ll . .)1,1,
~72
trmn~'ll1auon ~~2
tUTnongwa\n 75,
141,244 211,2-16 3Gb
lwopa<;.,nn,...-anon 284
lwo-wa; tLnL<' 5 11, 61 115, 154, 177 ~14, 2~::1, ~~~
~\51, 41 1
uncert,unt)'""hm 4J5,4b,457
un,krmJgrate .\24
'oG!i9,bJ
1'17. 202 ~l)l, ~04, ~0'1
344
elocil) modell>m1dmg
455,45'1
34,107,
"'ggled"pl,l\103
Wv1!Je 9:!, 100
H'tO-offwo un.tg-m:c.ondlll<:m
~JI