1.

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

1.1 AUTOMATION
Automation is basically the delegation of human control functions to technical equipment aimed
towards achieving:
Higher productivity
Superior quality of end product
Efficient usage of energy and raw materials
Improved safety in working conditions etc.

1.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION

Building automation
Example: lifts, smoke detectors
Office automation
Example: printers, cctv cameras
Scientific automation
Example: rocket launching
Light automation
Example: street solar lighting
Industrial automation
Example: automated bottle filling stations, steel factories

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1.3 TOOLS OF AUTOMATION

Programmable logic controller (PLC)

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
Human Machine Interface (HMI) or Touch Screen (TS)
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

1.4 HISTORY OF AUTOMATION

Manual control
Pneumatic control
Hard wired logic control
Electronic control using logic gates
Programmable logic controller

MANUAL CONTROL:

All the actions related to process control are taken by the operators

Drawbacks:

Likely human errors and consequently its effect on quality of final product

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The production, safety, energy consumption and usage of raw material are all subject to the
correctness and accuracy of human action.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL:

Industrial automation with its machine and process control, had its origin in the 1920s with
the advent of Pneumatic Controllers
Actions were controlled by a simple manipulation of pneumatic valves, which in turn
were
controlled by relays and switches.

Drawbacks:

Bulky and complex system

Involves lot of rework to implement control logic
Longer project time

HARD WIRED LOGIC CONTROL:

The contactor and relays together with hardware timer and counters were used in achieving
the desired level of automation

Drawbacks:

Bulky panels
Complex wiring
Longer project time
Difficult maintenance and troubleshooting

ELECTRONIC CONTROL USING LOGIC GATES:

In 1960s with the advent of electronics, the logic gates started replacing the relays and
auxiliary contactors in the control circuits
The hardware timers& counters were replaced by electronic timers

Advantages:

Reduced space requirement

Energy saving
Less maintenance & greater reliability

Drawbacks:

Change in control logic not possible

More project time

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Programmable Logic Controller :

In 1970s with the coming of microprocessors and associated peripheral chips, the whole
process of control and automation underwent a radical change
Instead of achieving the desired control or automation through physical wiring of control
devices, in PLC it is achieved through a program or say software
The programmable controllers have in recent years experienced an unprecedented growth as
universal element in industrial automation.
It can be effectively used in applications ranging from simple control like replacing small
number of relays to complex automation problems

AUTOMATION TOOLS
ANN Artificial Neural Network
DCS Distributed Control System
HMI Human Machine Interface
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
Instrumentation
Motion Control
Robotics

1.5 IMPACT OF AUTOMATION

Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of highly visible industries beyond
manufacturing.
Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced largely by automated telephone
switchboards and answering machines
Medical processes such as primary screening in electrocardiography or radiography and
laboratory analysis of human genes, cells, and tissues are carried out at much greater speed
and accuracy by automated systems.
In general, automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy from agrarian
in the 19th century and from industrial to services in the 20th century

1.6 Industrial Automation vs. Industrial Information Technology:

However, Industrial Automation is distinct from IT in the following senses A. Industrial
Automation also involves significant amount of hardware technologies, related to Instrumentation
and Sensing, Actuation and Drives, Electronics for Signal Conditioning, Communication and Display,
Embedded as well as Stand-alone Computing Systems etc. B. As Industrial Automation systems grow
more sophisticated in terms of the knowledge and algorithms they use, as they encompass larger areas
of operation comprising several units or the whole of a factory, or even several of them, and as they

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integrate manufacturing with other areas of business, such as, sales and customer care, finance and
the entire supply chain of the business, the usage of IT increases dramatically. However, the lower
level Automation Systems that only deal with individual or , at best, a group of machines, make less
use of IT and more of hardware, electronics and embedded computing
Types of Automation Systems Automation systems can be categorized based on the flexibility
and level of integration in manufacturing process operations. Various automation systems can be
classified as follows
Fixed Automation: It is used in high volume production with dedicated equipment, which has a fixed
set of operation and designed to be efficient for this set. Continuous flow and Discrete Mass
Production systems use this automation. e.g. Distillation Process, Conveyors, Paint Shops, Transfer
lines etc. A process using mechanized machinery to perform fixed and repetitive operations in order
to produce a high volume of similar parts.
Programmable Automation: It is used for a changeable sequence of operation and configuration of the
machines using electronic controls. However, non-trivial programming effort may be needed to
reprogram the machine or sequence of operations. Investment on programmable equipment is less, as
production process is not changed frequently. It is typically used in Batch process where job variety is
low and product volume is medium to high, and sometimes in mass production also. e.g. in Steel
Rolling Mills, Paper Mills etc.
Flexible Automation: It is used in Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) which is invariably
computer controlled. Human operators give high-level commands in the form of codes entered into
computer identifying product and its location in the sequence and the lower level changes are done
automatically. Each production machine receives settings/instructions from computer. This
automatically loads/unloads required tools and carries out their processing instructions. After
processing, products are automatically transferred to next machine. It is typically used in job shops
and batch processes where Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur 11 product varieties are high and job
volumes are medium to low. Such systems typically use Multipurpose CNC machines, Automated
Guided Vehicles (AGV) etc.
Integrated Automation: It denotes complete automation of a manufacturing plant, with all processes
functioning under computer control and under coordination through digital information processing. It
includes technologies such as computer-aided design and manufacturing, computer-aided process
planning, computer numerical control machine tools, flexible machining systems, automated storage
and retrieval systems, automated material handling systems such as robots and automated cranes and
conveyors, computerized scheduling and production control. It may also integrate a business system
through a common database. In other words, it symbolizes full integration of process and
management operations using information and communication technologies. Typical examples of
such technologies are seen in Advanced Process Automation Systems and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM)

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1.7 ADVANTAGES:

Accurate and consistent information

Faster fault identification
Improved availability of system
Increased production
Reduced cost
Maintenance of quality and quantity
Improved safety conditions

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PLC Programmable Logic Controller

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PLC
"A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal
storage of instructions by implementing specific functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting,
and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog input/output modules, various types of machines
or processes. The digital computer which is used to perform the functions of a programmable
controller is considered to be within this scope. Excluded are drum and other similar mechanical
sequencing controllers."
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special purpose computer aimed at implementing
control solutions.
Historically PLCs have been used mainly for on-off or logic type applications.
However, modern PLCs have become increasingly sophisticated and can now cover quite complex
control tasks

2.2 HISTORY OF PLC

When the first electronic machine controls were designed, they used relays to control the
machine logic (i.e. press "Start" to start the machine and press "Stop" to stop the machine). A
basic machine might need a wall covered in relays to control all of its functions. There are a
few limitations to this type of control.
Relays fail.
The delay when the relay turns on/off.
There is an entire wall of relays to design/wire/troubleshoot.
A PLC overcomes these limitations; it is a machine controlled operation.
Recent developments
PLCs are becoming more and more intelligent. In recent years PLCs have been integrated into
electrical communications (Computer network)i.e., all the PLCs in an industrial environment
have been plugged into a network which is usually hierarchically organized. The PLCs are
then supervised by a control centre. There exist many proprietary types of networks. One type
which is widely known is SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).

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2.3 PLC ARCHITECTURE

This Systems and processes requiring "on/off" control abound in modern commerce and industry, but
such control systems are rarely built from either electromechanical relays or discreet logic gates.
Instead, digital computers fill the need, which may be programmed to do a variety of logical
functions. The purpose of a PLC was to directly replace electromechanical relays as logic elements,
substituting instead a solid-state digital computer with a stored program, able to emulate the
interconnection of many relays to perform certain logical tasks.

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2.4 PLC COMPONENTS

A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC or Programmable Controller is a digital computer used for
automation of electromechanical processes. The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is basically a
computer. Even the smallest PLC has a microprocessor, which qualifies it as a computer

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PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is
designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to
electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. A PLC has many "input" terminals, through
which it interprets "high" and "low" logical states from sensors and switches. It also has many output
terminals, through which it outputs "high" and "low" signals to power lights, solenoids, contactors,
small motors, and other devices lending themselves to on/off control. In an effort to make PLCs easy
to program, their programming language was designed to resemble ladder logic diagrams. Thus, an
industrial electrician or electrical engineer accustomed to reading ladder logic schematics would feel
comfortable programming a PLC to perform the same control functions.

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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO SCADA

SCADA Overview SCADA is an acronym for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a plant or equipment in industries such as
telecommunications, water and waste control, energy, oil and gas refining and transportation. These
systems encompass the transfer of data between a SCADA central host computer and a number of
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and/or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), and the central host
and the operator terminals. A SCADA system gathers information (such as where a leak on a pipeline
has occurred), transfers the information back to a central site, then alerts the home station that a leak
has occurred, carrying out necessary analysis and control, such as determining if the leak is critical,
and displaying the information in a logical and organized fashion. These systems can be relatively
simple, such as one that monitors environmental conditions of a small office building, or very
complex, such as a system that monitors all the activity in a nuclear power plant or the activity of a
municipal water system. Traditionally, SCADA systems have made use of the Public Switched
Network (PSN) for monitoring purposes. Today many systems are monitored using the infrastructure
of the corporate Local Area Network (LAN)/Wide Area Network (WAN). Wireless technologies are
now being widely deployed for purposes of monitoring.

SCADA processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:

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Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power generation, fabrication, and
refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution,
wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and
distribution, wind farms, civil defense siren systems, and large communication systems.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including buildings, airports,
ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems
(HVAC), access, and energy consumption.
SCADA systems consist of:
One or more field data interface devices, usually RTUs, or PLCs, which interface to field sensing
devices and local control switchboxes and valve actuators
A communications system used to transfer data between field data interface devices and control
units and the computers in the SCADA central host. The system can be radio, telephone, cable,
satellite, etc., or any combination of these.
A central host computer server or servers (sometimes called a SCADA Center, master station, or
Master Terminal Unit (MTU)
A collection of standard and/or custom software [sometimes called Human Machine Interface (HMI)
software or Man Machine Interface (MMI) software] systems used to provide the SCADA central
host and operator terminal application, support the communications system, and monitor and control
remotely located field data interface devices

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3.2 SCADA SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS

SCADA is a means of controlling from remote location by using communication technology. It is
used to collect data and control processes at the supervisory level. The SCADA monitored system
could be just about an oil refinery plant, a power generation system, a communication network or
even a simple switch. To monitor and control the automation system, the SCADA collects data from
the system and issue commands accordingly. By using sensors (discrete or analog) and control relays,
the SCADA collects information about processes and control individual equipment. The system is
supervised by a SCADA master station which collects data from monitoring devices and issues
controls accordingly (either automatically or at the request of human operators) . The SCADA system
comprises of,
1. Sensors (either digital or analog): Sensors control relays that directly interface with the managed
system.
2. Remote telemetry units (RTU): These are small computerized units deployed in the field at specific
sites and locations. It serves as local collection points for gathering information from sensors and
delivering commands to control relays.
3. Communications network: It connects the SCADA master station to the RTU.
4. SCADA master units: These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central processor for
the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system and automatically regulate
the managed system in response to sensor inputs.

3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF RELAYS

Relays used only for on/off control.
Complicated control systems
Expensive System.
System takes up much floor and space.
Control relays are power- hungry, heat generation.
Any change in control program requires the rewiring of relays.
For complicated control systems, it is difficult to troubleshoot and locate the faults.

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF SCADA SYSTEM

Easily programmed or reprogrammed

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13

Easy maintained (self diagnostic).

Capability to do arithmetic function.

The ability to communicate with other controller or a master host computer.

PLCs. were able to move past simple on/off control to more complex schemes as PID control.

3.5 Benefits of Implementing SCADA systems for Electrical Distribution:

Increases reliability through automation
Eliminates the need for manual data collection
Alarms and system-wide monitoring enable operators to quickly spot and address problems
Automation protects workers by enabling problem areas to be detected and addressed automatically
Operators can use powerful trending capabilities to detect future problems, provide better routine
maintenance of equipment and spot areas for improvement
Historians provides the ability to view data in various ways to improve efficiency

A SCADA system performs four functions:

1. Data acquisition
2. Networked data communication
3. Data presentation
4. Control
These functions are performed by four kinds of SCADA components:
1. Sensors (either digital or analogue) and control relays that directly interface with the managed
system.
2. Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the field at
specific sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering reports from
sensors and delivering commands to control relays.
3. SCADA master units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central processor
for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the system and
automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs.
4. The communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the field.

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Data Acquisition

SCADA system needs to monitor hundreds or thousands of sensors.

Sensors measure:
1. Inputs and outputs e.g. water flowing into a reservoir (input), valve pressure as water is
released from the reservoir (output).
2. Discrete inputs (or digital input) e.g. whether equipment is on or off, or tripwire alarms, like a
power failure at a critical facility.
3. Analogue inputs: where exact measurement is important e.g. to detect continuous changes in a
voltage or current input, to track fluid levels in tanks, voltage levels in batteries, temperature
and other factors that can be measured in a continuous range of input.

For most analogue factors, there is a normal range defined by a bottom and top level e.g.
temperature in a server room between 15 and 25 degrees Centigrade. If the temperature goes
outside this range, it will trigger a threshold alarm.

In more advanced systems, there are four threshold alarms for analogue sensors, defining
Major Under, Minor Under, Minor Over and Major Over alarms.

3.6 ELEMENTS OF SCADA:

Sensor and actuators

RTUs and PLCs
Communication
MTU
Front end processor
SCADA server
Historical/redundant/safety server
HMI computer
HMI software

SENSORS
Types of sensors:

Pressure sensors
Temperature sensors
Light sensors
Humidity sensors
Wind speed sensors
Water level sensors
Distance sensors

ACTUATORS

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 Valve
Pumps
Motors
RTUs (Remote Terminal Unit)

Intelligent to control a process and multiple processe

Data logging and alarm handling
Expandable
Asks the field devices for information
Can control IEDs (intelligent electronic device)
Slave/master device

SCADA SERVER

It can be a web server

Data logging
Analyzing data
Serve the clients through a firewall
Clients connected in the corporation or connected outside through internet
Real-time decision maker
Asks RTU for information

First generation:
"Monolithic Early SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common
network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were
independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used
were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was
achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and
was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system. Some first generation SCADA
systems were developed as "turn key" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11
series made by the Digital Equipment Corporation
Second generation:
"DistributedSCADA information and command processing was distributed across multiple
stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each
station was responsible for a particular task thus making the size and cost of each station less than
the one used in First Generation. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since
the protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine
how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually
overlooked.
Third generation:

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"Networked Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to

simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked
design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network and separated
geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single
supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost
effective solution in very large scale systems.
Fourth generation:
"Internet of Things With the commercial availability of cloud computing, SCADA systems
have increasingly adopted Internet of Things technology to significantly reduce infrastructure
costs and increase ease of maintenance and integration. As a result SCADA systems can now
report state in near real-time and use the horizontal scale available in cloud environments to
implement more complex control algorithms than are practically feasible to implement on
traditional programmable logic controllers. Further, the use of open network protocols such as
TLS inherent in Internet of Things technology provides a more readily comprehendible and
manageable security boundary than the heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols
typical of many decentralized SCADA implementations.

3.7 BENEFITS OF PLC-SCADA

PLC and SCADA are the success behind the automation industry. PLC is designed in such
a way that it can be used to control multiple inputs and outputs and it can be handled in
extreme temperature changes. Without these two automation concepts the automation
industry fails. So there is a huge demand for skilled manpower in PLC and SCADA in
automation industry. We cannot even think of surviving without this technology even for a
day. If the system fails then there would be losses of cores of rupees. After the application
of PLC and SCADA technology in Industrial automation process.
It is creating a lot of employment opportunities
There is a huge demand for skilled manpower in this sector
Reduces time
Reduces Cost
Profit maximization
Economies of scale Improved Productivity
Quality output
Increased Accuracy and speed

HMI Human Machine Interface

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO HMI
To work with a system, users have to be able to control and assess the state of the system. For
example, when driving an automobile, the driver uses the steering wheel to control the direction
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of the vehicle, and the accelerator pedal, brake pedal and gearstick to control the speed of the
vehicle. The driver perceives the position of the vehicle by looking through the windshield and
exact speed of the vehicle by reading the speedometer. The user interface of the automobile is on
the whole composed of the instruments the driver can use to accomplish the tasks of driving and
maintaining the automobile.
There is a distinct difference between User Interface versus Operator Interface or Human
Machine Interface (HMI).

The term user interface is often used in the context of (personal) computer systems and
electronic devices
Where a network of equipment or computers is interlinked through an MES
(Manufacturing Execution System)-or Host.
An HMI is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, and is the interface
method between the human and the equipment/machine. An Operator interface is the
interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is
accessed or controlled.
The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users. For
example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for
library patrons (limited set of functions, optimized for ease of use) and the other for
library personnel (wide set of functions, optimized for efficiency).The user interface of a
mechanical system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the
human- machine interface (HMI). HMI is a modification of the original term MMI (manmachine interface). In practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although
some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is
HCI, but is more commonly used for than human-computer interface. Other terms used are
operator interface console (OIC) and operator interface terminal (OIT). However it is
abbreviated, the terms refer to the 'layer' that separates a human that is operating a
machine from the machine itself. In science fiction, HMI is sometimes used to refer to
what is better described as direct neural interface. However, this latter usage is seeing
increasing application in the real-life use of (medical) prosthesesthe artificial extension
that replaces a missing body part (e.g., cochlear implants). In some circumstance
computers might observe the user, and react according to their actions without specific
commands. A means of tracking parts of the body is required, and sensors noting the
position of the head, direction of gaze and so on have been used experimentally. This is
particularly relevant to immersive interfaces.

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A basic goal of HMI is to improve the interactions between users and machines (computers) by
making computers more usable and receptive to the user's needs. Specifically, HMI is concerned
with: methodologies and processes for designing interfaces (i.e., given a task and a class of users,
design the best possible interface within given constraints, optimizing for a desired property such
as learning ability or efficiency of use) methods for implementing interfaces (e.g. software
toolkits and libraries; efficient algorithms) techniques for evaluating and comparing interfaces
developing new interfaces and interaction techniques developing descriptive and predictive
models and theories of interaction A long term goal of HMI is to design systems that minimize the
barrier between the human's cognitive model of what they want to accomplish and the computer's
understanding of the user's task. Professional practitioners in HMI are usually designers
concerned with the practical application of design methodologies to real-world problems. Their
work often revolves around designing graphical user interfaces and web interfaces. Researchers in
HMI are interested in developing new design methodologies, experimenting with new hardware
devices, prototyping new software systems, exploring new paradigms for interaction, and
developing models and theories of interaction.

4.2 ADVANTAGES OF HMI

High quality graphics for realistic representations of machinery and processes
This will give the operator and the management a very realistic view of the plant. The operator
can control plant without in one central location, this could be very useful when there is a security
concerns. The operator does not need to be close to the equipment to control of monitor.
Alarms (Real Time / Historical)

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Viewing alarms will help the operator to locate and react faster to any malfunction of any
anomalies. Some of the alarms could be of preventive type, for example to create a warning alarm
on a hydraulic tank oil level before the oil level really reaches a critical point.
Historical Alarm logging is very useful to track problems. It could be used to optimize process.
Which in turn would increase productivity and reduce lost time?
Trends (Real Time / Historical)
Trends are very useful with PID's. You can view the curve used to reach a certain set point. Study
of certain values will result in optimizing your process, and it will certainly make if much more
efficient.
Recipe Manager
Simple and complex recipe could be controlled with HMI. This is very useful and very effective
way to execute recipes.
Simulation
Some of the high quality HMI's will be so flexible that you can simulate a plant in your office.
This will help PLC program developers test their program without having a single equipment or
devices. This kind of simulation is used more and more to reduce startup time.
Messaging
This is a very interesting functionality. You can message, page or fax someone when a certain
event happens. For example lets say the oil level in the hydraulic tank has reaching a low level.
Then low oil level will be triggered and it will page the person in charge to fill up the tank.
Animate equipments and instrument based on operator standards.
They say one picture is better than 100 words. Now this is not only a picture it is an animated one.
This will really improve the whole view of the process. Any anomalies will be detected much
easier.
Reduce the cost of hardware.
An HMI can replace hundreds of Push buttons, selectors, Lights and so on. As a result less
consoles and panels and definitely less cables all over the plant.
Communication
Today most HMI's can communicate with many different brands of PLC's. Here is a list of most
used communications.

DCS Distributed Control System

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5.1 INTRODUCTION TO DCS

A distributed control system (DCS) is a control system for a process or plant, wherein control elements are

distributed throughout the system. This is in contrast to non-distributed systems, which use a
single controller at a central location. In a DCS, a hierarchy of controllers is connected by
communications networks for command and monitoring.
Example scenarios where a DCS might be used include:

Chemical plants

Petrochemical (oil) and refineries

Pulp and Paper Mills

Boiler controls and power plant systems

Nuclear power plants

Environmental control systems

Water management systems

Metallurgical process plants

Pharmaceutical manufacturing

Sugar refining plants

Dry cargo and bulk oil carrier ships

Formation control of multi-agent systems

A DCS typically uses custom designed processors as controllers and uses both proprietary
interconnections and standard communications protocol for communication. Input and output
modules form component parts of the DCS. The processor receives information from input
modules and sends information to output modules. The input modules receive information from
input instruments in the process (or field) and the output modules transmit instructions to the
output instruments in the field. The inputs and outputs can be either analog which are
continuously changing or discrete signals which are 2 state either on or off. Computer buses or
electrical buses connect the processor and modules through multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses
also connect the distributed controllers with the central controller and finally to the Human
machine interface (HMI) or control consoles.

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5.2 DEVELOPMENTS IN DCS

The latest developments in DCS include the following new technologies:
1.

Wireless systems and protocols

2.

Remote transmission, logging and data historian

3.

Mobile interfaces and controls

4.

Embedded web-servers
Increasingly, and ironically, DCS are becoming centralized at plant level, with the ability to log in
to remote equipment. This enables the provision of a superior human-machine interface (HMI)
especially from the point of view of remote access and portability.
As wireless protocols are developed and refined, DCS increasingly includes wireless
communication. DCS controllers are now often equipped with embedded servers and provide onthe-go web access.
Many vendors provide the option of a mobile HMI, ready for both Android and iOS. With these
interfaces, the threat of security breaches and possible damage to plant and process are now very
real.

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) (also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable-speed

drive, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) is a type of adjustable-speed drive used in electromechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor
input frequency and voltage.

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VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the largest of mine mill drives and
compressors. However, around 25% of the world's electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in
industrial applications, which are especially conducive for energy savings using VFDs in centrifugal
load service, and VFDs' global market penetration for all applications is still relatively small. That
lack of penetration highlights significant energy efficiency improvement opportunities for retrofitted
and new VFD installations.
Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has
improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies,
simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.
VFDs are available in a number of different low- and medium-voltage AC-AC and DC-AC
topologies

A variable-frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main
sub-systems: AC motor, main drive controller assembly, and drive/operator interface.
AC Motor
The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types
of single-phase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types
of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but three-phase induction motors are

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suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical motor choice. Motors that are
designed for fixed-speed operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on induction
motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for definite-purpose inverterfed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG-1.
Controller
The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct
sub-systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct current (DC) link, and an inverter. Voltagesource inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below) are by far the most common
type of drives. Most drives are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter
output. However, in some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications, drives are
configured as DC-AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a
three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI drive, the DC link consists of
a capacitor which smoothes out the converter's DC output ripple and provides a stiff input to the
inverter. This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC voltage output using the
inverter's active switching elements. VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic
distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and load-commutated inverter (LCI)
drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below). The drive controller can also be configured as
a phase converter having single-phase converter input and three-phase inverter output.

Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and
switching frequency of solid-state power devices over the past six decades. Introduced in
1983, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has in the past two decades come to dominate
VFDs as an inverter switching device.
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC motor
characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output to the motor be adjusted to
match the required load torque in a linear V/Hz relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors,

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this linear V/Hz relationship is 460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging applications,
V/Hz control is sub-optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed or demanding,
dynamic speed regulation, positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some V/Hz control drives
can also operate in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz
paths.
The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque control (DTC), adjust the
motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and frequency so as to precisely control the motor's
magnetic flux and mechanical torque.
Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming increasingly popular,
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives' motor voltage (or
current) and frequency. With SPWM control, quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is
constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed carrier signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal
which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage (or current).
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to
conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes
called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz and above
rated nameplate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field-weakening
speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound-rotor synchronous motors and induction
motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 HP, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4-pole)
induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at
125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds, the induction motor torque has to be
limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor. Thus, rated power can be
typically produced only up to 130-150% of the rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous
motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives, often 200-300% of the base speed is
used. The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor.
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller.
Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user-inaccessible firmware. User
programming of display, variable, and function block parameters is provided to control, protect, and
monitor the VFD, motor, and driven equipment.
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power components
and accessories as follows:

Connected upstream of converter -- circuit breaker or fuses, isolation contactor, EMC filter,
line reactor, passive filter
Connected to DC link -- braking chopper, braking resistor

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BIBILOGRAPHY

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[3] A. R. Al-Ali, M. M. Negm, and M. Kassas, A PLC based Power factor controller for a
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process using dynamic model control technology, in Proc. IEEE Ind. Applicat. Soc.
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Automation and Control, 1995,pp. 395400.

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