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Course Code
: BCS-041
Course Title: Fundamentals of Computer Networks
Assignment Number: BCA (IV)/041/Assignment/2015
Maximum Marks : 100 Last Dates for Submission: 15
October, 2015 (For July 2015 Session) April, 2016 (For January 2016 Session)
1.
(a) How Quality of service (QoS) and congestion control are related? Explain.(5
Marks)
Ans:
A stream of packet, from a source to a destination is called a flow. In connection oriented
network, all the packets belonging to a flow the same route. But in connection less network
they may follow different routes.
Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the networkthe number of packets sent
to the networkis greater than the capacity of the networkthe number of packets a
network can handle. Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to control
the congestion and keep the load below the capacity.
The main focus of congestion control and quality of service is data traffic. In congestion
control we try to avoid traffic congestion. In quality of service, we try to create an appropriate
environment for the traffic. So, before talking about congestion control and quality of service,
we discuss the data traffic itself.
Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion,
before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened. In general, we can divide
congestion control mechanisms into two broad categories: open-loop congestion control
(prevention) and closed-loop congestion control (removal).

(b) Differentiate between classful and classless addressing in IPv4. (5 Marks)

Ans:
Classful
In classful addressing, An IP addresss is divided into four parts separated by dot (.) . It is
grouped into the netid and hostid. . If the number in the first byte is between 0-127, then the
IP address is in the Class A. If it is between 128-191 it is in Class B. If it is between 192-223
it is in the Class C range. If it is between 224-239 it is in the Class D range, and if it is
between 240-255, then it belongs to Class E.

Example:120.10.4.5

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Classful routing: Routing Protocol that do not send subnet mask information when a
route update is sent out. All devices in the network must use the same subnet mask
Eg : RIP V1
Classless
Classless Inter-Domain Routing allocates address space to Internet service providers and
end users on any address bit boundary, instead of on 8-bit segments. CIDR notation is
syntax of specifying IP addresses and their associated routing prefix. It appends to the
address a slash character and the decimal number of leading bits of the routing prefix, e.g.,
192.0.2.0/24 for IPv4
Classless routing: Routing that sends subnet mask information in the routing
updates. Classless routing allows VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking) Eg : RIP
V2 , EIGRP , & OSPF.
2.
(a) Differentiate between single bit error and burst error. Also, discuss the
mechanisms used for error detection for single bit error and burst error.
(6 Marks)
Ans:
The term single-bit error means that only one bit of given data unit is changed from 1 to 0
or from 0 to 1.

Burst Error The term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit have
changed from 0 to 1 or vice-versa.

Parity bits Method

Parity bit method is very simple error detection method in the digital communication. A binary
digit called parity is used to indicate whether the number of bits with 1 in a given set of
bits is even or odd. The parity bit is then attached to original bits. In this method sender adds
the parity bit to existing data bits before transmission. At the receiver side, it checks for the
expected parity, if wrong parity found, the received data is discarded and retransmission is
requested.
Cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs)
A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error-detecting code commonly used in digital
networks and storage devices to detect transmission error. When n-bits of message M(x) is
transmitted from sender to receiver, first the n- bits of message is converted in such a way
that when a selected k-bits divisor code G(k) is divided with the x+k-bits message M(x+k) the
remainder is zero.

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(b) Assume we have N devices in a network. Calculate and write the number of cable links
required for a mesh, ring, bus and star topology.(4 Marks)
3.
(a) What is fragmentation at network layer? Differentiate between the fragmentations
processes in IPv4 and IPv6. (6 Marks)
Ans:
Fragmentation is when a datagram has to be broken up in to smaller datagram to the frame
size of a certain network. Different networks have different MTUs (maximum transfer unit),
when a datagram enters a network with a smaller MTU the gateway/router needs to
fragment this packet in to smaller packets that the new MTU.
In IPv4, routers perform fragmentation, whereas in IPv6, routers do not fragment, but drop
the packets that are larger than their MTU. Though the header formats are different for IPv4
and IPv6, analogous fields are used for fragmentation, so the same algorithm can be reused
for IPv4 and IPv6 fragmentation and reassembly.
In IPv4, hosts must make a best-effort attempt to reassemble fragmented IP datagrams with
a total reassembled size of up to 576 bytes (the minimum MTU for IPv4). They may also
attempt to reassemble fragmented IP datagram larger than 576 bytes, but they are also
permitted to silently discard such larger datagram.
In IPv6, hosts must make a best-effort attempt to reassemble fragmented datagrams with a
total reassembled size of up to 1500 bytes, larger than IPv6's minimum MTU of 1280 bytes
Fragmented datagram with a total reassembled size larger than 1500 bytes may optionally
be silently discarded.
(b) Discuss the importance of modulation. What are the limitations of amplitude
modulation?(4 Marks)
Ans:Modulation is the Process by which a property or a parameter of a signal is varied in
proportion to another signal.
Benefits:
Modulation can shift the frequency spectrum of a message signal into a band which
is better suited to the channel.
Modulation permits the use of multiplexing. Multiplexing means allowing
simultaneous communication by multiple users on the same channel.
Modulation can provide some control over noise and interference.
Amplitude Modulation (AM):It was the earliest modulation technique used to transmit voice by radio. This type of
modulation technique is used in electronic communication. In this modulation, the amplitude
of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the message signal, and other factors like
phase and frequency remain constant.
Limitations of Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation easily gets the noise and hence the performance is very weak.
Signal of AM is not stronger than FM.
Only one sideband of AM transmits Information Signal.
Noise mixes AM Signal in amplitude when it propagates in free space that it makes it
difficult to recover the original signal at receiver end

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4.
(a) Compare and contrast between Go-back-N ARQ protocol with selective repeat
ARQ.(6 Marks)
Ans:
Go-Back-N ARQ is a specific instance of the Automatic Repeat-request (ARQ) Protocol, in
which the sending process continues to send a number of frames specified by a window size
even without receiving an ACK packet from the receiver. Go back N uses a window
mechanism where the sender can send packets that are within a window (range) of
packets.
Features:o Receive packets in order
o Receiver cannot accept packet out of sequence
o Receiver ignores damaged frames and their successors
Buffer frame 5 and Frame 6 are stored and selectively the reject message is sent only for
frame 4 (which was lost in transmission) however in Go back N the reject message is sent
for all 4, 5 and 6 frames.
Selective Repeat ARQ is a specific instance of the Automatic Repeat-request (ARQ)
Protocol. It may be used as a protocol for the delivery and acknowledgement of message
units, the sending process continues to send a number of frames specified by a window size
even after a frame loss and lost frame send with next window.
more receiver buffering than Go back-N
more complicated buffer management by both sides
saves bandwidth: no need to retransmit correctly received packets

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Frame 4 is unacknowledged in a window so only Frame 4 is retransmitted with next window.

(b) How three way handshaking is used in connection establishment and termination
in TCP? Explain using the suitable diagrams.
(4 Marks)
Ans:TCP uses a three-way handshake. Before a client attempts to connect with a server, the
server must first bind to and listen at a port to open it up for connections: this is called a
passive open. Once the passive open is established, a client may initiate an active open. To
establish a connection, the three-way (or 3-step) handshake occurs:

1. SYN: A client sending a SYN to the server. The client sets the segment's sequence
number to a random value X.
2. SYN-ACK: In response, the server replies with a SYN-ACK. The acknowledgment
number is set to one more than the received sequence number (X + 1), and the
sequence number that the server chooses for the packet is another random number,
Y.
3. ACK: Finally, the client sends an ACK back to the server. The sequence number is
set to the received acknowledgement value i.e. X + 1, and the acknowledgement
number is set to one more than the received sequence number i.e. Y + 1.

5.
(a) How congestion control is managed at transport layer? Explain various
techniques.(6 Marks)
Ans:
Congestion is a problem or state of network where in the network, resources are
overloaded. In this situation network is not able to provide quality of services to establish
connection or transmit the data.
Causes: Overloading of data packets :- if stream of packets arriving on three or four input
lines and need the same output line then a queue is created, if sufficient memory is
not available then packet will be lost.
Slow processor is also cause of congestion.

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Congestion control protocol:- As we know, congestion control is global issue so there

is a protocol implemented to control the congestion which control the forwarding
process between the router sometime caring capacity is decreased then congestion
is occurred.
Congestion Control
Congestion control concerns controlling traffic entry into a telecommunications network, so
as to avoid congestive collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of the
processing or link capabilities of the intermediate nodes and networks and taking resource
reducing steps, such as reducing the rate of sending packets. It should not be confused with
flow control, which prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver.
Congestion Control Policy
TCPs general policy for handling congestion is based on 3 phases:
Slow start,
Congestion avoidance, and
Congestion detection
The sender starts with a very slow rate of transmission but increases the rate rapidly
to reach a threshold. When threshold is reached, the data rate is reduced to avoid
congestion.
Congestion Avoidance: Additive Increase
In the congestion avoidance algorithm, the size of the congestion window increases
additively until congestion is detected.
Congestion Detection: Multiplicative Decrease
An implementation reacts to congestion detection in one of the following ways:
If detection is by time-out, a new slow-start phase starts.
If detection is by three (acknowledgements) Acks, a new congestion Avoidance
phase starts.
(b) Explain about Bit oriented data link control protocol using a suitable diagram.
(4 Marks)
Ans:
A bit-oriented protocol is a communications protocol that sees the transmitted data as an
opaque stream of bits with no semantics, or meaning. Control codes are defined in terms of
bit sequences instead of characters. Bit oriented protocol can transfer data frames
regardless of frame contents. It can also be stated as "bit stuffing" this technique allows the
data frames to contain an arbitrary number of bits and allows character codes with arbitrary
number of bits per character.
Synchronous framing High-Level Data Link Control is a popular bit-oriented protocol.
Synchronous framing High-Level Data Link Control may work like this:

Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern 01111110, called a flag byte.

A bit stuffing technique is used to prevent the receiver from detecting the special flag
byte in user data e.g. whenever the sender's data link layer encounters 5 consecutive
ones in the data, it automatically stuffs 0 into the outgoing stream.

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6.
(a) Compare between X.25 and Frame Relay. Explain the use of FECN and BECN in
Frame Relay.
(6 Marks)
Ans:
X.25 is an old standard protocol suite for packet based wide area network. The old networks
mainly telecommunications companies were following X.25 protocols for packet switching
based network.The X.25 protocol allows computers on different public networks to
communicate through an intermediary computer at the network layer level. X.25's protocols
correspond closely to the data-link, physical-layer and Network Layer protocols defined OSI
communication model.

X.25 has a low 64kbps data rate.

It is designed for private use
It creates large overhead

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It describes connection between DTE and DCE but not describes internal Structure.
Frame relay
Frame relay is a standardized wide area network technology that specifies the physical and
logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching
methodology.

It is less expensive than X.25.

It operates a higher speed( 1.5mbps to 44.376 mbps)
It operates in only physical and data link layer.
It allows frame size of 9000 bytes.
It has detection at data link layer only.

FECN (Forward Error Congestion Notification)

BECN (Backward Error Congestion Notification)
A FECN tells the receiving device that the path is congested so that the upper layer
protocols should expect some delay. The BECN tells the transmitting device that the
Frame Relay network is congested and that it should "back off" to allow better
throughput.

(b) Compare between SVC and PVC of X.25? (4 Marks)

Ans:
The X.25 specification allows for two types of connections, or circuits:

PVCs are Permanent Virtual Circuits. These connections are always open, ready for
data to be sent and/or received. PVC connections are less flexible, in that only one
endpoint at a time can be connected with another on a given LCN. SVC connections
are very flexible in that it is possible for multiple callers to call the same number.

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SVCs are Switched Virtual Circuits. These connections must be re-established every
time a new session of data exchange is to take place, and the connections are
broken at the end of the session.

An X.25 network, the phones are replaced by synchronous adapters and modems,
and the people talking are replaced by computer applications that know how to place
and receive calls. Otherwise, the situation is very similar.

7.
(a) Write MD5 algorithm and explain it using an example. (6 Marks)
Ans:
The MD5 message-digest algorithm is a widely used cryptographic hash function
producing a 128-bit (16-byte) hash value, typically expressed in text format as a 32 digit
hexadecimal number. MD5 has been utilized in a wide variety of cryptographic applications,
and is also commonly used to verify data integrity.
MD5 algorithm operates on a 128-bit state, divided into four 32-bit words, denoted A, B, C,
and D. These are initialized to certain fixed constants. The main algorithm then uses each
512-bit message block in turn to modify the state. The processing of a message block
consists of four similar stages, termed rounds; each round is composed of 16 similar
operations based on a non-linear function F, modular addition, and left rotation. Figure 1
illustrates one operation within a round. There are four possible functions F; a different one
is used in each round:

(b) List and explain any two functions of each OSI layer. (4 Marks)
Ans:
Application Layer
The application layer provides format and configuration for the user to access information on
the network through an application. This layer is the main interface for users to interact with
the application and therefore the network.
Services: Resource sharing and device redirection
Remote file access
Remote printer access
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer transforms data to provide a standard interface for the application
layer. Encoding, data compression, data encryption and similar manipulation of the
presentation is done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol developer sees
fit.
Services:-

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Data representation:
Data security:
Data compression:
Session Layer
The session layer controls the connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes,
manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application.
Services: Simplex:
Half Duplex
Full Duplex
Transport Layer
The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thus relieving
the upper layers from transfer concerns while providing reliable data transfer. The transport
layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/ desegmentation, and error control.
Services: Resource Utilization (multiplexing):
Connection Management (establishing & terminating
Flow Control (Buffering / Windowing):
Network Layer
The network layer provides the means of transferring data sequences from a source to a
destination by using one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested
by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also
perform segmentation/de-segmentation, and report delivery errors.
Services: Connection setup
Addressing
Fragmentation
Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides the means to transfer data between network entities and to
detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. It arranges bits from
the physical layer into logical chunks of data, known as frames.
Services: Frame Traffic Control:
Frame Sequencing:
Frame Acknowledgment:
Physical Layer
The physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices. This
includes the Layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications.
Services: Data encoding:
Transmission technique:
Physical medium transmission:
8.

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(a) What are the different digital modulation techniques? Why digital modulation is
better than the Analog Modulation?(6 Marks)
Ans:
DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES: Amplitude Shift Keying: - Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of
distinct signals to represent digital data. ASK uses a finite number of amplitudes,
each assigned a unique pattern of binary. Usually, each amplitude encodes an equal
number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is represented by the
particular amplitude.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):- Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency
modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete
frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is a binary FSK (BFSK).
BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.
With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space
frequency.
Phase-shift keying (PSK):- Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme
that communicates the data by changing, or modulating, the phase of the carrier
wave. Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to
represent digital data. PSK uses a finite number of phases; each assigned a unique
pattern in the form of a binary code. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase.
Digital modulation is better than the Analog Modulation
Digital technology has been most efficient in cellular phone industry. Analog phones have
become redundant even though sound clarity and quality was good.
Analog technology comprises of natural signals like human speech. With digital
technology this human speech can be saved and stored in a computer. Thus digital
technology opens up the horizon for endless possible uses.
(b) Write differences between FDM and TDM. (4 Mark)
Ans:
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM):- Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is the
technique used to divide the available bandwidth into a number of smaller independent
logical channels with each channel having a small bandwidth.

Advantages of FDM:
The users can be added to the system by simply adding another pair of transmitter
modulator and receiver demodulators.
FDM system support full duplex information
Disadvantages of FDM:
In FDM system, the initial cost is high.

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A problem with one user can sometimes affect the others.

Each user requires a precise carrier frequency for transmission of the signals.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Each user of the channel is allotted a small time interval during which it may transmit a
message. Thus the total time available in the channel is divided and each user is allocated a
time slot. Data from each user is multiplexed into a frame which is transmitted over the
channel. It is extended as time division multiple Channel (TDMA)

Advantages of TDM
It uses a single link
It does not require precise carrier matching at both end of the links.
Use of the channel capacity is high.
Each to expand the number of users on a system at a low cost.
There is no need to include identification of the traffic stream on each packet.
Disadvantages of TDM
The sensitivity to other user is very high and causes problems
Initial cost is high
Technical complexity is more

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