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This study examines the qualitative and quantitative properties of water-based suspensions and the effect on
the occurrence and threshold levels of ultrasonic phenomena, standing wave, acoustic streaming and especially
cavitation. Commercial pressed (hydrated) and lyophilised (dehydrated) bakers yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae), and a dolomite suspension that has the same average particle size as that of the yeast were used.
The experiments were conducted in the specially designed and constructed ultrasonic treating vessel under
conditions of 1117 MHz frequency and 30120 kW m2 ultrasound output power. The levels of particle
concentration, expressed in g l1, in the ultrasound eld that were needed to terminate cavitation (that is the
cavitation threshold concentration), and the length of time that passed from the start of the experiment until
the restart of cavitation, which is the time period required for the formation of cavitation, were examined. The
experiments aimed at determining the time period required for the formation of cavitation was carried out at
concentration levels that were 15 times higher than the cavitation threshold concentrations. The acoustic
phenomena taking place in the ultrasound eld, and through these, the effects of ultrasound can be
characterised by these two measures. Under the conditions of an output power of 90 kW m2, it was found
that a concentration of 32 g l1 lyophilised Saccharomyces cerevisiae bakers yeast stopped cavitation in the
ultrasound eld. Then, by using multiples of the aforementioned concentration, the acoustic phenomena
occurring in the ultrasound eld were monitored and, simultaneously, the survival dynamics of the yeast cells
were examined. Physical parameters of the ultrasound eld had an essential effect on the acoustic phenomena
formed in the sound eld and on the threshold levels of their formation.
r 2004 Silsoe Research Institute. All rights reserved
Published by Elsevier Ltd
1. Introduction
1.1. Ultrasound physics
Cavitation means formation of cavities in the liquid; it
is of two types: transient and stable cavitation (Frizzel,
1988). There is no acoustical cavitation in the ultrasound eld until the amplitude of the acoustic pressure
exceeds a certain level, the cavitation threshold (Fry,
1978). The cavitation threshold is proportional to the
frequency of ultrasound, the hydrostatic pressure in the
liquid, and the viscosity of the sample and it is inversely
proportional to the gas content and temperature of the
sample (ter Haar, 1988). Due to the absorption, the
intensity of ultrasound decreases exponentially with
distance and the absorption coefcient primarily de1537-5110/$30.00
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Notation
C
Ca
Cb
D
k
N
NC
NS
n0
nt
p
t
t0
tt
TC
l
bacteria in milk in an ultrasound system. The Gramnegative Pseudomonas fluorescens was less resistant to
ultrasound than the Gram-positive Streptococcus thermophilus because of the differences in their cell
membrane structures. Irradiation of milk by ultrasound,
either as a stand-alone treatment or combined with
traditional heat treatment technologies, is a promising
method as homogenisation of milk is also accomplished
simultaneously; thus, the total energy required for these
operations is reduced.
(1)
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(2)
2. Objective
It is a general problem in the literature that almost all
the publications dealing with the biological effects of
ultrasound specify only the applied output power of
ultrasound as a factor affecting the results. In most cases
it is not enough for the reader to know which acoustic
phenomenon was generated by this output power during
the examinations. Knowledge of the prevailing acoustic
phenomenon is essential because it is not the intensity
that has an effect on the material but the acoustic
phenomenon that is formed in the given material under
the conditions of the applied ultrasound output power.
Effects of the formed acoustic phenomenon remain the
same in a wide range of ultrasound intensities. Based on
the above, the objective of this work is to understand the
dynamics of the formation of the acoustic phenomena as
a function of applied suspension density and, simultaneously, to examine the cell-disrupting effects of the
acoustic phenomena. Based on this work, ultrasoundinduced cell decomposition and particle manipulation
can be methods that are available for everybody to carry
out and to design ultrasound systems having different
geometry.
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3.2. Suspension
3.4. Detection
Water was used as a suspending agent. Its temperature was maintained at 20 1C in a water bath that was
not shaken and it was conditioned for 051 h before
use. The dissolved oxygen contents of the water samples,
as a factor responsible for the formation of cavitation,
were determined in the range of 1112% after conditioning.
Lyophilised dehydrated and pressed hydrated bakers
yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and dolomite particles
having the same particle size as of the yeast were used as
suspended material. The use of yeast in the experiments
was justied by the fact that this is the most frequently
used microorganism in the post-harvest and food
technology applications. By examining the different
forms of this organism, our objective was to specify the
best conditions for the ultrasound treatment. By
comparing the behaviour of ground dolomite and the
biological material in the ultrasound eld, our objective
was to determine whether the results observed in the
ultrasound eld are based on physical effects exclusively,
or some biological factor shall also be considered when
these results are evaluated.
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ULTRASONIC CELLULAR DISRUPTION OF YEAST
Cavitation threshold, g l1
5
4
3
2
1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ultrasound output power, kW m2
140
Fig. 3. Results of cavitation threshold concentration measurements for dehydrated yeast and ground dolomite: 3, dehydrated
yeast, basic examination; d, dehydrated yeast, auxiliary
examination; W, dolomite, basic examination; m, dolomite,
auxiliary examination
13.0
12.5
Cavitation threshold, g l1
301
12.0
11.5
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ultrasound output power, kW m2
140
(3)
C a 05218e001922p
(4)
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C b 16637e000812p
(5)
C a 1543e000824p
(6)
(7)
C a 82478e00031p
(8)
48
Time period for formation of cavitation, s
47
46
45
44
43
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ultrasound output power, kW m2
140
800
Time period for formation of cavitation, s
302
790
780
770
760
750
740
730
20
40
60
80
100
120
Ultrasound outputpower, kW m2
140
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yeast is
T C 00267p 47
(9)
Table 1
Suspension concentrations applied in the biological examinations,
in 107 cell ml1 and cavitation threshold concentration Ca
Multiple of Ca
1
15
17
22
3
(10)
(11)
N C 77006e00088
(12)
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80
Relative cell survival, %
70
60
50
40
30
20
II
10
SW
III
CAV
0
0
60
120
180
240
Exposure period, s
300
360
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II
Log N
III
50
100
150
200
Exposure period, s
250
300
(13)
Table 2
Survival dynamic characteristics (decimation time D in s and destruction rate k in s1) in different acoustic zones (I, acoustic streaming;
II, standing wave; and III, cavitation), and values of the n0 constant and the a exponent of the trend line equations tted to the survival
curves and their coefcients of determination R2
Initial cell
densities g l1
Acoustic
zone
Decimation
time (D), s
Constant
log10n0
Exponent a
R2
0057
7192
00039
097
Destruction
rate coefficient
(k), s1
32
III
403
48
I
II
III
1556
14042
50
00148
000164
0046
7332
7160
8248
00009
00001
0003
099
1
097
544
I
II
III
1655
1112
57
00139
0002
004
7383
7147
8977
00008
00001
00031
099
095
097
704
I
II
III
14575
9193
9477
00158
00025
00243
7477
7156
8468
0001
00002
00016
094
097
099
96
I
II
III
13491
8957
1505
00171
00025
00153
7560
7157
8332
0001
00002
0001
091
097
091
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1500
1400
Decimation time D, s
306
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
6
8
Initial cell concentration C, g l1
10
(14)
160
170
140
120
Decimation time D, s
100
80
60
40
20
165
0
Decimation time D, s
160
155
5
7
6
8
Initial cell concentration C, g l1
10
150
145
140
D 87078 6275865eC
135
130
10
1
(15)
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(16)
5. Conclusions
(1) The method for determining the cavitation threshold
concentration and the length of the time period
required for the formation of cavitation provide an
opportunity for obtaining new research information
for the basic and applied material sciences.
(2) The difference in the measured time period for the
formation of cavitation for lyophilised yeast and
dolomite is caused by the lower density of the yeast
particles which move by acoustic streaming and
which are trapped more easily by the acoustic force
eld in the pressure node planes than the dolomite
particles whose density and moment of inertia are
higher.
(3) In the case where the initial cell suspension
concentrations were higher, the lengths of the
standing wave phase were longer and this made it
possible for longer manipulation of the cells in the
sound eld.
(4) There is an interaction between the suspension
concentration in the ultrasound eld and the
formation of the acoustic phenomena and, through
this, between the survival dynamics of the cell
suspension and the suspension concentration. This
307
Acknowledgement
We express our thanks for the help of Prof. Dr. Pal
Greguss from the Technical and Economic University of
Budapest.
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