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Check Point
1. Name the followings:
(i) The pressure/s that act against
ultra-filtration
(ii) Structures
that
produce
maximum tubular secretion
(iii) Hormone that is directly
responsible
for
water
absorption
(iv) Disorder in which urine turns
black on exposure.
(v) Substances which are fully
(100%)
reabsorbed
from
glomerulars filtrate.
Parahormones are short-lived chemicals which are produced from almost all body cells
(except mammalian RBCs).
These chemicals affect the functioning of either the neighbouring cells (Paracrine
hormones) or the same cells from which they are secreted (Autocrine hormones).
Most of the local hormones are paracrine type and include Prostaglandins, Neurotransmitters
and Interferons etc.
(a) Prostaglandins
They were discovered by Von Euler (1935) in the semen of human and were thought
to be the secretion of Prostate glands, and hence named so.
These chemicals also regulate Peristalsis and secretion of the digestive juices.
They cause pain at injury site and induce fever. They also promote inflammation.
(The pain killers inhibit the secretion of prostaglandins).
Prostaglandins also cause contraction of uterine muscles, vas deferens and oviduct
etc.
These chemicals are peptides and are synthesized in the nerve cells.
(c) Interferons
They are low molecular weight proteins secreted by virus infected cells and provide
resistance to the neighbouring cells (For details please refer Immune system )
hypothalamus
pineal gland
pituitary gland
(hypophysis)
thyroid gland
parathyroid gland
thymus
adrenal gland
pancreas
ovary
testis
Fig. 1.1
3. FATTY ACIDS
They usually contain even number of carbon atoms. (eg. 14 C, 16C and 18C etc)
a. Unsaturated fatty acids
They have one or more double bonds between C-atoms
e.g. Oleic acid (one double bond), Linoleic acid (2-DB), Linolenic acid ( 3-DB)
and Arachidonic acid (4-DB). The first 3-fatty acids are 18-C, compounds whereas
Arachidonic acid is a 20-C, compound.
(Prostaglandins, which participate in allergy, inflammatory and other reactions,
are derivatives of Arachidonic acid)
(Unsaturated fatty acid-chains bend at double-bond and do not fit closely together,
resulting in lowering of Melting point, and hence are liquid at room temperaturee.g. oils)
b. Saturated fatty acids
They do not have double bonds between carbon atoms
e.g.Acetic acid, Propionic acid, Butyric acid, Palmitic acid, Stearic acid etc.
Essential fatty acids
They are not synthesized in the body
All are Polyunsaturated (with more than 1-double bond), so called PUFA (Poly unsaturated
fatty acids).
e.g. Linoleic acid ( in corn, pea and cotton), Linolenic acid (In Linsid oil and pea nut
oil).
(Margarine has high content of polyunsaturates. Mustard oil is one of the most unsaturated
oil; sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid; and coconut oil has minimum fatty acid
content)
(Arachidonic acid can, however, be synthesized in body from linolenic acid)
Human body - fat contains 50% Oleic acid, 25% Palmitic acid, 10% Linoleic acid and 5%
Stearic acid.
Connecting Concepts
The carbon atoms of fatty acids are numbered starting from the carboxylic (COOH)
group. However, the carbon atoms may be numbered, starting from methyl group, as Omega
() 1, 2, 3 etc.
6
C H3 C H 2 C H 2 C H 2 C H 2 C OOH
1
The omega ()-3 unsaturated fatty acids, present abundantly in fish oil, are of
great nutritional value, and are required for proper mental growth especially of the
grey matter.
Test for Lipids - (1) Grease Spot Test (2) Sudan III (black) or Sudan red test
Functions
Poor conductor of heat (For Insulation)
Shock absorber
Food storage (Its primary function)
Metabolism of fats -
-oxidation : It is the conversion of fatty acids into Acetyl Co-A.
The fatty acids through Acetyl Co-A enter Krebs cycle. The glycerol enters Krebs cycle
at PGAL.
The oxidation of fatty acids requires more 02 ( R.Q. = 0.7). In shortage of carbohydrates
or oxygen, the ketone bodies are formed.
Problem : How many ATPs will be produced in -oxidation and complete oxidation of
palmitic acid (16-C, compound)
(i) 2-ATP are used in conversion of Palmitic acid into palmitoyl Co-A.
(ii) 1 mol. of Palmitoyl Co-A (16-C, compound) produces 8 mol. of Acetyl Co-A
(2-C, compound), and 7 molecules (due to 7-cleavages), each of FADH2 and
NADH.
(iii) Each FADH2 produces 2-mol. of ATPs, and each NADH produces 3-mol. of
ATPs.
(iv) So, total ATPs produced will be
(I) 2 ATPs 7 = 14 ATPs
(II) 3 ATPs 7 = 21 ATPs
TOTAL : 35 ATPs
(v) Since 2-ATPs are used in the conversion of palmitic acid into palmitoyl Co-A
[see Step (i)].
So net. ATPs produced will be = 35 2 = 33 ATPs Ans.
For short cut = [(No. of cleavages 5) 2]
(No. of cleavages = One less than half the number of carbon atoms in the fatty
acid)
On complete oxidation each acetyl Co-A will produce 12-ATPs, and net production
of ATPs (on complete oxidation of Palmitic acid) will be = 33 ATPs + (12 ATPs
8) = 33 + 96 = 129 ATPs Ans.
Gauchers disease - Autosomal recessive. The liver and spleen are enlarged. Erosion of
long bones and Mental retardation occur.
Tay Sachs disease (Infantilc amaurotic idiocy) - Autosomal recessive. Mental retardation,
Blindness and Death by the age of 3 years.
4. CELL THEORY
Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1855 to explain the concept of
the cellular nature of living organism.
But they did not explain as how new cells are formed. Rudolf Virchow in 1858 made a
generalization omnis cellula e cellula i.e., all cells comes from pre-existing cells.
All living organisms (animals, plants and microbes) are made up of cells and cell products
i.e., cell is the structural unit of life.
All metabolic reactions in unicellular and multicellular organisms take place in cell i.e.,
cell is the functional unit of life.
Cells originate only from pre-existing cells, i.e., no cell can originate spontaneously
or de novo
Check Point
i. Viruses are acellular and do not have a cellular components. But posses genetic mateFill in the blanks
rial and show multiplication.
1.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v. RBCs and sieve tube cells are the cells without nucleus.
vi. Protoplasm is replaced by nonliving materials in the surface cells of skin and cork.