Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Steam Generating System

In industrial heating, steam is being used most extensively, from process heating to
power generation. When it comes to heat transfer, nothing can match steam.
The steam is generated by evaporating water with the heat available,
either from combustion of fuel or some other source like waste heat
from an exothermic chemical process, etc. Heat generated by Nuclear
Fission is also used these days. The equipment used for generating
steam is called a Boiler.
Does that mean that a kitchen bowl, or a tea kettle, which are used Boiler?
to boil water to steam is also a boiler?
By definition, Boiler is a closed vessel, which generates steam under pressure. We
know that being a closed vessel, generating steam under pressure is something
critical, which makes a boiler different than a tea kettle above. In industry, for various
processes, heating is done at various temperatures and not just at 100oC. We know
from the property of steam that the temperature of steam varies with the pressure
under which the steam is being generated. Again for power generation, one needs
pressurized steam to expand in the turbine.
A boilers primary job is to produce steam at required pressure and temperature. Since it
is generating steam under pressure, it is also potentially dangerous equipment. As most
of the boiler use the heat produced by combustion of fuel to generate steam, we can say
that In order to achieve optimized Boiler performance, one need to ensure maximum
extraction of heat from the fuel and then transfer maximum extracted heat to water
and steam without causing any accident.
The primary requirement of an industrial boiler is to generate steam in large quantities.
To produce large quantity of steam, one should transfer large quantity of heat into
water. To achieve that one would also need more surface area through which heat is to
be transferred from heat source (usually hot flue gas from combustion of fuel) to water.
It is primarily this need of accommodating more and more heat transfer area in a limited
space that has initiated the design advancement of a boiler. Based on the heat transfer
mode, boilers are classified as two types. One is the Fire tube Boiler and the other is
the Water tube Boiler.
In a Fire Tube Boiler, the hot flue gas
passes through the tubes and water
remain outside the tube. Heat is
transferred from inside the tube to water
outside the tube. Fire tube boiler is
usually preferred where the steam
pressure required is less than about 30
kg/cm2(g) and steaming rate is lesser
than 30 t/hr. Above this limits, water tube
boilers are more economical.
Fire Tube Boiler

Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

In a Water Tube Boiler, water circulates
through tubes and heat source is outside.
Heat is transferred from outside the tube
to water inside the tube. Where large
quantity of steam is required, at high
pressure Water Tube type Boiler is
preferred. In power plants, normally, high
pressure water-tube type boilers are used,
where capacity rages from 30 to 650 t/hr,
having pressure & temperature up to 160
kg/ cm2(g) and 540 0C respectively.
Flexibility in design is more but requires
stringent water quality control since water
side cleaning is a complicated and time
taking process.
Water Tube Boiler
If we take a complete steam generating system and break it into various sub systems,
we can have a better understanding of the overall system. For this purpose let us take a
steam generating system of a Power Plant, which is comprised of most of the subsystems.
Let us follow the water route while it is being converted into steam while passing
through various components of a steam generating system and thereby go though
various sub-systems.

Feed Water System: Properly treated Feed Water first comes to equipment known as
Deaerator, where dissolved Oxygen gets removed. Feed water is added as make up
water to the condensate, which is being circulated back to the system. Deaeration is
done by heating up the water by auxiliary steam. This is part of the sensible heat
received in the cycle, which we can compare with a temperature enthalpy curve.

Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

From the Deaerator, the feed water
goes to the Boiler Feed Pump,
which pumps the feed water at high
pressure into the Evaporator
(Circulating water & steam
system). But at this point the
temperature of the water is much
less than saturation temperature.
Therefore a lot of sensible energy is
still required by the water before it
reaches the saturation temperature
and evaporation would start.
So it is first taken inside the flue gas path where the gas is about to be released in the
atmosphere through chimney at a high temperature (and therefore having a lot of heat
energy) to increase the feed water temperature in an Economizer. Now the heated feed
water enters the Evaporator through steam drum, where water will be circulated while
getting evaporated. The water circulates usually due to thermo-siphon action and known
as natural circulation. This can be understood from the figure below.
Heat from the hot flue gas is received by the riser,
where steaming takes place and therefore riser
contains mixture of water and steam, whereas the
down comer contains denser water. Due to the
density difference in the two columns, circulation
takes place in the evaporator. In some evaporator
system, where the geometry does not allow the
natural circulation, or where the density difference
is less due to high pressure (at 175 bar pressure
and above, steam and water density difference is
not sufficient to induce natural circulation), the
circulation is maintained with a pump, which is
called forced or assisted circulation.
In the Evaporator section, the water receives the
remaining amount of sensible heat and total latent
heat of evaporation and finally steam leaves the
Evaporator from the steam drum and enters the
(Steam system) Superheater section.
It will not be incorrect if we say that maximum heat input is taking place in the
Evaporator section since it is getting the latent heat, unless, of course the pressure is
very high.
The steam should be completely dry and saturated before it enters superheater,
otherwise, instead of raising the temperature of steam beyond saturation temperature in
the superheater, remaining water would first get converted into steam and then only the
temperature would rise. A number of water separators are used in the steam drum to
ensure that.
In the superheater, the temperature of steam is raised by further heating. The final
temperature is usually controlled by water spraying through attemperator, which is
placed before the final superheater.
The superheated steam then goes to the turbine, which expands in the turbine section
and rotates the turbine blade. In some power plants, where multiple pressure turbine
section is available, the expanded team, which is at lower pressure and temperature, is
further brought back to the boiler section. This part is known as Reheater and steam
gets further superheated in this section before it enters the MP or LP stage of the
turbine. From the final turbine stage, the exhaust steam (which is partially wet now)
goes to the Condenser, where the latent heat is removed by cooling water circulation
and the condensed water (condensate) is circulated back (Condensate System) to the
Deaerator with the help of condensate extraction pump.
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

It would be interesting to know that the steam enters the condenser usually at
temperature of 40 to 45oC (cold steam). This is because the condenser operates under
vacuum to extract maximum work output from the turbine. If we refer the steam table,
we can confirm this fact.
When we are discussing fired boilers, the heat source is combustion of fuel. The fuel can
be of solid, liquid or gaseous type and the combustion takes place in an enclosed section
known as the furnace. The first thing the furnace would need is the fuel, which has to
be brought from the place it is stored (Fuel system, which is not shown here). Before it
enters the furnace, the fuel might require some preparation. For example, in Pulverized
coal fired boiler (most commonly used for large thermal power plant), coal has to be
ground into fine talcum powder consistency and therefore crusher and pulverizing mills
are used. For liquid fuel system, the fuel should be atomized (broken into fine particles
to increase surface area), which is done by steam or air atomizer. Some liquid fuels
require certain temperature to retain proper viscosity and therefore suitable heater
would be there. For gaseous fuel, however, such preparations are not required and only
the pressure is to be maintained.
In the furnace, fuel requires air and ignition temperature for combustion. The air is one
thing, which is available in the nature for free. However, it is still required to be brought
inside the furnace. Once combustion takes place, the furnace gets filled with the product
of combustion, i.e. flue gas and this flue gas again is required to be taken out of the
system to allow entry of further air. The system which handles the air and flue gas is
called Draught System.
The draught system is generally of three types:
Forced Draught: Where the air is being pushed into the furnace with the help of a fan
known as FD fan, which is located before the furnace. It pushed the air, which in turn
pushes the flue gas inside the furnace till it is taken out of the system through the
chimney.
Induced Draught: Where the flue gas from the furnace is sucked and taken out of the
system through the chimney. The fan used in this system is called ID fan and it is
located just before the chimney, after the Economizer and Air pre-heater in the flue gas
system. Vacuum created by the ID fan sucks in Atmospheric air into the furnace for the
combustion.
Balanced Draught: Both FD and ID fans are used in this system. In this system, the
furnace pressure is maintained a little on the negative side.
There is of course the Natural Draught system, which uses the chimney height and
higher temperature of the flue gas getting released from the chimney, to create the
required draught pressure. But due to the high temperature of flue gas exiting from the
chimney, heat loss is staggering.
In the system schematic shown here, we are using a Balanced Draught, where the air is
pushed inside the furnace by the FD fan. But before it goes to the furnace, the air is first
taken inside the flue gas path through an Air Pre-heater, where the air is heated by
using the residual heat of the flue gas remaining after it passes the economizer. The
heated combustion air increases the combustion efficiency and also further reduces the
exit gas temperature. After Air Pre-heater, heated air is taken inside the furnace.
Inside the furnace, after combustion takes place, tremendous amount of heat is being
released. The schematic diagram may not represent it properly, but some of the
superheater and reheater sections are kept in the furnace to take advantage of the
radiation heat transfer. The hot flue gas leaves the furnace and passes through various
sections of Superheater, Reheater, Economizer and Air Pre-heater, while gradually
getting cooled.
After the preheater, the exhaust flue gas is taken out of the system by the ID fan and
discharged into the atmosphere through a chimney.
Boilers and IBR:
As per the Indian Boiler Act & Regulations (IBR), a boiler may be defined as a
closed vessel with a capacity of 22.75 liters or more in which water is converted into
steam for external use, under pressurized condition. The term boiler includes all such
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

mountings fitted to the vessel, which remain wholly or partly under pressure when steam is
shut off.
IBR is an Indian regulatory code governing the construction and operation of Boilers to
ensure safety for prevention of loss of lives and properties. However this code is no way
bears any guidelines for efficiency, MCR and other operational parameters. Central Boiler
Board is a central authority, which formulates and amends the regulations governing
boilers to keep pace with technological advancement and oversees that the stipulated rules
framed by the different State Governments and regulations under IBR are strictly followed
by all concerned authorities. The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 is enacted by the parliament and
administered by the all State Governments through Chief Inspector of Boilers, as the subject
"Boiler" comes under the concurrent list of the constitution of India. The State
Level Regulatory Bodies under the Chief Inspector of Boilers, in every state, are solely
responsible for implementation of various regulations of the Indian Boiler Regulation
(IBR) concerning all types of boilers for their manufacture, erection, operation and
maintenance. During manufacture and erection the CIB inspects various stages and finally
issues manufacturing certificates in statutory formats and if any owner of a boiler intends to
run it, he has to apply to the CIB with manufacturing certificates for registration of the
same. For boiler under use, CIB will inspect it once in a year in normal condition. However,
in emergency the frequency of inspections may increase.
The State Directorate of Chief Inspector of Boilers also governs the quality and
capability of personnel handling jobs of manufacturing, maintenance and operating.
Welders deployed in manufacture and maintenance and repairs of pressure vessels are
also covered under such rules. The state Chief Inspector of Boilers is authorized to
conduct regular examinations for testing and certifying candidates working on boiler or a
pressure vessel.
Terminology used in Boilers:
A boiler consists of several components and various parts. Some of them are termed as
mountings and accessories and the others are called auxiliary equipment, depending on
the method of mounting or the fittings or the associated functional equipment essentially
required for the boiler operation. Each of the components of a boiler is designated by
specified terminology. A few of such terminology, which are commonly used, are brought
out hereunder.
Classification of Boilers:
Boilers can be classified on the basis of:
i. Direction of heat transfer in the tubes (Firetube & Watertube boilers),
ii. Mode of circulation of working fluid: i.e., Natural Circulation or Forced Circulation,
iii.Type of fuel: (Solid Fuel e.g., Coal, Lignite and Peat; Gaseous Fuel e.g., Natural Gas,
Blast Furnace Gas, Water Gas etc.; Liquid Fuel e.g., Diesel Oil, Furnace Oil, LSHS,
Crude, Black Liquor etc.),
iv. Mode of Firing: Stoker, Pulverized, Fluidized Bed etc. in case of Solid Fuel Fired
Boilers, Steam Atomized or Air Atomized in case of Liquid Fuel Fired.
v. Fired and Non-fired,
vi. Position of the furnace (Externally fired furnace & Internally fired furnace),
vii.Manufacturers trade name,
In Natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due
to natural convection currents produced by the application of heat. Saturated water flows
down the unheated down comer and receives heat in the riser whereupon a part of it
gets converted into steam. The difference in densities of saturated water in the down
comer and the steam-water mixer in the riser brings about natural circulation. It is
applicable to all those boilers, which are operating at a pressure less than critical
pressure.

Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Natural circulation steam generator

In a Forced circulation, the working fluid is forced through the boiler circuits by an
external pump (Re-circulating Pump).

Forced Circulation Steam Generator

In a natural circulation steam generator, the density difference between the water-steam
mixture in the riser tubes and the water in the unheated down comers is ever decreasing
with rising pressures. The limit for the maximum possible pressure stage for a natural
circulation steam generator is 175 bar. Moreover, the arrangement of the down comers
and risers in a natural circulation steam generator must be clearly structured in their
geometry in order to guarantee circulation. This condition cannot always be met in
practice
The re-circulating pump works at a pressure of about 2 - 4 bar in order to overcome the
pressure losses in the boiler system and forces the water circulation in the steam
generator independently of the tube geometry of the down comers and the risers.
The once-through forced flow steam generator design does not include a drum and
consists of tube runs which form the economizer, evaporator and super heater. The
water is forced through the steam generator in one flow once through by feed pump
pressure and, in the course of this, is transformed into hot steam.
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

steam generator
HP-turbine
feedwater
pump

economizer

evaporator

reheater

superheater

live steam

to the IPturbine

Once-through forced flow steam generator

Various Types of Boilers:
Fire Tube Boilers:
A fire tube boilers, is the boiler wherein the products of combustion pass through inside
of the tubes (either one or several) and water which is to be converted in to steam is
made to surround outside these tubes. Fire Tube Boilers are used where the steam
pressure is normally low and the steam is not generally required to be the superheated.
Fire tube boilers are compact and can be easily manufactured in a factory and assembled
as a packaged boiler. Fire tube boilers cannot be manufactured in large sizes beyond
certain limit due to large size of shell involved.
Fire tube boilers have the advantage of low manufacturing and operating cost.
A few of the well-known Boilers, which come under this class of fire tube construction,
are:
a) Cornish Boiler,
b) Lancashire Boiler,
c) Simple vertical boiler,
d) Cochran boiler,
e) Locomotive Boiler and
f) Scotch Marine Boiler.
The advantages of fire-tube boilers are:
a) Investment Cost of fire-tube boilers is comparatively lower than water tube Boilers
for the similar capacity,
b) The design of fire-tube boiler is simple and construction is rugged,
c) The water holding capacity of a fire-tube boiler is larger than that of water tube
boilers and fire tube boiler is versatile to meet the steam load changes.
The disadvantages of fire-tube boilers are:
a) Since fire tube boilers have huge capacity for water storage, with big water
accumulators, its steaming capacity is reduced,
b) In order to resist the internal pressure, non-cylindrical sections and flat surfaces
are required to be stayed and
c) High pressure and large diameter fire-tube boilers would need thick shell plates,
which will be uneconomical and impractical.
Water Tube Boilers:
In this type of construction of Boilers the fuel is fired in a confined chamber and the
water is circulated through divided flow path inside a number of small-bore tubes, which
are exposed to the heat generated inside the combustion chamber.
A few of the well known Boilers, which come under this class of water tube construction,
are:
a) Babcock and Wilcox Boiler,
b) Stirling Boiler,
c) La-Mont Boiler,
d) Benson Boiler,
e) Yarrow Boiler, and
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

f) Loeffler Boiler
Water Tube Packaged Boiler:
Package water tube boilers are as popular as packaged fire tube boilers. Such boilers are
compact and standardized for pressure and capacity. They are shop assembled having a
furnace accommodated with water walls. Generating tubes, superheater and economiser
ready for transportation by road or sea. They are equipped with firing equipments, feed
pumps, auxiliaries and ancillaries, oil pumps, oil heaters, draught fans, feed water
regulator, soot blowers and automatic control for efficient performance.
In such boilers, coal, oil or gas could be burnt efficiently. Such boilers are composed of
one top and one bottom drum. Feed water enters the top drum from where it flows to
the bank of tubes into the lower drum then through the circulating tubes to the water
walls header & up to the water wall tubes into the top drum. Therefore, a continuous &
positive circulation of water is established.
Packaged Horizontal Smoke Tubes Boilers:

2 pass Dry Back Packaged Boiler

3 pass Wet Back Packaged Boiler

These boilers are these days installed in almost every industry. There is a horizontal
cylindrical shell which is fitted with flat plates supported by means of gussets, round
sectioned longitudinal stay bars or tee stiffeners. There are dry back types as well as wet
back types of such boilers. In dry back the radiant heat is lost through the dry back of
the combustion chamber ends. These boilers are designed as three passes. There are
one or two horizontal either plain furnaces supported by stiffening rings at intervals or
corrugated furnaces or partly plain and corrugated furnaces; laid in between end plates
in dry back and in between front end plate and front tubes plate of the combustion
chamber, in case of wet back boiler. The combustion chamber is often called reversing
chamber and is fabricated of a cylindrical shell horizontally fitted with end plates. The
front plate is used as tube plate for second pass and the rear flat plate is supported by
screw stays fitted in between rear end plates of the shell. The set of oil or gas burner
assembly is fitted to the front part of the furnace and fire/gases run through the furnace
and enters to the combustion or reversing chamber and passes through the second pass
tubes and then onwards through the front part of the shell through third pass tubes in
smoke box from where they pass out through the chimney. These boilers are very
compact and can be installed in industries conveniently.
The shell at sides and bottom are fitted with hand holes/sight holes or mud holes
with covers. The shell at the bottom is fitted with an oval shaped man hole with cover.
There is a set of stand pipes or pads fitted for set of water gauges, one for pressure
gauge and for feed inlet pipe on the shell side. A stand pipe at the shell bottom is fitted
for blow off and at the top of the shell one for main steam outlet, one or two for safety
valves and one for the auxiliary valves. The shell is installed on M.S. fabricated chairs.
Efficiency of such boiler is about 82% on gross calorific value of fuel oil. Packaged fire
tube boilers are designed for coal, oil and gaseous fuels.
Waste heat boiler:
It is a special purpose boiler designed to generate steam by removing the generated
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

heat, as called for, by the
a)
Chemical
processes
involving
exothermic reactions viz.,
i.
the partial gasification of fuel oil;
ii.
synthesis of ammonia;
iii.
oxidation of Sulphur dioxide to
trioxide;
iv.
conversion of ammonia to nitric
oxide
Recovering heat that is:
evolved as an integral part of the
process and would otherwise go
waste, such as from an open-hearth
furnace
ii. a by-product of chemical process,
e.g. black liquor recovery
iii. made available by burning waste,
e.g. wood scraps.
It reduces air and water pollution and
lowers the flue gas temperature, reducing
the maintenance of flues, fans and stacks.

b)

i.

Fluidized Bed Combustion:

When air or gas is passed through an inert bed of solid particles such as sand or crushed
refractories supported on a fine mesh or grid the air will initially seek a path of least
resistance, and pass upwards through the bed.
With further increase in the velocity, the air starts bubbling through the bed and the
particle attains a state of high turbulence. Under such conditions, the bed assumes the
appearance of a fluid and exhibits the properties associated with a fluid and hence the
name FLUIDISED BED.
If the bed material in fluidized state is
heated to the ignition temperature of
the
fuel
and
fuel
is
injected
continuously into the bed, the fuel will
turn rapidly and the bed attains a
uniform temperature due to effective
mixing. This, in short, is fluidized bed
combustion (or FBC)
While it is essential that the
temperature of the bed should be at
least equal to ignition temperature of
coal, it must not be allowed to
approach the adiabatic combustion
temperature (1600-1700C) to avoid
melting of the ash. The combustion is
carried
out
essentially
at
a
temperature below ash fusion temp.
This is achieved by extracting heat
from the bed through heat transfer
tubes immersed in the bed, as well as
through walls of the bed.

Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

If the air velocity is too high the bed particles are entrained in the air stream and are
lost. Hence air velocity is maintained between minimum fluidizing velocity and particle
entrainment velocity. The integration of the fluidized bed combustion process with a
boiler results in a system that has several advantages.
Coil type Steam Generator:
Historically, coil type steam generators have not been commonly used in typical steam
heating plants and therefore not many people are familiar with the technology. A coiled
type steam generator is a forced circulation, water tube boiler in which water under
pressure circulates at high velocity. The water circulates through sets of coils in either
series, or, parallel flow, while forced draft combustion gases travels across the coils. The
hot gases envelop the entire tube surface making maximum use of both radiant and
convective heat to achieve very high heat transfer rates.
Coil-type steam generators are used primarily for industrial process application. These
are particularly useful, when there is
A need for additional steam capacity,
A restriction of floor space
An application in which there are significant cyclical or seasonal load fluctuation
An operation which experiences short duration load swing
There are two general types of coil type steam generators: re-circulating and once
though.

Re-circulating type Steam Generator

In the case of the re-circulating coil type steam generator, water at saturation
temperature is drawn from a steam drum and pumped through a set of nested, parallel
connected coils at several times maximum desired steaming rate. The water is then
carried back to a steam lance, in the top of the same drum, where steam is released and
effectively separated. Dry steam, which has a dryness fraction more than 0.99 is drawn
from the drum.
Once through Coil type boilers
These are a 'once through' type of water tube boiler, and referred to in some regulations
as, 'boilers with no discernible water level'.

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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Water supply to the boiler will usually be at 10 to 15% above the steaming rate to:
Ensure that all the water is not evaporated, thus ensuring that superheated
steam is not produced.
Provide a vehicle for the feed water TDS to be carried through. If this vehicle was
not available, the salts in the feed water would be deposited on the insides of the
tubes and impair heat transfer, leading to over heating and eventually to tube
failure. Clearly, a separator is an essential component of this type of boiler to
remove this contaminated water.
Being of the water tube type, they can produce steam at very high pressures.

Flow diagram of a once through coil type steam generator

The once through coil type steam generator differs significantly from the recirculation
design in that the water is pumped through multiple coils connected in series and then
into an integral cyclonic separator. This results in approximately 90% of the water being
converted to steam with a dryness fraction of something like 0.99. The remaining
approximately 10% un-evaporated water can then be blown down or re-used.

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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Because the water flowing through the tube as well as the combustion gases outside the
tubes are traveling at a high velocity, turbulent flow is created. This reduces the film
resistance to heat transfer and results in a high overall heat transfer coefficient.
The biggest advantage of this type of coil type once through steam generator is the
small physical size and weight of the boiler. Due to this relatively small water content,
this type of boilers enables to go from cold start to full steam output in approximately 5
mins. Hence the term steam generator instead of boiler, reflecting its ability to produce
dry steam very quickly. In many of such boiler construction, the furnace is designed for
Reverse Flame Technology.
Reverse Flame Technology:

The flame reverses within the furnace and thereafter passes along with the membranes
wall provided. Due to this, the flame has a longer residence time for total combustion.
The reverse flame technology ensures a very high radiation heat transfer and complete
combustion.
Thermal Shock: Coil type steam generators are immune to thermal shock because they
employ a wound coil that, when differing rates of expansion and contraction occur, tends
to unwind like a clock spring without the stress associated with rigid tubes. These types
of steam generators also have modulating feed water control that further reduces the
possibility of thermal shock.
When do you select a coil type steam generator?
Full modulation is required: In case of rapidly fluctuating loads, where full modulation
of steam out put and not just fuel is desired. And, full range response time of the coil
type steam generator, measured at the header is typically about 15 secs.
High output turndown ratio is needed: This type of steam generators generally
offers turndown ratio of 8:1 to as high as 13:1. So if wide load swing is expected, this
may be an important feature.
Rapid startup is desired: If a boiler is to be base loaded and left at constant fire on a
continuous basis, then quick steaming capability is not a tangible benefit. But for those
applications, where it is advantageous to go from cold start to full steam output in
shortest possible time, this type of steam generator is the best option.
Small size, low weight: Perhaps the biggest advantage the coil type steam generator
has is its compact size. That, along with its modular construction, offers substantial
savings in construction and installation cost. Since the total water holding capacity are
usually less than 22.75 litres, this steam generators are not falling under IBR purview
and sometimes termed as Baby Boilers.
Boiler Mountings, Accessories and Auxiliaries
Boiler Mountings and Accessories:
In order to facilitate trouble free operation of a boiler, certain devices are attached or
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

mounted on the boiler as a regular feature and as integral components. These mountings
are to ensure that a boiler is operated in safe and proper manner. Without these
mountings it will be difficult to run the boiler safely. Let us now learn about such devices,
which are termed as Boiler Mountings. A boiler cannot function safely without mountings.
Boiler Mountings: For the safety of the boiler and for better control over the steam
generation process, various fitting are provided on the boiler, which are called boiler
mountings. A boiler cannot function safely without mountings.
They are mainly,
(1) Safety valves
(2) Water level indicator or gauge glass
(3) Steam Pressure Gauge
(4) Main Steam stop valve
(5) Feed water check valve
(6) Drum Vent valve
(7) Blow-down valve, Drain, etc.
(8) Fusible Plug
Boiler Accessories: These are the items that form an integral part of the boiler but are
not mounted on the boiler. They are mainly for increasing the plant load and overall
boiler efficiency and they help in smooth running of the plant under desired operating
conditions.
They are mainly,
(1) Superheater
(2) Economizer
(3) Air Pre-heater
(4) Deaerator
(5) Feed water pumps
(6) Feed water heaters etc.
Description of Mountings, Accessories and Auxiliaries:
Safety Valves:
Safety Valve is a mounting, which protects a boiler or any pressure vessel against over
pressure. A pressure vessel is always designed to withstand a safe working pressure at a
particular temperature and it is supposed to work within the safe limits of pressure and
temperature. Safety against over pressure is very essential due to the fact that the
pressure vessel may burst causing extensive damages, if the safe working pressure limit
is exceeded. Therefore, if the working pressure exceeds limit at any time, the pressure is
to be instantaneously released and the vessel has to be brought back within the safe
level of pressure limits. Safety Valve is the safety device for any pressure vessel and is
an essential and important mounting for a boiler. IBR stipulates stringent conditions for
periodic inspection and testing of safety valves. Every year before renewal of boiler
license, it is mandatory to conduct steam test for a boiler by successfully demonstrating
the working of the Safety Valves. There are several types and designs of safety valves in
use since earlier days, such as Lever and weight safety valve; Dead Weight Safety
Valve; Hopkinson combined low water level and high steam pressure safety valves;
Ramsbottom spring loaded safety valves:
Pop spring-loaded safety valves:
This type of safety valves is most commonly seen these days. This consists of mainly a
valve seat, which is exposed to system pressure in the vessel and the spindle which
carries the valve seat is kept tight in position by the force of a coil spring, exerting equal
and opposing force over the valve seat through the valve spindle, to counter the upward
force acting over the valve seat. The valve disc is loosely fitted to the lower end of the
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

vertical valve spindle and exposed to force of the pressure in the drum. There is coil
spring positioned inside the yoke in between the valve body and a setscrew, fixed at the
top of the yoke with brass washer holding it compressed. The set screw has a female
threaded bush fixed on to top of the yoke and exerts direct pressure on the spindle
which further transfers the pressure on to the valve seat, keeping the valve in tight shut
position against force of the steam pressure.

The top set screw is tightened to set the valve to open only at preset pressure, which is
normally at safe limit over the normal working pressure. When the steam pressure in
drum tends to exceed the set pressure of the screw, the valve seat opens up
compressing the springs against the preset pressure, relieving the over pressure in the
drum to atmosphere.
These types of valves are mainly used in high-pressure boilers. These valves are very
compact and require very less space and can be locked. The illustration is detailed in the
figure above.
Drum Water Level Indicator or Gauge:
The most satisfactory water-level indicator, and the one now almost exclusively used, is
the glass tube water gauge, by means of which the exact level of the water in the boiler
is constantly shown.
A good form of glass tube water gauge, is shown in the figure below.

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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

The level gauge is one of the most important mountings in a boiler as it gives the
physical representation of the drum water level. As per IBR norms, there should be at
least two numbers of level indicators on-line in a running boiler at all times. Operators
should periodically clean the level gauge by systematically blowing both the waterside
and steamside valves.
Fusible Plug:
This is a safety device commonly used for fire tube boilers against high metal
temperature resulting from low water level. The crown of the furnace of some earlier
days boilers is fitted with a plug held in position by fusible metal or alloy. This plug under
normal conditions is covered with water in the boiler which keeps the temperature of the
fusible metal below its melting point. But when the water level in the boiler falls low
enough to uncover the top of the plug, the fusible metal quickly melts, the plug drops
out, and the opening so made allows the steam to rush into the furnace. The steam
thus, puts out the fire or gives warning that the crown of furnace is in danger of being
overheated.

Above Figure illustrates a common form of fusible plug. Hollow gunmetal plug screwed
into the crown plate. A second hollow gunmetal plug screwed into the plug. A third
hollow gunmetal plug is separated from second by fusible metal. The inner surface of
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

second hollow gunmetal and the otter surface of third gunmetal are grooved as shown so
that when the fusible metal is poured in, the second and the third plugs are locked
together. Hexagonal flange is provided in the base of plug so that it can be removed by
using a spanner. There is another hexagonal flange on second plug for finding or
removing it.
Pressure Gauge:

Dial Pressure gauge

internal view

The shape of the pressure gauge is like a clock having a dial and pointer with
graduations of the pressure gauge. If a pressure gauge is opened, by removing the rear
cover plate, it can be seen that there is a pivot at the center, with a small pinion gear
attached to the external indicator needle. The pinion gear is in turn connected with a
worm gear sector, whose one end is connected with a Borden tube through a set of
levers. The Bourdon tube is a metallic, thin walled, flexible construction with semi
circular or oval cross section. The other end of the Borden tube is attached to the siphon
pipe with a cock, which is either fitted on steam/water pipe or to the boiler or pressure
vessel. One helical hairspring is fitted to the central pivot to keep the pointer at fixed
position when the pressure is released. One dial with pressure range is fitted at the back
of this mechanism concentrically. The pivot center is extended through the dial and one
arm/pointer with sharp edge is fitted on this extension, which actuates with the pivot.
When the steam/water, under pressure, is introduced inside the Borden tube through the
siphon pipe the Bourdon pipe expands actuating the central gear through the sector
worm, thus actuating the arm/pointer on the dial bringing the helical spring under
tension (the spring is wound). The pointer indicates correct pressure in the
boiler/vessel/pipe. The mechanism can be calibrated with standard gauges, so that the
error in indicating can be minimized. When the siphon cock is closed the tension on the
helical spring is withdrawn and it releases the spring tension to bringing the pointer back
to its original position.
Siphon cock:
This is a U shaped pipe-having socket and female threads
at one end and other end is fitted with one cock having
female threads. The cock has got a three way
arrangement, with the facility to disconnect the Borden
pipe and to turn on the impulse line to atmosphere, so
that the entrapped air can be cleared, before connecting
the Borden gauge to read pipe line pressure. The Borden
should always be filled with cold leg of condensate and
under no circumstance hot oil or steam can come in
contact and fill it up to avoid any damage. Since the
water in the siphon prevents the hot steam from entering
the Bourdon tube, the gauge is kept comparatively cool.
Continuous overheating of the Bourdon tube would injure it and may permanently affect
the accuracy of the gauge. When in use, the siphon should be cool enough to be grasped
by hand without discomfort
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Main Steam Stop valves/Auxiliary steam valves:

There are different types of such valves viz. right angled stop valves, Globe type valves,
Wedged type parallel seat valves and piston-typed valves.
Feed-check valves:
It is essentially a stop cum non-return type of valve
used earlier. A stop valve is provided on the upper
section and the non-return valve is provided at the
bottom so that when the valve is opened due to
backpressure the non-return valve automatically
closes due to backpressure of the steam in the
boiler. There is a plug provided at the bottom most
portion of the valve body as shown so that in case
the non-return valve is found leaking the stop valve
can be closed and plug can be opened to grind the
non-return valve with the help of screw driver
through the slot provided on the non-return valve
extension spindle. The valve otherwise is just as a
steam stop valve. These days a simple nonreturn valve is used. This non-return valve is
an essential mounting as required by IBR. It is
placed in the feed water line before it enters the
boiler to prevent back flow of feed water from
Boiler.

Blow off valve; blow off cock or mud valve:

The blow off cock is required to empty the boiler periodically for cleaning and inspection.
It will let out any sediment along with a portion of BFW when it is opened. It is fitted
directly to the boiler shell or to a pipe connected with the boiler.
Steam Traps:
Steam traps are devices used to collect and automatically discharge the water resulting
from partial condensation of steam without allowing any steam to escape. The trap is so
located that water from the condensation of the steam in the steam pipe flows by gravity
to it.
In order to receive the greatest return from the cost of generating and using steam as a
heating and process medium a good working knowledge of steam traps, and application
is essential.
Why A Steam Trap?
Steam generated by a boiler contains heat units, which are released in heating, process
applications and pipe radiation loss and in doing so the steam returns to its condensate
state. If condensate is not drained immediately or "trapped from the system, it
reduces operating efficiency by slowing the heat transfer process and can cause
physical damage through the phenomenon known as "Water Hammer".
When condensate accumulate on the bottom of a horizontal pipe, is swept along by the
velocity of the steam passing over it. As the velocity of condensate increases it form
a solid slug of incompressible water, when it is suddenly stored by a pipe bend, fitting
or valve produces shock wave of tremendous momentary force which can cause great
physical damage. So in low pressure as well as in high pressure systems, the steam
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

piping must be designed in such a way that it will drain condensate properly for avoiding
water pockets.
A trap is therefore required at all locations where condensate is formed and collects,
principally
Location of trap in steam distribution system:
a) At elevation changes such as risers and expansion loops.
b) At all low points and at intervals of 200 to 500 ft. on long horizontal runs.
c) Ahead of all possible "dead-end" areas such as shut-off valves, pressure and
temperature control valves and at ends of system.
Location of trap in steam operated equipments:
A) Ahead of humidifiers, pumps, turbines etc.
B) Draining directly below heat exchangers coils, unit heaters and driers etc.
Types of Traps:
Traps are of two broad kinds. Those, which distinguish water from steam owing to the
difference in density of the two-phases, are the mechanical traps, and those which
distinguish by means of temperature these are the thermostatic or expansion traps.
Mechanical Traps:
Plain Float Traps
Bucket Traps
Thermostatic or Expansion Traps:
Metallic Expansion Traps;
Liquid Expansion Traps;
Balanced Pressure Expansion Traps;
Relay Traps;
Thermodynamic Trap
Boiler Accessories and Auxiliaries:
Superheater:
It is an important accessory, where the temperature of steam is increased above
saturation temperature by further heating dry saturated steam.
We have seen that in thermal power
generation using steam, the cycle
efficiency improves when steam is
superheated. Mixture of water and water
vapour enters drum through water
separators, where the dry steam is
separated and comes out through steam
raiser pipes. The steam coming out from
drum through saturated steam pipes is
dry and saturated. The saturated steam
flow takes its passage through set of
coils, called Superheater, where further
heat is added to increase steam
temperature at constant pressure.
Superheater is generally located above furnace, at high radiant and convection heat
zone. Superheating is also done in stages through a set of Superheaters e.g., Primary
Superheater and Secondary Superheater.
Economizer:
Economizer is another important accessory to a boiler plant. It is similar to feed water
heater but it is called Economizer, since, by its function; it helps to improve upon
efficiency of the boiler and saves on fuel consumption.
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

The temperature of the combustion gases, leaving final Superheater zone is very high
and has got good potential of heat energy which can be effectively tapped off. Further
ahead of all Superaheaters, Economizer is located so that the heat potential still left over
can be recovered by heating boiler feed water, before it enters the drum. Economizer is
nothing but a heat exchanger, where in the heat available in waste gases can be
effectively utilized to preheat the feed water going to boiler drum.
Location and Arrangements of Economisers:
The economizer is located, along the flue gas path, before the last two stages of Air
heaters and following the primary Superheater or Reheater. Hence it will generally be
contained in the same casing along the second pass of the flue gas path, where the
primary superheater or reheater is located. Counterflow arrangement is normally
selected so that heating surface requirement is kept at minimum for the same
temperature drop in the flue gas. Economizer coils are designed for horizontal
placement, which facilitates draining of the coil and favors the construction
arrangements in the second pass of boiler. Water flow is from bottom to top so that
steam, if any formed during the heat transfer can move along with water and prevent
the lock up of steam, which will cause overheating and failure of economizer tube.
Economiser
coils
are
arranged
in
horizontal direction across the width. The
coils are made to take several turns in
loops welded with U bends at the ends
and finally connecting to headers at inlet
and outlet. The economizer coils can be
arranged one over the other in straight
line or with cross pitch arrangements.
Some of the economizers are designed
with finned tubes to increase the heat
pick up area.
Economizer tubes are supported in such a manner that sagging, undue deflection and
expansion prevention will not occur at any condition of operation. A recirculation line
with a stop valve and non-return valve may be incorporated to keep circulation through
the economizer back into steam drum, when there is fire in furnace but feed flow to
drum is cut off due to high water level. (e.g. during start up period). Tube elements
composing the unit are built up into tiers or banks and these are connected to inlet and
outlet headers. Manholes and adequate access and spacing between banks of tubes are
provided for inspection and maintenance work. Normally the tube bank arrangement and
steam soot blowers provision at appropriate location will facilitate efficient on load
cleaning. An ash hopper below the economizer is provided if the flue gas duct is taking a
turn from vertical.
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

Air-preheater:
Combustion is a process of vigorous chemical reaction of a fuel with Oxygen and the
required Oxygen is received from atmospheric air, which is available in abundance in
nature. We have seen earlier for proper combustion of a fuel three Ts i.e. Time,
Temperature and Turbulence are essential. Time and Turbulence can be created by
supply of combustion air at a required pressure, velocity and direction. To sustain the
temperature of burning fuel, it is also essential to supply combustion air preheated to
higher Temperature. Perfect and efficient combustion of fuel can be achieved in a boiler,
if the atmospheric air can be preheated by the low temperature flue gas, which is
otherwise going to be wasted through the chimney. Hence a device called Air Preheater
is used in boilers for the purpose of preheating combustion air by the flue gas and then
is supplied for fuel combustion.
Based on the operating principle, the Air Preheaters are classified into two different
types, namely, Recuperative (Tubular) and Regenerative (Rotating) Air Preheaters.
Feed Water Pump
The feed pump is used to deliver feed water to the boiler, and it is required to supply a
quantity of water at least equal to that converted into steam and used by the engine.
Feed pumps may be either reciprocating or rotary pumps.
The feed pump is sometimes worked from the engine direct or from the shaft by an
eccentric attached to the plunger. Pumps are also worked independently by using steam
directly from the boiler. Such pumps are called direct-acting pumps.
Rotary feed pumps are generally of the high speed centrifugal type, driven directly by a
small steam turbine or by an electric motor. Rotary pumps may be single-stage or multistage according to whether one or more impellers are used. In the single-stage pump,
the full pressure of water is obtained in one chamber in which the impeller revolves. In a
multi-stage pump a number of impellers are keyed on the same shaft, each impeller
working in its own chamber or stage. These pumps are also known as turbine pumps.
The discharge pressure of a feed pump should have enough margins over the highest
boiler pressure (Safety valve over pressure) to overcome frictional resistance of the feed
line.
Deaerator:
One of the feedwater heaters is a contact-type open heater, known as deaerator, others
being closed heaters. It is used for the purpose of deaerating (primarily removal of
dissolved oxygen) the feedwater.
The presence of dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in water makes the
water corrosive, as they react with the metal to form iron oxide. The solubility of these
gases in water decreases with increase in temperature and becomes zero at the boiling
or saturation temperature. These gases are removed in the deaerator, where feedwater
is heated to the saturation temperature by the steam extracted (sometimes called
pegging steam) from the turbine. Feedwater, after passing through a heat exchanger,
called vent condenser, is sprayed from the top so as to expose large surface area, and
the bled steam from the turbine is fed from the bottom. By contact the steam condenses
and the feedwater is heated to the saturation temperature. Dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide gases get released from the water and leave along with some vapour, which is
condensed back in the vent condenser, and the gases are vented out.
To neutralize the effect of residual dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide gases in water,
sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) or hydrazine (N2H2) is injected in suitable calculated doses into
the feedwater at the suction of the boiler feed pump (BFP).
During suction of the BFP, some of the saturated feed water may flash into vapour due
to reduction in pressure causing vapour lock and cavitations problems in the pump. To
prevent this from occurring the deaerator is located at a sufficient height (H) from the
level where the pump is installed so that the pressure before suction remains positive.
This is called NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head). When this water is sucked by the pump,
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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

the pressure does not fall below Psat and there is no flashing of any water into vapour,
which protects the BFP from any damage due to vapour lock and cavitations.

Deaerator with storage tank

The deaerator is usually placed near the middle of the feedwater system so that the total
pressure difference between the condenser and the boiler is shared equitably between
the condensate pump and boiler feed pump. The feedwater heaters before the deaerator
are often termed as low pressure (L.P.) heaters.
Steam Separators:
When steam supplied to an engine is not superheated it is almost certain to contain
water suspended in it. The ultimate use of steam in an industrial plant determines the
degree of steam purity required for operation. While carryover can never be eliminated,
even with the best boiler designs and boiler water chemistry, it can be reduced to a
tolerable level.
When a boiler must have optimum steam purity, operating pressure is a deciding factor
in the design. At low pressures, the density of water is many times greater than that of
steam. Therefore, adequate disengaging space and water surface area can be provided
to achieve desired steam purity. As pressures increase, the density difference between
steam and water decreases. To size a steam drum to separate steam and water
adequately at higher pressure is cost prohibitive; therefore, mechanical separators are
employed. The two major types of mechanical separation are primary separation and
secondary separation (or steam scrubbing).
Primary Separation: This form of mechanical carryover prevention utilizes rapid and
abrupt changes in the direction of steam flow. Major separation of the steam and water
occurs in these primary devices. Simple baffles, curtain baffles, belly baffles, and cyclone
separators are used in primary separation. Over 98% of the steam purity is achieved in
the primary separation phase.
Secondary Separation: With the small amounts of moisture that remain after primary
separation, the scrubbing or drying process has to be accomplished through rapid
directional changes of the steam flow in conjunction with large surface areas for
collection of the mist. In addition, steam velocity must be low to avoid reintrainment of
the boiler water. Normally, screens or corrugated plates with close tolerances are used
as steam scrubbers.

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Steam Boiler - Training Workshop for Operators & Technicians

As the steam-water mixture rises
above the tube bundle it enters the
Steam Drum. An arrangement of steel
plates as shown here, called Cyclone
Separators force the steam-water
mixture into a swirling centrifugal
motion, which results in the water
droplets moving to the outside area of
the separator where they are drained
off. The steam flows upwards as it
becomes lighter with the removal of
the moisture content. The final stage
of drying the steam takes place in a
second stage of water removal called
scrubbers, which are located above
the cyclone separators. The steam that
leaves the steam drum had its
moisture content reduced to about
0.1% from the 90% that entered the
steam drum.
Fans:
The prime function of a fan is to move mass of air or gas, constantly through closed and
guided passage, at a moderate pressure and velocity, for distribution at targeted
location or locations. Though a little amount of compression does occur, fans are not
supposed to compress or expand air/gas during fanning action. Fans can also handle
gases carrying dust particles in suspension. In a boiler fans are deployed for different
applications, such as supply of the required quantity of atmospheric air at required
pressure for enabling fuel combustion, instant removal of products of combustion,
supplying air for cooling of equipment working in hot zones etc. Fans are designed and
designated according to the function they are meant for in boiler (e.g.) Induced Draft
Fan, Forced Draft Fan, Primary Air Fan, Seal Air fan and Motor Cooling Fans etc.
Fans are broadly classified into axial and radial (Centrifugal) types, according to flow
direction of the medium at inlet or / and outlet, with reference to axis of shaft rotation.
The construction and shape of the fan will be according to its function as axial flow or
radial flow fan.

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