INTRODUCTION

Training - introduction

Training and personal development is an important method for a business to improve the
performance of employees.

Training starts with a strategy

It is important that a business provides training that is consistent with the business
strategy. The main steps in developing a training strategy are to:

- Identify the skills and abilities needed by employees;

- Draw up an action plan to show how investment in training and development will help
meet business goals and objectives;

- Implement the plan, monitoring progress and training effectiveness

Benefits of training to a business

The main benefits to a business of a well-trained workforce are:

- Better productivity (and, therefore, lower production / operating costs)

- Higher quality

- More flexibility - training helps employees develop a variety of skills. Multi-skilling is

only possible if the workforce is well trained

- Less supervision - lower supervision and management costs if employees can get on
with their jobs. This might also improve motivation - through greater empowerment

- More successful recruitment and employee retention - businesses with a good reputation
for training are likely to find it easier to attract good quality staff - and then keep them

- Help in achieving change - businesses with strong training systems and culture find it
easier to implement change programmes
What training cannot solve

It is tempting to think that training is the solution to many if not all business
problems. However, there are some things that training can rarely solve: these include:

- Poor management (although management training might help!)

- Poor job design

- Ineffective or inefficient equipment, production organization

- Recruitment

If training is so important, why do some businesses

invest so little in it?

Ideally training should be seen as an investment in the future of the business. It

takes time for the effects of training to impact business performance.

Some businesses are reluctant to spend on training because:

- They fear employees will be poached by competitors (who will then benefit from the
training)

- A desire to minimize short-term costs

- They cannot make a justifiable investment case

Meaning of training

Training is the most important and established function of the personnel programme is to
impart training to the new comers. In the modern world of technological changes, the
need for training employees is being increasingly recognized so as to keep employees in
touch with the new developments, and technology. Every organization must have a
systematic training programme otherwise employees will try to learn the job by trial and
error method which can prove to be dangerous. Trained workers will operate machines
carefully, reduce scrap and wastes.
 NEED FOR TRAINING

Training is necessary for existing and new employees. Training increases the skill
of the employees. New machines, new tools, new methods and need for increasing the
productivity make training still more important.

Training programme should not be started as a fashion by copying other

organization as it would simply be wastage of money. The training programme should be
undertaken only if the need for the same is felt. Such a need can be assessed for job
descriptions. Interviews and records of comparative performance may also indicate need
for training. The factors which usually indicate for training are given below:

1. Chances of frequent accidents.

2. Low quality output.
3. Higher production cost.
4. Employees feeling absence of pride in job resulting in carelessness and gossip.
5. Ignorance of objectives.
 TRAINING CRITERIA

Management can discover training need of employees by taking following steps:

1. Sometimes employee performance is below the standard, training is immediately

required for such employees.
2. Sometimes certain production problems indicate training needs. These indicators
include frequent accidents, low productivity and poor quality, higher production
cost, excessive gossip, higher rate of labor turnover and absenteeism, excessive
grievance etc.
3. By conducting interviews and giving questionnaires, views of employees and
excessive can be obtained regarding training needs.
4. The expansion of business in futures, installation of new plants, new technology
etc., require planning of manpower training in advance so that requirements of
new job are met well in time.

In case of small scale organization, training will be given by a supervisor or a skilled

man, whereas in large organizations, there will either be a full time training officer on
training department. The training methods may be:

i. Lecture method if trainees number is large.

ii. Recitation method (if trainees are few) which include question and answer
technique.
iii. Demonstration method.
iv. Conference group and discussion method.
 TRAINING STRATEGY

All occupations engaged in converting raw materials into preferred goods,

are concerned with design of policies, institutions and behaviors. The process
spirals appreciation, action and reappreciation. Thus you work simultaneously
from the total and then go in cycles.

Everything is more important in time than anything else, of course, which

is exactly what happens when people don’t exhibit the right amount of fortitude in
planning on a broad basis.

Engaging resources only in lines of action for which training is a

significant variable is one of the first professional responsibilities of a trainer and
training. This includes a judgement of whether adequate conditions exist for the
likely success of a training programme. In this respect training is like a
manufacturing process. Relating these demands clear goals, a plausible strategy
for attaining them, and precise specifications for each part of training task,
including the resources of time, skill, and facilities required. Contrary to the
popular saying, something is often not better than nothing, for “something” may
convey a mistaken sense of movement and progress toward a good when in reality
no ground has prepared.
For futile training programmes, it is necessary to consider four strategic issues:

1. Action perspective in training strategy. Action

perspective training is a systematic attempt to develop the human resources-
individual, group, and organizational competencies required to manage present
and future tasks and situations. An effective training strategy therefore focuses on
making training an effective instrument of action in the field. Training is well spin
off action projects, as these projects develop they then, in turn, highlight new gaps
in competencies to be filled through training. Training and action are therefore
closely linked.

2. Goal setting. After the overall action strategy, it is setting appropriate

goals for training. What are the changes to be effected? Once this question is
answered, these follow: what number and types of people require training, and
what resources of time, skill, and facilities will be needed for this particular
training? In other words, what are training specifications?

3. Planning training specifications. Responsibility is

reversed when the time comes for defining training specifications. The
organization has specified the new knowledge, understanding, and skills required
for the change it desires. The training system, in turn, has helped to pinpoint those
which can be developed through systematic training. How this is to be done, that
is, what training designs and methods to use, are strictly the business of the
training system. This is the very core of its job.

4. Programming strategy by the Training System.

 METHODS OF TRAINING

What is a training method?

A training method is the process, technique or approach which a trainer uses in

teaching.

Tr a i n i n g - o n t h e j o b

As the name implies, on the job training involves employees training at their place or
work.

The most common methods of on the job training are:

- Demonstration / instruction; showing the trainee how to do the job

- Coaching - a more intensive method of training that involves a close working

relationship between an experienced employee and the trainee

- Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of
a wide range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in
several different departments)

- Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of
the business and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams
are "multi-disciplinary"

Advantages of on the job training

- Generally more cost effective

- Less disruptive to the business - i.e. employees are not away from work

- Training an employee in their own working environment, with equipment they are
familiar with and people they know can help they gain direct experience to a standard
approved by the employer
- Employees may find that they have more confidence if they are supervised and guided
as they feel they are doing the job right

- Employees may feel more at ease being taught or supervised by people they know
rather than complete strangers at an external training course

- Managers or supervisors can assess improvement and progress over a period of time and
this makes it easier to identify a problem intervene and resolve problems quickly

- On the job training is also productive, as the employee is still working as they are
learning

- As training progresses and the employee begins to feel more confident, this confidence
would allow them to work at a higher standard and ultimately be more productive

- Training "on-the-job" provides an opportunity to get to know staff they might not
normally talk to

Disadvantages of on the job training

- Teaching or coaching is a specialist skill in itself; unless the trainer has the skills and
knowledge to train, this would mean that the training will not be done to a sufficient
standard

- The trainer may not be given the time to spend with the employee to teach them
properly, which would mean substandard training has been achieved and learning has
only been half done

- The trainer may posses bad habits and pass these on to the trainee

Tr a i n i n g - o f f t h e j o b

Off the job training involves employees taking training courses away from their place of
work. This is often also referred to as "formal training".

Off the job training courses might be run by the business' training department or by
external providers.

The main types of off the job training courses are:

- Day release (where the employee takes time out from normal working hours to attend a
local college or training centre)

- Distance learning / evening classes

- Revision courses (e.g. in the accountancy profession, student employees are given
blocks of around 5-6 weeks off on pre-exam courses)

- Block release courses - which may involve several weeks at a local college

- Sandwich courses - where the employee spends a longer period of time at college (e.g.
six months) before returning to work

- Sponsored courses in higher education

- Self-study, computer-based training (an increasingly popular option - given that

attendance at external courses can involve heavy cost)

Advantages of off-the-job training:

- Use of specialist trainers and accommodation

- Employee can focus on the training - and not be distracted by work

- Opportunity to mix with employees from other businesses

Disadvantages of off-the-job training:

- Employee needs to be motivated to learn

- May not be directly relevant to the employee's job

- Costs (transport, course fees, examination fees, materials, accommodation)

There are many different ways to train. Indeed, entire books have been written on
the ways to deliver training. How can a manager charged with training his or her
employees choose an appropriate method? This article defines some of the most common
training methods and reviews pros and cons for each one.

The method by which training is delivered often varies based on the needs of the
company, the trainee, and on the task being performed. The method should suit the
audience, the content, the business¡¦ environment, and the learning objective. Ideally, the
method chosen will motivate employees to learn, help employees prepare themselves for
learning, enable the trainees to apply and practice what they've been taught, help trainees
retain and transfer what they have learned, and integrate performance with other skills
and knowledge.
Other factors affecting the choice of a training method include:

-Age, gender, or level of education of the trainees

-Learning styles of the trainees

-Number of trainees

-Budget

-Trainer's skills and training style

Common group training methods include:

Lecture

A lecture is the method learners often most commonly associate with college and
secondary education. Yet, it is also considered one of the least effective methods to use
for adult learners. In this method, one person (the trainer) does all of the talking. He or
she may use handouts, visual aids, question/answer, or posters to support the lecture.
Communication is primarily one-way: from the instructor to the learner.

Pros: Less time is needed for the trainer to prepare than other methods. It provides a lot of
information quickly when it is less important that the trainees retain a lot of details.

Cons: Does not actively involve trainees in training process. The trainees forget much
information if it is presented only orally.

Demonstration

Demonstration is very effective for basic skills training. The trainer shows trainees how
to do something. The trainer may provide an opportunity for trainees to perform the task
being demonstrated.

Pros: This method emphasizes the trainee involvement. It engages several senses: seeing,
hearing, feeling, touching.

Cons: It requires a great deal of trainer preparation and planning. There also needs to be
an adequate space for the training to take place. If the trainer is not skilled in the task
being taught, poor work habits can be learned by the trainee.
Seminar

Seminars often combine several group methods: lectures, discussions, conferences,

demonstrations.

Pros: Group members are involved in the training. The trainer can use many group
methods as part of the seminar activity.

Cons: Planning is time-consuming. The trainer must have skill in conducting a seminar.
More time is needed to conduct a seminar than is needed for many other methods.

Conference

The conference training method is a good problem-solving approach. A group considers a

specific problem or issue and they work to reach agreement on statements or solutions.

Pros: There is a lot of trainee participation. The trainees build consensus and the trainer
can use several methods (lecture, panel, seminar) to keep sessions interesting.

Cons: It can be difficult to control a group. Opinions generated at the conference may
differ from the manager¡¦s ideas, causing conflict.

Panel

A panel provides several points of view on a topic to seek alternatives to a situation.

Panel members may have differing views but they must also have objective concerns for
the purpose of the training. This is an excellent method for using outside resource people.

Pros: Trainees often find it interesting to hear different points of view. The process
invites employees to share their opinions and they are challenged to consider alternatives.

Cons: It requires a great deal of preparation. The results of the method can be difficult to
evaluate.
Role Playing

During a role play, the trainees assume roles and act out situations connected to the
learning concepts. It is good for customer service and sales training.

Pros: Trainees can learn possible results of certain behaviors in a classroom situation.
They get an opportunity to practice people skills. It is possible to experiment with many
different approaches to a situation without alienating any actual customers.

Cons: A lot of time is spent making a single point. Trainers must be skilled and creative
in helping the class learn from the situation. In some role play situations, only a few
people get to practice while others watch.

Case Studies

A case study is a description of a real or imagined situation which contains information

that trainees can use to analyze what has occurred and why. The trainees recommend
solutions based on the content provided.

Pros: A case study can present a real-life situation which lets trainees consider what they
would do. It can present a wide variety of skills in which applying knowledge is
important.

Cons: Cases can be difficult to write and time-consuming to discuss. The trainer must be
creative and very skilled at leading discussions, making points, and keeping trainees on
track.

Simulations

Trainees participate in a reality-based, interactive activity where they imitate actions

required on the job. It is a useful technique for skills development.

Pros: Training becomes more reality-based, as trainees are actively involved in the
learning process. It directly applies to jobs performed after training. Simulations involve
yet another learning style, increasing the chance that trainees will retain what they have
learned.

Cons: Simulations are time-consuming. The trainer must be very skilled and make sure
that trainees practice the skills correctly. Only perfect practice makes perfect.
Projects

Projects require the trainees to do something on the job which improves the business as
well as helps them learn about the topic of training. It might involve participation on a
team, the creation of a database, or the forming of a new process. The type of project will
vary by business and the skill level of the trainee.

Pros: This is a good training activity for experienced employees. Projects can be chosen
which help solve problems or otherwise improve the operation. Trainees get first-hand
experience in the topic of the training. Little time is needed to prepare the training
experience.

Cons: Without proper introduction to the project and its purpose, trainees may think they
are doing somebody else¡¦s work. Also, if they do not have an interest in the project or
there is no immediate impact on their own jobs, it will be difficult to obtain and maintain
their interest.

Common individual training methods include:

Self-discovery

Trainees discover the competencies on their own using such techniques as guided
exercises, books, and research.

Pros: Trainees are able to choose the learning style that works the best for them. They are
able to move at their own pace and have a great deal of ownership over their learning.

Cons: Trainees can easily get side-tracked and may move slower than the trainer desires.
It is also more difficult to measure the employee¡¦s progress.

Movies/videos/computer-based training

Content for the training experience comes primarily from a videotape or computer-based
program.

Pros: It is easy to provide this training and the trainer can follow-up with questions and
discussion. It is also easy to assure that the same information is presented to each trainee.
Cons: It is expensive to develop. Most trainers choosing this option must purchase the
training from an outside vendor, making the content less specific to their needs.

On-the-job training

This is the most common method of training. The trainee is placed on the job and the
manager or mentor shows the trainee how to do the job. To be successful, the training
should be done according to a structured program that uses task lists, job breakdowns,
and performance standards as a lesson plan.

Pros: The training can be made extremely specific to the employee's needs. It is highly
practical and reality-based. It also helps the employee establish important relationships
with his or her supervisor or mentor.

Cons: Training is not standardized for employees. There is often a tendency to have a
person learn by doing the job, providing no real training.

Mentoring

A mentor can tutor others in their learning. Mentors help employees solve problems both
through training them in skills and through modeling effective attitudes and behaviors.
This system is sometimes known as a buddy system.

Pros: It can take place before, during, or after a shift. It gives the trainee individual
attention and immediate feedback. It also helps the trainee get information regarding the
business culture and organizational structure.

Cons: Training can be interrupted if the mentor moves on. If a properly trained mentor is
not chosen, the trainee can pick up bad habits.

When choosing from among these methods, the trainer must decide which one best suits
the trainees, the environment, and the investments available. Many trainers will choose to
combine methods or vary them. Others will select a single method that works best for
them and never vary. With so many options, a trainer is limited only by his or her
creativity.
 Methods of training - The right method

This module lends itself to a lively presentation by the trainer. The trainer must be
capable of demonstrating personally the methods of training selected for special attention.
These methods are believed to be the most appropriate for use in training in food control
practices including GMPs and HACCP. It is acknowledged that case studies also have
their use, but considerable time is required in their preparation.

The trainer should spare no effort to make this module effective. The methods are the
tools the trainees will use when they became trainers. It is essential that the presentation
of the module provide them with a base for effective training, on which the trainees can
build by practising to improve performance.

Exercise

Ask participants to give a five- to seven-minute mini-lecture on a subject of their own

choice that is related to food quality control. Instruct the participants to prepare a point
outline on the subject of their lecture for use during their presentation.

THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF TRAINING

You have a choice of the following methods to prepare for effective training:

 Lecture

 Lecture/discussion

 Skill lesson

 On-the-job training (the four-step method)

There are other methods of training, but their effective use is specific to special training
situations and will not be discussed in this lecture. Some of those methods include:

 Role play

 Assignment

 Case study

 Training games
 Group exercises

 Programmed learning

SELECTING THE RIGHT METHOD

All the resources at your command must be used to make your instruction real and vital
for your trainees. The number and types of training methods you use during any
presentation depend on many factors, and you must therefore have answers to the
following questions before you decide how you will present your material.

 What is the ability and level of knowledge of the group?

 How many trainees are in the group and why are they there?

 How much time do you have to prepare your material?

 Can you cover your topic fully in the time available?

 What aids do you require?

 Do you have the experience to use these aids with confidence?

 Are you aware of the limitations of aids?

Your method of presentation will depend on the answers to these questions.

THE LECTURE

Use

 When the group is large - say 30 or more

 When knowledge or understanding is to be imparted by an expert

 When a body of factual information has to be communicated in a short time

 When information is not readily available to group members

Delivery

Essentials of good delivery:

 Words must all be clear

 Words must be spoken at a suitable pace

 Pauses should occur at logical places

 Variety should be used: emphasizing important points in a deliberate manner,

connecting parts and using illustrations in a conversational way

Preparation and lecture notes

Preparation is important. The lecturer's notes need to be designed to facilitate efficient

delivery. Distinction is needed between lecture outlines (showing matter only) and lecture
notes (showing method and matter).

Notes may be too brief. The lecturer may then improvise, and he or she may be vague or
may forget important elements. On the other hand, notes may be too extensive. The
lecturer will then read them, and this is undesirable.

Given an outline of the material, prepare the notes by asking these questions:

 What is it safe to assume that the listeners know?

 What are they likely to find difficult?

 Hence, what will require special care or illustration?

 What will the illustrations (in detail) be? Can they be misunderstood or
misinterpreted?

 What demonstrations will be appropriate? Will everyone see clearly? (Demonstrations

are used to illustrate really important points. The more important the point, the more
spectacular the demonstration should be.)
 What new terms will be introduced? What unusual names? Mark these in the notes.
They will need to be written on a blackboard, whiteboard, chart or overhead
transparency.

 What precisely should everyone know at the end of the lecture? (This is really a re-
examination of the outline and a restatement of the important points.)

Structure

Introduction:

 Statement of aims

 Relation of this lecture to those that came before and are to follow

 Establishment of goal (which gives purpose and direction) by linking aims with
participant needs

 Outline of thoughts that are to be developed

Body of lecture:

 Step-by-step building up of subject matter

 Logical development

 A few well-developed steps, strongly made (more effective than many steps)

 Appropriate use of aids and questions to stimulate student interest and activity

 Appropriately spaced summaries of material covered

Conclusion:

 Summary of lecture material

 Restatement of the relationship of this lecture to others in the series

 Reference to additional material that should be read or seen

 Setting of any assignments

Disadvantages

 Lecturer bombards students with considerable information (saturation may occur)

 Participants sit passively without interaction

THE LECTURE/DISCUSSION

Use

 When the group is small - say 20 or less

 When the members know one another well enough to risk making errors

 When the material is of a kind that can be assimilated readily, at least in part, or when
there is some prior knowledge of it

Discussion

The most useful starting point for the discussion is the question. Some uses of questions:

 At beginning of lecture: to find out what trainees already know and to discover
opinions

 During lecture: to find out whether the participants understand and are following the
lecture

 End of lecture: to recapitulate and test the participants' knowledge and understanding

Desirable features of questions:

 They should be clear

 They should be brief

 They should lead to some constructive statement rather than to a nod or a grunt

 They should stimulate thinking, rather than suggest the answer

Pitfalls

 Repeating the answer (Do not repeat. Move on.)

 Holding a dialogue with a single answerer (Bring in the group, e.g. "Would anyone
like to add to that?")

 Trampling the incorrect answerer

 Asking too many questions (Adults do not like to be cross-examined.)

 Letting the discussion take too long (Guide it carefully. Remember the objective of
your discussion.)

Structure

 Introduction

 Body of lecture

 Discussion

 Conclusion

THE SKILL LESSON

Aims

 To teach correct and safe job methods

 To develop confidence in job performance

 To achieve accuracy and speed

 To encourage conscientious effort

Structure

Introduction

 Development (body of skill lesson)

 Demonstration by trainer (complete)

 Demonstration and trainee practice of each stage, in sequence

 Practice of demonstrated job skill Conclusion

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (THE FOUR-STEP METHOD OF

INSTRUCTION)

Step 1

 Prepare the worker

 Put the worker at ease

 State the job and find out what the worker already knows about it

 Stimulate the worker's interest in learning the job

 Place the worker in the correct position

Step 2

 Present the operations

 Tell, show and illustrate one important point at a time

 Stress each key point

 Instruct clearly, completely and patiently, but teach no more than the worker can
master
Step 3

 Try out the worker's performance

 Have the worker do the job, and correct errors

 Have the worker explain each key point to you as he or she does the job again

 Make sure the worker understands, and continue until you are certain of this
Step 4
 Follow up

 Put the worker on his or her own

 Designate to whom he or she should go for help

 Check frequently

 Encourage questions

 Taper off extra coaching and reduce follow-up

Example of an on-the-job training session: training workers in the correct

method of hand washing

Workers in fish processing units must maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness. In
order to educate the workers in better hygienic practices, the correct hand washing
method is one of the topics demonstrated in fish processing units.

The main objective of washing hands is to avoid contaminating the material with
organisms from the hands. Unwashed hands transmit microorganisms. It is therefore
essential that hands be washed thoroughly. The following procedure for washing hands is
recommended:

 Wet palms and arms, from the elbow down, with fresh water

 Apply soap

 Work lather on and around fingers, nails and arms from the elbow down

 Rinse palms and hands with fresh water

 Wipe palms and hands dry using a clean towel

Evaluating Training Method

THE NEED FOR EVALUATION

It is not good enough for a trainer to feel self-satisfied with his or her training
performance without evaluating it. All effective trainers not only evaluate or measure the
degree of success of their course, they also evaluate their personal performance at the
conclusion of each session or at least at the end of each training day.

Neglecting to make any attempt at evaluation reflects disinterest and lack of

professionalism and is symptomatic of a non-caring attitude. Evaluation is a must; it is an
integral part of effective training.

Purpose

 To improve training by discovering which training processes are successful in

achieving their objectives (to "sort out the good from the bad")

Evaluation affects learning

 If we set examinations at the end of a course we affect the nature of learning

 If we study trainees' job behaviour after a course we have generally changed their job
behaviour

 Since testing affects learning we can use it as a training aid

Two aspects of evaluation

 Course evaluation

 Trainer evaluation (self-evaluation)

GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION

Break evaluation into clear, achievable steps:

Evaluating reaction

How well did the trainees enjoy the session(s)/course?

 Find out how well the trainees liked a particular training session or sessions or the
course as a whole

 Does not include measurement of learning

Evaluating learning

What principles, facts and techniques were learned?

 Written test questions, oral test questions, skill tests

 Avoid questions like "Have you learned anything?"

Evaluating behaviour

What changes in job behaviour resulted from the training?

 Best evaluated through appraisal by on-the-job supervisors

 Remember: good trainers have on-the-job experience; they know the best way of
doing things

Evaluating results

What were the tangible results of the training in terms of improved job performance?

 Some types of training results are easily measured (e.g. typing)

 Others are not easily measured (where management and attitudes are involved)
METHOD EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRES

>Determine what you want to find out

>Use a written comment sheet covering the steps above

>Obtain honest reactions by making the form anonymous

>Allow trainees to write additional comments not covered by questions

Two model method evaluation questionnaires are included.

Model 1 is intended for evaluation of a complete training course. Model 2 can be used to
evaluate either a specific training session or module or the overall training course.

TRAINER SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE FOR USE

BEFORE THE SESSION

Preparation

 Do the notes show clearly the limited, definite scope of this training session?

 Is my session planned to enable my specific purpose to be fully accomplished?

 Have I allowed for an adequate introduction; a presentation with participant activity;

and a recapitulation which will clinch the chief points?

 Have I arranged for all necessary equipment/materials and teaching aids?

Introduction

 Will this step excite the interest of the trainees from the start - is it original or linked
strongly with an emotion-stirring activity, or some matter of topical or personal interest?

 Will it pave the way for what is to follow so that the presentation will not discourage
or bore by excessive difficulty?

 Will it provoke curiosity and interest for what is to come, generating a need which
will be satisfied?
 Does it provide adequate revision of what has gone before?

Body

 Is the instruction broken up into steps of reasonable length?

 Will each step offer maximum trainee participation and activity?

 Will each step win trainee interest and attention?

 Will each step offer some way of evaluating the trainees' comprehension before the
next step is undertaken?

 If there is a written exercise to be done, have I something useful ready to occupy the
quicker trainees so that slower ones may finish comfortably?

 Is there adequate provision for holding the interest of the strongest trainees and giving
them worthwhile activity?

 Have I allowed for a period of relief for trainees and myself after a period of intense
concentrated work?

Conclusion

 Will this step adequately recall and test the vital points of the session?

 Have I timed my session so that there is time for this important step?

Chalkboard summary

 Will my chalkboard or whiteboard summary show what I expect to appear on the

chalkboard at the end of the session?

 Is the arrangement (use of colour, diagrams, etc.) attractive?

 Have I thought out ways of obtaining the maximum help from the chalkboard with a
minimum loss of contact with my group during the session?

 Are there any parts of the chalkboard that I should not use because they are not clearly
visible because of poor lighting, shining sun, etc.?

 How will arrangement of any other visual aids fit in with my use of the chalkboard?
General

 Are there any other aids that will assist me?

 What rabbits have I ready to pull out of a hat if interest flags?

 Have I taken into consideration the intellectual level of the group, the time of day the
session will take place and interruptions?

 Have I thought out how this session will fit into the general syllabus for the group?

 Am I sure of the correct pronunciation of unusual words that I will be using during the
lesson?

 Am I sure of my subject-matter and of the correctness of the questions I intend to use?

 Am I sufficiently familiar with my questions and steps to be able to carry on the

session at maximum effective speed without allowing the thin edge of the wedge of
inattention to be inserted?

TRAINER SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE FOR USE

AFTER THE SESSION

Voice

 Was my voice clearly audible in all parts of room?

 Was it restrained enough not to irritate trainees or disturb other session leaders?

 Did I vary the speed, pitch, volume and tone so as to give maximum interest to
whatever I said?

Manner

>Was my manner reasonable, brisk and alert?

> Did I sincerely convey a sense of earnestness and enthusiasm for what I was
instructing?

> Was my manner reasonably pleasant and general without being affectedly so?
Group management

 Did I get off to a clean brisk start, stimulating the group from the beginning?

 Did I stand in such a position that I could be seen and heard by all trainees?

 Did I keep all trainees under my eye and control whenever necessary?

 Did I take steps to see that no trainee disturbed the work of the group or failed to take
adequate part in the session?

 Did I see that at the beginning of the lesson the floor and chalkboards were clean, the
desks in order, the windows open and the class settled and ready?

 Did I have the trainees pulling with or against me?

 Did I refuse to be sidetracked?

Questioning

 Were my questions audible to all trainees?

 Were most questions easy enough for all trainees to be able to attempt an answer?

 Were there some particularly stimulating questions?

 Where the response to a question was unsatisfactory, did I take measures to improve
the response (e.g. reframing the question) rather than waste a good question by
immediately giving an answer?

 Did my questions follow rapidly without hesitation and uncertainty?

 Did I insist on answers being given loudly and clearly?

 Did I refrain from unnecessarily repeating answers?

 Did I distribute questions widely, encouraging weak trainees?

General

 Did I cover the steps of my session adequately?

 Was my recapitulation or other final step unhurried?

 Did I maintain my aim throughout the session?

 Did I keep as far as possible to the plan of my lesson?

 Did my trainees and I enjoy the session?

 What did the trainees gain from this session?

 What have I learned by leading this session?

METHOD EVALUATION/REACTION QUESTIONNAIRE

To assist in the planning of future courses it would be of great value if you would
complete the sections that follow. Please be frank with your responses. Remember, only
your honest reactions will enable adjustments and improvements to be made. The
questions asked may not cover all of the aspects about which you wish to comment. For
that reason a space headed "General comments" has been provided, and it is hoped that
you will use it if appropriate.

Conditions

Were you comfortable?

What improvements, if any, do you suggest for the accommodation of future courses?

Were the seating arrangements satisfactory?

Could you see and hear satisfactorily?

Were the morning and afternoon sessions well balanced?

Presentation

Were all sessions presented in a clear and interesting way?

Were there any sessions that left you confused or uncertain? Please specify.

Do you think trainers could have done more to improve their presentations? If so,
what?

Were the lengths of sessions satisfactory?

Did the aids used help sustain your interest and understanding? Name any particular
aid that impressed you.

TRAINING MODULE

Instructions

You have just completed the training. Now we would like you to tell us about
your feelings on what has just been presented. This information is valuable in helping us
make following training sessions more interesting and useful to you. Below you will find
a number of questions dealing with the just completed training session. Most questions
can be answered by circling a number on the scale to the right of the question. Where a
written response is required, please write your reply clearly in the space provided. Please
consider your responses carefully and answer truthfully. Everything you say will be held
in strictest confidence. The information will be used only to help us make this training
activity more responsive to your needs.
Topic discussed:_____________________

I. Content

1. Relevance of the topic to your job Not relevant Relevant

1 2 3 4 5
2. Clarity of the module's objectives Not clear Very clear
1 2 3 4 5
3. Level of instruction Too basic Too advanced
1 2 3 4 5
4. Lecture coverage Inadequate Very comprehensive
1 2 3 4 5
5. Time allotment Too short Too long
1 2 3 4 5
6. Emphasis on details Too brief Too detailed
1 2 3 4 5
7. Organization and direction Disorganized Well organized
1 2 3 4 5
8. Treatment of the topic Abstract Practical
1 2 3 4 5

9. Additional comments you may have on these or other aspects of the content of
this training module/session

__________________________________
__________________________________
II. Training aids and handouts

1. Effectiveness of training aids Not effective Very effective

1 2 3 4 5
2. Readability of Not readable Very readable
____________________* 1 2 3 4 5
3. Clarity of message of Not clear Very clear
____________________* 1 2 3 4 5
4. Appeal of Not appealing Very appealing
____________________* 1 2 3 4 5
5. Usefulness of Not useful Useful
____________________* 1 2 3 4 5
* Here you would insert the names of instructional aids used: handouts, slides,
videos, overhead transparencies, etc.
6. Additional remarks you may have on these or other aspects of the teaching
methods, aids, and handouts used in the training session

Instructor effectiveness

1. Mastery of the subject Not Knowledgeable

knowledgeable
1 2 3 4 5
2. Ability to transfer/communicate information and Very poor Excellent
knowledge effectively
1 2 3 4 5
3. Ability to arouse and sustain interest Very poor Excellent
1 2 3 4 5
4. Openness to ideas of trainees Not receptive Receptive
1 2 3 4 5
5. Encouragement of trainee participation Did not Encouraged
encourage
1 2 3 4 5
6. Time management Very poor Excellent
1 2 3 4 5
7. Speed in talking Too slow Too fast
1 2 3 4 5
8. Clarity of speech Not clear Clear
 1 2 3 4 5

9. Additional remarks on these or other aspects of the instructor's effectiveness

_________________________
_________________________

IV. General

1. Please state the three most important ideas or concepts that you have learned
from this session

_________________________
_________________________

2. Suggestion(s) to improve the session

_________________________
_________________________

V. Training logistics/administration

1. Quality of the meals Very poor Very good

1 2 3 4 5

2. Quality of accommodation Very poor Very good

1 2 3 4 5
3. Quality of transportation Very poor Very good
1 2 3 4 5
4. Contact with staff members Very poor Very good
1 2 3 4 5
5. Quality of training facilities Very poor Very good
1 2 3 4 5

6. Please use the space below to indicate any suggestions you might have that
will help us to improve the facilities and administration
 DISCUSSION
Survey Brief - 1

METHODS OF TRAINING IN THE WORKPLACE

“IN THIS BUSINESS, YOU ARE WHAT YOU KNOW!

Keeping your skills and abilities up-to-date in today's on-demand environment is a

critical component to your success. IBM now makes it easy for you to enjoy the technical
training you need to maintain that edge!” IBM email, August 2005 Virtually all modern
organizations accept that a well-trained workforce is a critical success factor. American
organizations spend more than $62 billion per year on formal training of their employees.
It is impossible to estimate the full costs of the additional informal training that occurs.
Ability to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) is among the most
important skills that many employees need. Yet there is more speculation than
wellgrounded, factual knowledge about the kinds of training regarding work-related
computing to which most employees are exposed. This report utilizes a recent, empirical
survey of American workers to provide information about this issue.

Training for work-related computing comes in a variety of forms, ranging from formal,
scheduled classroom instruction to spur-of-the-moment sessions with a co-worker to self-
based trial and error efforts. Both organizations and individual workers make choices
regarding the selection of training methods.

In this report we explicate the modes of training being utilized by employees. We also
analyze the linkages between these various training modes and the organizational,
technical and individual characteristics associated with each employee. The main issues
addressed are the factors which influence the types of training methods used within
organizations and the factors which influence choice of training by individual workers.
This report utilizes the results of a survey of 1200 individuals in twelve metropolitan
statistical areas (MSAs) in the United States.1 The survey was conducted by telephone
during the period April to July, 2004. It is a part of the larger Project POINT (People,
Organizations, and Information Technology) conducted by researchers at the Center for
Research on the twelve MSAs selected were chosen to represent the more sophisticated
areas of the U.S. as regards technology use (number of households with computers) and
internet infrastructure (access to broadband).
They are: Portland, ME, Boston, MA, Middlesex-Somerset-Hunterdon, NJ, Washington,
DC-MD-VA, Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, NC, Austin-San Marcos, TX, Des Moines,
IA, Fort Collins-Loveland, CO, Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN, Olympia, WA, San Francisco,
CA, and Orange County, CA. Within each MSA, a total of 100 respondents were
interviewed (using random digit dialing techniques). The overall response rate for the
survey was 42%, with MSAs varying from a low of 32% (Middlesex-Somerset-
Hunterdon, NJ), to a high of 51% (Portland, ME).

Survey Brief - 2

Information Technology and Organizations (CRITO) located at the University of

California, Irvine.

Project POINT focuses on how ICTs, especially the Internet, are transforming
people’s lives in the home and workplace. The goal of Project POINT is to empirically
explore and understand the linkages between information and communication
technologies and behavioral changes in individuals and groups. The sample is more
representative of white-collar workers, that is, workers engaged in non-manual labor and
includes only those who use (desktop or laptop) computers for workrelated purposes at
least 5 hours per week and work for at least thirty hours per week. Nearly two-thirds
(64%) of the sample are engaged in occupations generally classified as managerial or
professional (See Table 1). Only 5% are engaged in occupations classified as production
workers. Fifty-eight percent of the respondents are between 35-55 years of age. A full
38% of the respondents have a college degree and 30% have a graduate degree, while
only 8% have no more than a high school education.

Table 1: Characteristics of the Sample

Gender Age Educational level Occupation classification
[SOC]
Male 48 18-24 years 4 High school or less 8 Management, professional &
related 64

Female 52 25-35 19 Trade/vocational Service occupations 4

school 2
35-44 30 Some college 22 Sales & office occupations20

45-54 28 College graduate 38 Natural resources,

construction and
maintenance 3

55 and over Graduate degree 30 Production, transportation &

19 material moving 2
 Not classified 9

Survey Brief – 3

Types of Training
Training can be characterized on a number of dimensions. Two important dimensions are
the degree to which there is interaction with others during training (which we term
personal versus interpersonal), and the degree of formality of the training. If we create a
taxonomy of training modes based on these two dimensions, we can identify the four
modes of training.

We expect that both the degree of interaction and the degree of formality of workplace
training will be affected differently by characteristics of the organization, the worker’s
sociotechnical environment, and the individual characteristics of the worker. We expect
that both individuals and organizations have preferences for particular types of training
modalities. However, we also expect that many organizations and individuals use several
training methods rather than relying on a single method. In the survey, the respondents
were asked to indicate whether, during the past three years, they had:
1) attended instructor-led classes or workshops for work-related computing;
2) engaged in any training sessions for computing with a supervisor or co-worker; 3)
done any computing training using online computer or software training programs; and/or
4) learned to use computers and software for work through self-training with user
manuals, instruction sheets, or “trial and error.” Table 3 displays the percent of
respondents engaging in each of the four types of training modes:

Table 3. Percent Participating in Training Method In Past Three Years

Attended instructor-led classes or workshops 55

Training sessions for computing by a supervisor or co-workers 58

Used online computer or software training programs 34

Self-trained using manuals and “trial and error”. 83
Survey Brief – 4

More than four-fifths of the respondents have engaged in self-training in the use of
workrelated computing by using manuals, or ‘trial and error,’ while only one-third of the
respondents have used any type of e-learning during the past three years. Relatively equal
percentages of respondents – more than half of all workers -- have been trained in an
instructor-led class or workshop or have been trained by a supervisor or co-worker. It is
perhaps surprising that the less formal methods of training (self-training via trial and
error or peer training) have been utilized by more employees than the formal methods
(instructor-led classes or e-learning), since these latter modes receive the bulk of attention
in discussions of training. In Table 4, the respondents are classified in terms of all the
possible combinations of the four types of training that they might have experienced
during the past three years. Since 83% of the respondents reported using manuals and
trial and error as training methods, we have attempted to create some useful distinctions
among categories. Thus we report the percent of
respondents who used only this method but ignore self-training for establishing the
percentage of workers with the combinations of instructor-led, co-worker/supervisor-
based, and online training reported. The most frequent training method continues to be
self-training with 21% of the respondents reporting this as the only mode of training
received during the past 3 years.
Table 4. Frequency of Multiple Training Methods In Past Three Years

Report no training in past 3 years 5

Self-training using manuals and “trial and error” only 21
Instructor-led classes only 16
Co-worker/supervisor-led classes only 10
On-line computer or software training programs 6
Both instructor-led and co-worker/supervisor led classes 15
Both instructor-led classes and online programs 10
Both co-worker/supervisor-led training and online programs 3
Instructor-led, co-worker/supervisor-led classes and online 14
programs

However, forty-one percent of the employees engage in more than one training method.
Also very noteworthy is the low 6% of the respondents who rely solely on online
computer or software training programs. This is at odds with the reports that many
organizations are currently attempting to transition rapidly to extensive reliance on such
e-training. For nearly all contemporary workers, online computer or software training
programs appear to be augmented with other types of training. Also significant is the fact
that only 5% of the employees report no

Survey Brief - 5

Training on work-related computer use during the past three years. This is more
consistent with the widespread emphasis on the importance of enhancing the computer-
based skills of the workforce. Using the taxonomy about one-third of the respondents
relied solely on formal methods (32%) of training in the past 3 years, another one-third
(31%) utilized only informal methods, and another one-third employed both formal and
informal methods. “Interpersonal” training with an instructor, co-worker, or supervisor is
the training mode for 41% of the respondents, while 27% engage primarily in solitary
(“personal”) modes, and another 27% engage in both interpersonal and personal modes of
training.

Empirically, for purposes of further analysis, we identify four major training methods in
use by our sample:
1. Interpersonal instruction method either within a classroom with instructor or in the
work unit with supervisor-co-worker (41%),

2. Interpersonal instruction supplemented with e-learning/software training modules

(27%),

3. Self-training methods, with reliance on trial and error or training manuals (27%)

4. No training (5%).

In the remainder of this report we will look at the associations of these four patterns of
training with selected organizational, sociotechnical, and individual characteristics.
Survey Brief – 6

Size of organization:

The size of an organization is an important feature because in some respects it is

indicative of a number of factors. Such issues as complexity as well as availability of
resources are coupled closely with the size of an organization. Organization size is
associated with modes of training and particularly the use of on-line training modules
(Table 5 and Figure 1). A significantly larger proportion of employees in large
organizations have used on- line computer training in the past three years than in either
small or medium-sized organizations. Additionally, a significantly higher proportion of
respondents in small organizations rely on selfhelp only, in comparison to the proportion
in large organizations.

Table 5. Organization Size with Modes of Training

Size of Small(0-49 Medium Large (250+ Total

Organization emps.)(n=321) (50-249 emps.)(n=513) (n=989)
emps.)
(n=155)

No training in 6.2 7.1 5.5 6.0

past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 34.9 44.5 40.2 39.1
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 22.1 28.4 39.4 32.1
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 36.8 20.0 15.0 22.9
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.000
Survey Brief – 7

Skill development:

Since formal methods of training tend to be a higher investment than informal methods,
we expect that those organizations that are high on fostering skill development among
their employees will likely have more instructor-led courses and e-learning opportunities.
Indeed we do find a significant difference . In those organizations reported to emphasize
skill development, there is a higher proportion of employees participating in organized
training sessions either within a classroom setting or with co-workers or supervisors. In
addition there is a higher proportion (35%) who also have used online computer or
software training modules. Where organizations are reported as low on fostering
employee development of skills, a significantly higher proportion of the respondents
report engaging in only self-training, that is, using manuals and trial and error.
Employees in organizations promoting skill development are only about one-half as
likely to have no training or to rely only on self-training as those in organizations that do
not encourage skill evelopment.

Table 6. Organization Encourages Skill Development with Modes of Training

Degree of Low(n=103) Medium High(n=897) Total

organization (n=186) (n=1186)
Encourages Skill
Development

No training in past 10.7 6.5 4.6 5.4

3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 35.9 36.0 42.0 40.6
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 22.3 34.9 34.7 33.6
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 31.1 22.6 18.7 20.4
(manuals, trial and
error) (%)
X2(p)=.002
Survey Brief – 8

Paperless organizations:

With the advent of cheaper and more powerful computer equipment coupled with
increased emphasis on networking within organizations, many organizations are moving
towards the digitization of all documents and becoming a ‘paperless organization.’
Organizations vary on the extent to which they have achieved this goal. We expect that in
more paperless organizations, the greater use of on-line training materials also would
occur. In Table 7/Figure 3 is the relationship between training method and the degree to
which an organization has been able to achieve a paperless environment. In organizations
which score low on this measure, only 28% of the workers have accessed on-line
computing training, while in high paperless environments a full 40% have used this type
of training in the past three years. It appears that the drive towards a paperless
environment encompasses not only the operational materials of an organization, but also
spills over into a greater incidence of e-learning as well.

Table 7. “Paperless Organization” with Modes of Training.

Degree low(n=354) Medium High (n=490) Total
Organization (n=344) (n=1188)
Is Paperlessa
No training in 5.4 6.1 4.5 5.2
past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 42.1 43.3 37.1 40.4
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 27.7 30.5 40.2 33.7
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 24.9 20.1 18.2 20.7
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.004
aIn my company, all forms, reports and information are handled electronically rather than
on paper.
Survey Brief – 9

Leading edge organizations:

Another measure of technological sophistication is the degree to which an organization

attempts to be on the ‘leading edge’ in computer hardware and software. Intuitively, we
would expect that the more an organization attempts to be leading edge the more likely
that part of its collection of training methods will be online computer training and
software modules. Figure 4 displays the relationship between this indicator of
technological sophistication and method of training (see also Table 8). The association
between these two measures is interesting. There is little difference in the participation
level of workers in instructor/co-worker/supervisor-based training sessions based on the
degree to which the organization tries to be leading edge. Nonetheless, there is a steady
progression in the greater use of on-line computer training and software from
organizations that are low on an emphasis on the use of leading edge technology to those
that are high (24% versus 39%). Conversely, selftraining
is substantially lower as the organization is more leading edge in its applications of ICTs.

Table 8. Degree Organization is Leading Edge in Computing with Modes of

Training.
Degree low(n=348) Medium High (n=514) Total
Organization (n=325) (n=1187)
Is leading Edgea
No training in 6.9 4.0 4.9 5.2
past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 41.1 39.7 40.1 40.3
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 23.6 36.0 39.1 33.7
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 28.4 20.3 16.0 20.8
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.000
aMy company always attempts to be on the leading edge in computer hardware and
software.
Survey Brief – 10

Dependency on computing:

Organizations can be characterized in terms of the degree to which the organization is

dependent on computing for doing business. Whether a organization is more or less
dependent on computing to complete its business is not statistically associated with the
type of training modalities provided to its employees . However, there are visible, if
slight, tendencies for greater computing dependency to be related to a higher incidence of
on-line training and lower levels of interpersonal training.

Table 9. Degree Organization is Dependent on Computing with Modes of Training.

Degree low(n=436) Medium High (n=505) Total

Organization (n=220) (n=1188)
Dependent on
Computinga
No training in 6.0 5.0 4.8 5.3
past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 42.3 40.0 38.8 40.4
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 30.0 34.1 36.6 33.6
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 21.6 20.9 19.8 20.7
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.530
aWhen the computers are down, my company cannot do its business at all.
Survey Brief – 11

Reliability of computing hardware environment:

It might be predicted that if an organization’s computing environment is not very reliable,

the focus will be on stabilizing basic computing operations rather than on training of any
kind. This would result in a reliance on selftraining or very low overall levels of training.
Our data do not reveal a systematic, statistically significant pattern between reliability
and modes of training. However, there are some notable differences in the data. As
expected, no training is almost twice as likely for employees in low reliability
environments, as is on-line training. Interpersonal training tends to be more common on
these low reliability settings .

Table 10. Reliability of Organization’s Computing Environment with Modes of

Training.

Degree low(n=89) Medium High (n=906) Total

Organization’s (n=196) (n=1191)
Hardware
Environment is
Reliable
No training in 9.0 4.6 5.1 5.3
past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 47.2 40.8 39.6 40.4
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 19.1 32.7 35.1 33.5
training also used
(%)
Self-help only 24.7 21.9 20.2 20.8
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.092
aI can count on the computer systems I use to be “up” and available when I need them.
Survey Brief -12

Provision of computing services:

How computing services are organized in a organization can have major effects on the
modes of training provided to employees. For the workers studied here the highest
proportions of workers having had instructor-based training over the past three years are
in the more centralized service provider environments, with slightly less workers in the
more decentralized departmental service provision situations and even less so when
computer services have been outsourced (Table 21 and Figure 17). In contrast, a
significantly higher proportion of the workers who are engaged in self-help training
methods or have had no training at all in the past three years are in organizations where
computing services are provided by a third-party.

Table 11. Computing Service Provision with Modes of Training.

Provision of Information Information Outside Total

computing systems dept. systems provider(n=217) (n=1010)
services (n=563) specialists in
work
unit(n=230)

No training in 3.6 5.7 7.4 4.9

past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 43.3 41.3 38.2 41.8
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 38.4 35.2 30.0 35.8
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 14.7 17.8 24.4 17.5
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.008

Survey Brief -13

Centrality of computer use:

The more central computing is to the worker’s job, the more likely online training will
be used. There is once again a striking progression in the proportion of the respondents
who utilize online training methods as we move from low use to high use of computing
during working hours . In contrast, self help training actually declines as the level of
computer-related work increases.

Table 12. Centrality of Computing with Modes of Training.

Percent use Less than 50-75% of Over 75% of Total

computer for half of work work(n=340) work time (n=1149)
work time(n=398) (n=411)

No training in 5.8 4.1 4.9 5.0

past 3 years(%)
Instructor/Co- 42.2 44.1 36.7 40.8
worker/Supervisor
based training (%)
On-line computer 29.6 32.6 40.1 34.3
training also used
(%)
Self-training only 22.4 19.1 18.2 19.9
(manuals, trial
and error) (%)
X2(p)=.051

Summary and Conclusions

 The primary determinants of type of training methods available to respondents are
more related to characteristics of the organization than to individual characteristics of the
worker. Organizational context does make a difference in the type of training methods
provided to employees. Larger organizations tend to provide more formal modes of
training than smaller organizations where employees are more likely to engage in self-
training. We also find that those organizations which emphasize skill development
provide more varied training opportunities than those organizations which do not. In
addition, those organizations which are focused on being leading-edge are significantly
more likely to offer on-line training than the more conventional-thinking organizations.
On-line training is also more likely in organizations where there is a higher degree of
instability in the software environment. Individual characteristics such as age, educational
level, number of years working in the current position are not associated with different
modes of training. While gender is shown to be associated, once we control for type of
job, it is no longer statistically significant, except for the professional & related category.
In the main, then, individual characteristics are not a good predictor of type of training
method selected.
The stronger relationship with organizational characteristics rather than worker
characteristics makes sense in that it is the organization which chooses the methods to be
used in training its employees. While the individual worker may be able to decide
whether or not to participate in the training, the actual choice of method is not available.
We are not able to test this proposition directly since the current survey does not collect
information about all the training methods available to the employee, but rather only the
training methods in which the employee has participated in the past three years.
Nevertheless, we do find associations which point towards training method choices
aligned with organization strategy or characteristics. Further research is needed to
determine how successful these training methods are in creating value for the
organization and specifically whether the design of training methods should take into
account more directly individual worker characteristics.