Title

Author

Group No.
Date

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................................................. ii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ iv
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Methodology .................................................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Theory ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1

Governing equations ............................................................................................................................. 3

2.1.2

Underlying assumptions ..................................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Modeling Steps ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

3. Data Collection or Experimental Procedure .................................................................................................... 7
4. Results .............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
5. Discussion and Analysis ............................................................................................................................................ 8
6. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................................................... 11

ii

List of Figures
Figure 1. Schematic view of interface upconing and saltwater intrusion due to a pumping
well ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2. A three-reservoir network ........................................................................................................................ 5
Figure 3. Cnoidal wave surface profile for H = 2 m and various values of m. ........................................ 6
Figure 4. Contour Plot of the Interface Level Rise after 20 yrs of Pumping in Total of 98
Wells. .................................................................................................................................................................. 7

iii

List of Tables
Table 1. Loss coefficients for channel transitions with subcritical flow .................................................... 7
Table 2. Values of absolute roughness ks for new commercial pipes .......................................................... 8

iv

Executive Summary
In correspondence with the course learning outcomes, the first laboratory experiment was
conducted to provide students with an interactive activity that acquaint them with pressure
losses due to frictional effects within a pipe system. The aim of this experiment is to calculate
and examine the coefficients of the two primary kinds of head losses that occur in pipes. These
losses are subordinate to numerous parameters such as pipe diameter, surface roughness, etc.
Therefore, the loss factors for pipe flow were assessed by computing the drop in the pressure
head of the same flow throughout a range of pipes different in type and fitting.
The resulting head loss coefficients were calculated based on the experimental data and an error
of XX was found due to instrumental uncertainty or misleading assumptions. Further analysis
was made to study the uncertainties. XXX

1. Introduction
When a fluid flows through a tube or a pipe, friction forces between the fluid particles and
the pipe walls will result in a continuous drop in the fluids pressure in the same direction of the
stream. This drop in pressure is called in hydraulics an irreversible head loss. We categorize the
losses into two groups: major losses, defined as those caused by friction and viscous effects
between the particles and the pipe walls, and minor losses, caused by the internal frictional
forces between the particles of the fluid. The purpose of this experiment is to compute the
friction coefficient of pipes and the minor loss coefficients that occur in pipe fittings, bends,
valves, entrances, exits, etc., where streamlines are no longer straight due to change in the
geometry, internal properties of the surface of the pipe, expansion, etc.
Piped networks of water are a widespread and crucial topic in hydraulics engineering
since its main purpose is to transport water in order to supply the consumer. The design of a
piped network ensures the provision of water for consumption at a sufficient flow rate with the
minimum possible losses. Hence, parameters such as the volumetric flow rate, pressure and
head loss are of central importance in the design process and should be studied extensively
throughout the application of the continuity principle and the energy equation.


this experiment will introduce you to basic measurement techniques and to some principles of p
ipe flow. In this experiment three basic devices a pressure transducer, an orificeplate flow
meter and a paddlewheel flowmeter are calibrated and compared against standard practice, an
d then used to make fundamental measurements of losses in pipes, fittings, and piping networks.

On the other hand, there are preset empirical values that are predefined in textbooks and
hydraulics manuals that define these coefficients. These theoretical values will be used in order
to evaluate the results of the experiments.

What follows in the report is a discussion on the theoretical principles

that are related to the experiment. The section after deals with the experimental procedure
respected upon the execution of the laboratory. The collection of data is then demonstrated
along with the different measurements. What comes up after are calculations based on the
objective of the experiments, and finally a thorough analysis is offered to explain the obtained
results, their significance, and their validity.

Normally, head losses are composed of friction losses and minor losses. Friction losses are between
the fluid and the inner contact surface of the pipe. Minor losses are caused by fluid mixing which
occurs in pipe fittings, bends, valves, entrances and exits. For a long pipeline, the head loss will be
mainly due to friction losses at the pipe wall. On the other hand, if the pipe is short and there are
numerous fittings, then the major part of the head loss will be due the fluid mixing near the fittings. In
the experiment described below, head losses due to frictional resistance in a straight rough pipe, fluid
mixing in a 90o bend and contraction are examined.

The remainder of this report is organized as follows:

.

2. Methodology
Every document needs some form of logical order. One logical structure is as follows:

Title Page

Contents Page

Introduction (incl. description of the problem, terms of reference )

Background Material (incl. literature survey)

Underlying Principles or Theory

Methodology or Procedure

Findings or Results

Discussion and Analysis

Conclusions (incl. a critical appraisal)

Recommendations (if any)

Acknowledgments

References (any material referred to in the report, e.g. books)

Bibliography (background reading)

Appendices (relevant material to supplement the main report)

Note that in engineering study reports, an Executive Summary section that outlines the main
findings, conclusion and recommendations of the report is normally inserted after the title page.

2.1 Theory
The report should be printed on A4 paper with at least 2.5 cm margin at the top, bottom and
sides (see Page Setup). The text must be in 11 or 12-point type and the headings in 14-point
type with 1.5 line spacing (see Styles Alt+Ctrl+Shift+S). The font should be Times New Roman,
Arial or similar. The headings are numbered according to the decimal system (see Styles). Each
main heading is a whole number and the sub-heading is numbered as a decimal of that. Each
page of the report should be numbered in the top or bottom right-hand corner (see Insert Page
Number).
2.1.1 Governing equations
The title page must include the title of the report, the authors name, group number, date and
place.
The above Table of Contents (TOC) is obtained from Insert Table of Contents in the References
menu. You can specify the headings to include in the Options submenu.
The above List of Figures and List of Tables is obtained from Insert Table of Figures in the
References menu


The use of the MS equation editor is encouraged. Use Insert Equation or Insert Symbol. Add one
extra line space above and below all displayed equations.
2.1.2 Underlying assumptions
The text must be crisp-looking and the headings must be balanced. The majority of readers will
not read every word in your report so signpost it well (with headings). It will help the readers
find their way around the document and locate the information in places where they expect to
see it.

Figure 1. Schematic view of interface upconing and saltwater intrusion due to a

pumping well

2.2 Modeling Steps

Remember also that the appearance of a document is as important as its content. Enhance the
report with good diagrams and graphics to make it look impressive. Make spare use of colors to
highlight graphs and be careful with it because it is easy to go overboard. A multi-color technical
report spoils rather than improves the report.


All graphs should be produced using graphics software. The figures must have a caption and
axis labels (cf. Figure 3) and they must fit the size of half a page. All figures must be cited in the
text. Use Cross-Reference in the References menu. For example, Figure 1 is a schematic view of
saltwater intrusion along the coast of Lebanon. Figure 1 in the previous sentence is a link to
Figure 1 above. Place the cursor on the word Figure 1 and use Ctrl+Click to follow link. If you
shuffle the figures around, the figures and the cross-references will automatically be
renumbered. Figure 2 has only become famous this week through its unexpected appearance in
Quiz I. Figure 3 is a short preview of waves in shallow waters that was being shown in the
double impact of exams: Hydraulics and Coastal Engineering. Figure 4 is a picture of Batrice
who would rule the world in 2050.

El. 82.3 m

Q = 58.79 l /s
D = 0.20 m
L = 610 m

63.1 l /s
El. 24.4 m

200 mg/l

300 mg/l

El. 36.6 m

Q = 9.92 l /s
D = 0.15 m
L = 360 m
El. 88.4 m

Q = 5.61 l /s
D = 0.15 m
L = 730 m

El. 76.2 m

100 mg/l

75.8 l /s

Q = 6.84 l /s
D = 0.15 m
L = 1220 m

El. 25.9 m

Q = 63.35 l /s
D = 0.20 m
L = 300 m

50.5 l /s

Q = 67.26 l /s
D = 0.20 m
L = 670 m

Figure 2. A three-reservoir network

2
1
0
-1
-2

m = 0
m = 0.5

-3

m = 0.9
m = 0.99
m = 0.999

-4
-5
-1.5

m = 0.9999

-1

-0.5

0
x / L

0.5

1.5

Figure 3. Cnoidal wave surface profile for H = 2 m and various values of m.

VI

VII

0 .1

2
2

0 .5

2
2

0 .5

I
0 .2

2
1

0.

0 .1

0 .5
0 .2

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

10

10

0 .2

0.

0 .5

10

2
2

0 .5
1

II

0 .5

2
0.

0 .5

10

0.

2 1

12
10

0 .5

10

0 .5

10

0 .5
21 2
2
2

1
2

0 .2
1

12

0 .2

0.

0 .5

0 .2

0 .5

0 .1

0 .1

Figure 4. Contour plot of the interface level rise after 20 yrs of pumping in total of
98 wells.

3. Data Collection or Experimental Procedure

The elements of effective writing are: content, clarity, style, presentation, vocabulary and
grammar. The main issues must stand out and not be drowned in a sea of sloppy text. One
should not use long and complicated words when short and simple ones will do. The style of the
report should be smooth and easy to read. The report must not look incomplete and it must not
include extraneous material. Finally, remember that bad grammar and misspellings spoil any
writing.

4. Results
The computations should be done in orderly steps with all assumptions clearly stated and their
source given. All calculations should be reproducible. Use of computer programs such as EXCEL
or MATLAB is encouraged.
Each table must have a title, and all columns must have headings. All tables must be cited in the
text. For example, Table 2 lists the values of the absolute roughness ks for new commercial
pipes. Table 2 above is a link. Try it!
When an experiment consists of several parts, the results of each part should be given on a
separate page.

Table 1. Loss coefficients for channel transitions with subcritical flow

Transition Type

Contracting

Expanding

0.4-0.5

0.75-1.00

0.2

0.5

Wedge

0.1-0.2

0.3-0.5

Warped

0.1

0.3

Abrupt
Cylinder-quadrant

Table 2. Values of absolute roughness ks for new commercial pipes

Pipe material

ks (mm)

Glass, plastic (smooth)

0.0

Copper or brass tubing

0.0015

Wrought iron, steel

0.046

Asphalted cast iron

0.12

Galvanized iron

0.15

Cast iron (average)

0.25

Concrete

0.33

Riveted steel

0.99

Rubber pipe (straight)

0.025

5. Discussion and Analysis

The golden rule with page layout is to use plenty of space.
Break up long sentences using full stops. Use commas to break up a list or to indicate clauses
that are explanatory or conditional. Use the colon (:) to introduce a list or separate items and
the semi-colon (;) to link two sentences that fit together easily. One punctuation mistake is to
use inverted commas to signify that the word is not quite right. Do not spell out dates or
other numbers. Write them in figures. Enclose quotations in quotation marks .

6. Conclusions
Effective documents are short, and effective writing is made up of short paragraphs, short
sentences and short words. Think about length all the time.
A sentence should contain no unnecessary words and a paragraph no unnecessary sentences for
the same reason that a machine should have no unnecessary parts.
Omit needless words. Every word should tell.
Each paragraph should deal with a separate topic.
Keep it simple and your writing will be more effective.

Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments should be duly conferred and copied material should be duly credited.

References
The reference list should be explicit with the authors name, title, publisher and date. References
should be correctly cited in the text by giving the authors name and date of publication.
Bear, J., Hydraulics of Groundwater, Academic Press, N.Y., 1979
Ego, A. X., The art of writing stories of passion and betrayals, Cut&Paste Books, Beirut, Lebanon,
2010.
Hantush, M. S., Hydraulics of wells, in Advances in Hydroscience, Academic Press, N.Y., 1, 281-442,
1964.
Holzbecher, E., Modeling density-driven flow in porous media: principles, numerics, software,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1998.
Polubarinova-Kochina, P. Ya., Theory of Ground Water Movement, Princeton Univ. Press,
Princeton, N.J., 1962
Strack, O. D. L., Groundwater Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewoods Cliffs, N.J., 1989.

10

Appendix
The binder must be very strong. It must hold and protect the report through its rough trip of
many readings and should be flexible enough to be easily read.

11