SPE 126446

Industry Experience With CO2-Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology

R.E. Sweatman, Halliburton; M.E. Parker, ExxonMobil; and S.L. Crookshank, American Petroleum Institute

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 SPE International Conference on CO2 Capture, Storage, and Utilization held in San Diego, California, USA, 24 November 2009.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
This paper provides substantial and compelling evidence from API (American Petroleum Institute) CCS (Carbon Capture &
Storage) Work Group and other studies of CO2 EOR (enhanced oil recovery) and CCS projects showing that CO2 capture,
transport, and (GS) geologic-sequestration can be a safe and effective method to reduce GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions and
mitigate climate change. The paper summarizes how the oil and gas (O&G) industry has achieved great success in
engineering the process to capture, transport, and inject CO2 in EOR projects. This success is seen in over 37 years of safe
and environmentally friendly large-scale operations, lessons learned, technical advancements, and millions of tons of CO2
injected. Third party investigations to evaluate this successful record are discussed, including some completed ones that have
published statements validating the O&G industrys success. Now that CCS is being widely considered and a few countries
have begun to implement commercial-scale CCS projects, technology transfer efforts such as this paper are needed to share
the experience of the oil and gas industry and the major contribution it can make as part of the solution for climate change.

Introduction
Historical Overview.
Since the first patent for CO2 EOR was granted in 1952 (Whorton), the O&G industry has spent many tens of billions of
dollars developing and implementing CO2 EOR technologies, asset development, and operational experience. As new sources
of CO2 have become available, field testing and demonstration or pilot project activities have been conducted. These
development and improvement efforts have been continuous since the first project in 1964. The first large-scale, commercial
CO2 EOR project began operations in 1972 at the SACROC field in West Texas, which continues in operation today. Many
more have started since then and by 2008 had reached a total of 112 projects, as reported in the EOR Survey by the Oil and
Gas Journal (O&GJ, 2008). Since 1952, numerous patents, best practices, equipment, and products have been developed for
CO2 EOR well construction and injection/production operations. Innovative, cost-effective materials, equipment, and
methods continue to be developed and implemented such as the recent introduction of real-time, smart-well operations at
SACROC. Much of this knowledge has been documented in hundreds of technical papers and several books that have been
published on the subject including many applicable API standards and specifications.
CO2 EOR Technology for CCS Deployment.
Underground geological storage of CO2 is a promising technology for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions because
much of the technology developed by the oil and gas industry associated with natural gas processing and CO2 EOR can
support the sound implementation of CCS and huge storage capacity exists in deep saline formations, depleted oil and gas
reservoirs, and unmineable coal seams. According to a major report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 2005), as much as 55 percent of a worldwide GHG mitigation effort thru 2100 could be achieved through carbon
capture and storage. The IPCC also expresses confidence that CO2 can be stored safely over very long periods of time and
cites several studies as evidence that the potential for leakage decreases the longer the CO2 is underground.
The IPCC clearly considers CO2 EOR as a form of underground CO2 storage. In CO2 EOR, storage occurs as CO2
displaces hydrocarbons from reservoir pore spaces and the injected CO2 is trapped within the reservoirs pore spaces through
capillary forces and other mechanisms. CO2 EOR projects can also be easily converted to CCS projects at the end of their

SPE 126446

operating lifetimes. Accordingly, the petroleum industry, with a long history of successful CO2 EOR operations, can make
substantial contributions to improve and accelerate the deployment of CCS projects.
The petroleum industry processes and experiences relevant to CCS include separating (or capturing) CO2 from oil or
natural gas production, pipeline transportation to EOR projects, and design and operation of surface and subsurface systems
for injection of CO2. Figure 1 shows a map of the 3,500+ mile network of CO2 pipelines in the United States and Canada.
The yellow shaded areas represent many of the sources of CO2 from both underground reservoirs and from above-ground
sources such as plants processing ammonia, treating natural gas, and gasifying coal.

Figure 1. CO2 pipeline network from Figure 5 in SPE 113975 by Mohan et al

Recent estimates by Kinder Morgan show that 655 million tons of CO2 have been injected in EOR projects over the past
37 years, which is an average of 17.7 million tons per year. This amount is equivalent to the total CO2 emissions of four to
five 500 MW capacity coal-fired, electric power plants. Currently, the O&GJ EOR Survey reports that 15,373 wells (94% of
all CO2 EOR wells) including 9,144 producing and 6,229 injectors are operating in 105 CO2 EOR projects in the United
States and 975 wells (6% of all CO2 EOR wells) in 7 projects in other countries. Figure 2 is a photograph of portion of a CO2
EOR surface facility owned by PEMEX in Carmito, Mexico that has been safely and effectively recovering CO2 for over ten
years from nearby fields hydrocarbon producing wells and compressing it for pipeline distribution to CO2 EOR project wells
in the area.

Figure 2. PEMEXs CO2 EOR facility was commissioned in 1998 with compressors, membrane separators, and distribution via
manifolds for pipelines and well flowlines in Carmito, Mexico.

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Industry CCS Activities

Oil and gas industry companies participate in research consortiums and fund research at major universities to answer the
technical and policy questions surrounding GHG management, including carbon capture and storage. The Carbon Dioxide
Capture Projects (CCP & CCP2), Gulf Coast Carbon Center (GCCC), CO2Remove, Carbon Mitigation Initiative, and the
Global Climate and Energy Project (GCEP) are prominent examples of such consortia. API is continually developing
recommended practices, standards, and other information to ensure the ongoing safe and environmentally sound operation of
CO2 EOR operations. These same standards and practices, based on extensive industry experience should help any
government agencies or regulators prepare sound rules for CO2 injection facilities and wells. Additionally, API and IPIECA
(International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association) have developed guidance on accounting for CO2
emission reductions associated with CO2 storage projects.

Industry has years of experience injecting CO2 in quantities

comparable to that produced from a large coal-fired power plant.

Tons/day of Injected CO2

25000

20000

No EOR; Captured CO2

EOR; Captured CO2
EOR; Geologically Sourced CO2

15000

500 MW Coal-fired Electric Power Plant Emissions

10000

5000

as
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W

oc
Sa
cr

in
ol
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Se
m

an
gl
ey
R

W
ey
bu
rn

re
ek
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on
el
l

Sa
la
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Sa
lt
C

In

Sl
ei
pn
er

CO2 Injection Projects

FIGURE 3. CO2 injection by large commercial scale CO2 EOR projects compared to CO2 sequestration needed for a large power
plant

CCS and CO2 EOR Studies

API Studies of CO2 EOR Operations in the United States.
Some groups have voiced concerns about embracing geologic storage of CO2 without a thorough understanding of the
potential for impacting Underground Sources of Drinking Water (USDW). Although sufficient evidence exists to argue that
CO2 injection and storage over long time frames can be accomplished with very low risk to USDWs, the API recognized the
need for a comprehensive publication to document CO2 EOR best practices and technologies, and to substantiate the case for
sustained well integrity and CO2 containment within oil and gas and other reservoirs. Key arguments supporting this case
include: 1) oil and natural gas (including CO2) have been trapped in geologic structure over geologic time frames, 2)
numerous other gas storage projects (e.g. sour gas injection, natural gas storage) have been successfully accomplished
without adverse impact to USDWs and 3) years of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) experiences have produced technologies,
expertise and procedures for safe and environmentally sound CO2 handling, and injection well construction, operation, and
maintenance.
In 2007 the API completed a study to compile CO2 EOR injection well technologies representing the state of the art. A
survey of operators, representing most of the projects in the United States, was conducted to better document best practices
and to review records of successful performance. The API published the studys findings in a report titled Summary of
Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2 EOR) Injection Well Technology, (API, 2007). The report can be
downloaded from the API website and contains detailed information on how the O&G industry has successfully constructed

SPE 126446

and operated CO2 EOR projects. Subsequent work by the API CCS Workgroup and other API committees, such as the RP 65
Task Group, discovered even more information to help explain the successful history of CO2 EOR operations.
In conducing the API study the contractor surveyed CO2 EOR project operators with a number of questions designed to
capture best practices and operational performance. Specific questions regarding performance are listed below:
Injection Well Performance/Integrity
o Workovers (nature/frequency)?
o Typically encountered problems and failure rate, that is, out of X wells, Y problems are encountered?
o Unique (non-standard problems) that have been identified and resolved?
Safety Practices and Performance
o Monitoring practices for tubing and casing including: standardized or mandated tests, as well as site specific tests
(open valve on casing, PSH, etc.)?
o Incidents that have occurred?
o Workover kill practices?
o Contingency plans?
CO2 Confinement in the Reservoir
o Any CO2 leakage observed (injectors, abandoned wells, seepage, etc)?
Survey results included many findings that had not been clearly presented before, particularly in the context of the
concerns around CCS. For example, to cement wells, CO2 EOR operators have used Portland cement-based well cement
systems almost without exception and significantly, without adverse loss of CO2 containment. These cost-effective,
conventional cements were designed to have sealing and structural support properties suitable for the CO2 EOR application.
No evidence of chronic leaks into USDW zones or into the atmosphere were found. CO2 well operators gave testimonials
claiming no USDW contamination and reported that their well design and construction practices prevented the endangerment
of USDW and the atmosphere. Ongoing work by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Gulf Coast Carbon Center is
further validating these claims.
It is generally accepted that injected CO2 will react with the in-situ formation water to create a weak carbonic acid
solution, which is the basis for much of the concerns raised regarding CCS. Following the formation of the weak acid
solution, several potential chemical reactions are possible, many of which could occur concurrently. Some investigators
claim that CO2 EOR and CCS storage reservoirs have corrosion conditions represented by the chemical equations below:
CO2 (aq) + H2O ' H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)

Equation (1)

H2CO3 + C-S-H (*) J amorphous silica gel + CaCO3

H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 (**) J CaCO3 + 2 H2O
aq = aqueous solution of CO2 in pure water
* C-S-H (calcium-silica-hydrate) compounds are major components in Portland cements.
** Calcium hydroxide in set Portland cement.
The double arrow indicates that the first equation is reversible and the amount of carbonic acid formed can decrease
depending on conditions such as temperature and pressure. The amount of carbonic acid formed from injected CO2 may
typically be less than 1% by volume and often only 0.2% of the total volume of CO2 (Ho et al). Another representation of the
chemical reactions involving CO2 in pure water is presented below by Ho et al at Yale University and includes the respective
ionization constants:

H + HCO3
k13

k12
k21

k31

H2CO3
k23

H2O + CO2

k32

SPE 126446

However, geochemists and others have found that the above equations dont fully represent the complexity of the
geochemical reactions that occur within geologic storage reservoirs. The reactions depicted in the equations below occur
when CO2 contacts the dissolved ions (mineral salts, etc) present in the formation brine waters and the mineral surfaces of the
rock inside the formation porosity and permeability.) Subsurface mineralization work (Hangx , 2005) included the following
series of possible geochemical reactions of subsurface brine waters where the bicarbonate from carbonic acid reacts with
cations present in the reservoir water to form stable carbonates in the mineralization process with the following examples:

The in-situ formation water's salinity and mineral content can substantially effect the amount of carbonic acid formed
because CO2 molecules have difficulty hydrating and are easily buffered compared to those mixed in fresh water in metal or
glass lab containers or testing devices. For example, the carbonic-acid-induced pH of CO2 mixed in pure or other inert water
solutions in laboratories is lower (more acidic) than would actually be present in underground formations primarily due to the
lower CO2-induced carbonic acid content from buffering action by materials found in formation fluids and the reservoir rock
surfaces. Cations from mineral salts and combinations of them present in reservoirs can limit decreases in the brine waters
pH from CO2 injection through mineral buffering and sustain much less corrosive environments than some researchers have
claimed (Duguid, 2004).
Actual pH values of fluids in contact with well cements and pipe may average between 4.5 and 5.5, which are considered
weakly acidic conditions compared to the much more acidic conditions created in lab tests by some researchers and by
unrealistically-low calculated values by some software models that attempt to predict pH conditions. In 2008 at the
International Energy Association (IEA) GHG R&D Programs Joint Network meeting, Czernichowski-Lauriol et al presented
the IEA Modeling Networks progress in peer reviewing various software models. This presentation included work done by
Audigane et al for the Sleipner CCS project offshore Norway which predicted the maximum decrease in pH by supercritical
CO2 injection into the Utsira saline aquifer would be to a value no lower than 5.13 over 10,000 years.
Smyth et al and Lu et al worked on the same CO2 geochemical laboratory testing project at the Gulf Coast Carbon Center,
Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin (BEG/UT). Both report
that under simulated geochemical conditions pH values can drop rapidly when CO2 is introduced, and then rebound to higher
values as shown in Figure 4a. Regarding R1 (Smyth et al and Lu et al) in Figure 4a, Smyth et al states that: In Reactor 1, for
example, pH (initially) dropped from over 7.9 to 4.8 within hours after introduction of CO2, then rebounded and remained at
~5.4. The pH rebound is probably due to mineral buffering, in this case dissolution of dolomite and, to a lesser extent,
potassium feldspar. Lu et al refined the pH vs time data presentation in the paper by Smyth et al to report it as Figure 4a in a
second paper. Some of the refinements include deleting R5 and renumbering the reactors presented in the paper by Smyth et
al. For example, R8 and R9 in the paper by Smyth et al are R6 and R7 in the paper by Lu et al. R7 in Figure 4a is from a
sample that did not contain buffering minerals. Therefore, pH is low (as low as 3.2) and constant during the experiment
without buffering minerals. These lab-generated pH values help explain why higher than expected pH values in Figure 4b
were measured in a U-tube device under downhole conditions at the Frio CCS test project (Hovorka et al, 2005). The mineral
buffering effect may typically occur in storage and EOR reservoirs and should be simulated in lab testing procedures for well
material (cement, pipe, etc.) selection and in software modeling applications to predict corrosive conditions (pH vs. time)
during all phases of the project, i.e., CO2 injection operations, site closure after CO2 injection is finished, and the post-closure
phase for long-term monitoring of CO2 containment. The actual pH will depend on the particular type of formation and the
associated mineralogy. Hence the formation type, formation fluid and rock minerals should be understood in detail to
evaluate the downhole pH.

SPE 126446

Figure 4a. Simulated geochemical conditions in laboratory tests of pH values vs time by Lu et al showing the rebound in pH when
CO2 is introduced on day 14. (Courtesy of Gulf Coast Carbon Center, Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences,
The University of Texas at Austin)

Figure 4b. Frio CCS test project measurements of pH via U-tube device in an observation well showing the higher than expected pH
when the CO2 plume arrives at the well. (Courtesy of Gulf Coast Carbon Center, Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of
Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin)

These weak in-situ acidic conditions help explain why operators have successfully used Portland cement-based systems to
seal and support wells in CO2 EOR projects. The extreme degradation of cement common in many lab test results is likely

SPE 126446

due to the absence of mineral buffering and not matching other reservoir conditions. Investigators mentioned in the following
sections have found additional reasons why cement and pipe are protected from carbonic acid-induced corrosion.
Zonal Isolation and Well Integrity Studies by API RP 65 Task Group.
During the last nine years, representatives from government, academic, and industry organizations of the API Task Group
on Annular Flow Prevention studied the causes and prevention of annular flow incidents and sustained casing pressure (SCP)
in wells, which are recognized indicators of poor well cement integrity. Two API recommended-practice publications (RP-65
Parts 1 and 2) were prepared and approved that describe preventive measures for any potential flow zone in any type of well
including those in CO2 zones. Preventative measures include key well planning, drilling, mechanical barrier, and cementing
practices designed to help ensure cement integrity and isolation of potential flow zones. SPE 97168 (Bannerman et al, 2009)
provides an overview of these best practice documents that may be adopted by regulators to approve well construction
permits. RP 65 Part 1 has already been adopted by the MMS and published in its entirety in the U.S. Federal Register.
Achieving cement integrity and zonal isolation in the presence of a potential annular flow of CO2 requires not only the
modification of the cement properties to facilitate control of migrating formation fluids and CO2 but also several other
practices including:
A stable wellbore: no fluid losses or gains prior to, during, and after the cementing process
Adequate annular circulating flow clearances to prevent abnormal displacement pressures
Proper mud/hole conditioning prior to cementing to remove cuttings, gelled mud, and excessive filter-cake
Spacer designs that help remove mud and leave pipe/formation surfaces water-wet for better cement bonds
Casing centralization to allow better placement of cement all around the pipe
Proper tripping requirements to prevent negative effects by excessive swab/surge pressures
Proper drilling techniques to ensure hole quality and minimize washouts, spiraling, and ovality
Well monitoring to ensure cementing pressures, pump rates, and densities meet designed values
Waiting on cement (before start of well operations) for a sufficient time period to allow undisturbed cement curing
Use of mechanical barriers when appropriate to overcome problematic conditions
Application of RP 65 practices can minimize the risk of CO2 migration as a result of the multiple pressure barriers
installed in wells in the form of multiple casing strings from the surface of the well to its total depth, mechanical pressurebarrier devices (packers, etc), and the cemented sections around each pipe. For example, each cemented section can create
multiple pressure-barriers. Every few feet in length of cemented annular intervals across competent-sealing formations such
as shales is strong enough to hold hundreds of psi pressure exerted by CO2 from the reservoir. For example, a typical 500foot long cemented annulus can provide hundreds of short-sealing intervals that work together to prevent catastrophic failures
of well integrity The chances of all of the short-intervals failing to seal are infinitesimal. Note also that RP 65 effectively
deals with preventing natural gas (NG) migration which is much more difficult to prevent than CO2 migration. This is
because NG is an inert gas with more buoyancy than chemical reactive CO2 molecules which can seal leak pathways by
precipitating CaCO3 scale.
Studies Show Pipe Corrosion Minimized by Portland Based Cements.
The O&G industry has more has 60 years of experience in protecting carbon-steel pipe in well tubing and flowlines from
corrosion by acidic fluids by lining the pipe with Portland-based cement systems. This cement-lined pipe is used to prevent
both dry and wet CO2 from contacting the inner surfaces of carbon-steel pipe in both EOR injection and production wells. In
the 1970s and 80s, cement-lined well tubing and flowlines dominated the CO2 EOR-service pipe market for injection and
production wells including CO2 EOR wells. One pipe manufacturing company (cement-lined pipe website) in West Texas
reports on their website that cement-lined well tubing and flowlines in excess of 80 million feet of pipe have been utilized by
operators since the late 1940s and in the last 12 years more than 24 million feet have been installed. New types of plasticlinings have been introduced and have a major share of the well pipe market for handling sour fluids. However, several
million linear feet of cement-lined pipe continues to be installed each year.
Portland cement-based systems are commonly used to cement casing in CO2 EOR wells. Long standing successful
experience with Portland based cements in these applications suggests there are mechanisms working to protect both the
cement and the tubulars from excessive corrosion. One potential mechanism is autogenous healing, also called self-sealing.
The chemical properties of Portland cement based systems lead to reactions that prevent CO2 contacting the pipe, thus
protecting pipe from corrosion. The cement self-seals by reacting with the CO2 to form an impermeable carbonated layer in
the cement lining inside well tubing, surface flowlines, and outside of well casing and liner pipe. The impermeable,
carbonated layer prevents carbonic acid attack on the surfaces of the carbon steel pipe. This technology was introduced in the
1940s for acidic-service wells for both well construction and production applications. It has been applied in many CO2 EOR
projects in the United States during the 37-year history of commercial-scale CO2 EOR operations and in earlier smallerscale
CO2 huff-n-puff treatments. For example in 1964, Runyan reported that "cement-lined tubing is impervious to any normal

SPE 126446

oilfield water, including very sour waters. Erosion due to high flow rates presents no problems." Later in 1969, Beach
reported the development of cement/flyash/sand linings for steel pipe that are "uniform, strong and inert." A few years later in
1973, Schremp tested cement-lined pipe in water-alternating-gas (WAG) supercritical CO2 flows and reported "cement
linings showed no evidence of deterioration or separation from the pipe wall. There also was no indication of stratification or
spalling of the cement." In 1977, Newton studied cement-lined pipe applications at SACROC and said, "Although the CO2
content of the produced water has increased, no deterioration of the cement lining has been noted." This technologys
successful applications also help explain the O&G industrys great HSE operational performance record including the
containment of CO2 inside EOR reservoirs. This CO2 EOR well integrity technology and field-proven practices are equally
applicable for CCS projects. O&G industry experience also challenges the claims of cement degradation when CCS operators
properly design Portland-cement based formulations that do not dissolve or erode away when exposed to wet CO2-induced
acidic fluid flows in injection or production wells. Sweatman et al provides more information on this cement design
technology and experience in paper SPE 126226 and others are outlined in API Report, Summary of Carbon Dioxide
Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO2EOR) Injection Well Technology, (Appendix 2 - Descriptions of API Cements and Specialty
Cements.)
U.S. EPA Funded Studies.
At U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and IEA meetings in March 2007, Koplos et al presented a well
integrity study of Underground Injection Control (UIC) injection wells that included data from EPA studies of Class II (CO2
EOR) injection well mechanical integrity tests (MIT) and reported No reported USDW impacts associated with wells with
any known internal or external MIT failures in the 1983-1992 period. MIT are measurements of the pressure sealing
performance (max 5% loss in 30 mins) in one part of the well such as Annulus A which is the area sealed at the top/bottom
by the wellhead/packer and between the injection tubing and the well casing. The Koplos study also conducted an analysis of
the MIT data in the 1983-2005 time period for all Class II CO2 injection wells in Texas as shown in the table below. This
papers authors added the data in the last two columns of Table 1 below for a better comparison on a yearly basis. The data
also shows the number of failed MIT that passed after maintenance repairs were made (avg. 75%) to seal them vs. those that
were not put back into active service (avg. 25%) and instead were sealed by being plugged and abandoned (P&A).

Table 1 - Texas UIC Program MIT Data - Class II CO2 EOR Wells (1983-2005)
Period of Years
1983 - 1995
1995 - 1999
2000 - 2005

# of CO2 Injection Wells

3324
3432
3978

# of Failed MIT
135 in 12 years
46 in 4 years
298 in 6 years

% of Failed MIT
4.1 in 12 years
1.3 in 4 years
7.5 in 6 years

# (%) Each Year

11 (0.33)
12 (0.34)
50 (1.26)

# Sealed / P&A
8/3
9/3
38 / 12

The significance of this data is that MIT failures are rare and, where they do occur, effective response or repair
technologies exist that protect underground water resources. Koplos et al performed other studies for EPA to help prepare the
draft Class VI rules for CO2 injection wells in CCS projects. A recent EPA Notice announced its proposed rules posted in the
Federal Register for Class VI wells for geologic storage of CO2 in CCS projects which included the following statement:
There have been no documented cases of leakage from these projects [since the UIC (Underground Injection Control)
Program started in the mid-1980s]. This conclusion supports the O&G industrys outstanding record of no USDW or
atmospheric endangerment by CO2 emissions from CO2 EOR projects.
Other Studies of CO2 Containment.
The IEA GHG R&D Programs Monitoring Network reported on soil gas sampling measurements at the Rangely field
CO2 EOR project and concluded that the total amount of CO2 leakage from the EOR zone was less than 0.01% over 15 years
of CO2 EOR operations. The IEA report also stated that there is no evidence of CO2 leakage from the storage reservoir at
other CCS projects including Weyburn, Frio, and Sleipner. One depleted oil well in the West Pearl Queen Field in New
Mexico was found to leak CO2 at less than 0.1% per year as a result of sealing integrity damage caused by an overpressure
event. However, other CO2 well integrity studies summarized by Sweatman et al provides an extensive amount of evidence
of sustained sealing success. Another significant study by Smyth et al at BEG/UT is ongoing to evaluate CO2 containment by
the confining zones surrounding the EOR reservoir at 6,000 to 7,000 ft depth and by the several hundred EOR wells sealing
integrity at the SACROC CO2 EOR project. The study involves a water well and groundwater monitoring program of
periodically sampling drinking water from USDW zones above the CO2 zone. Smyth et al reported that water sample testing
from 68 wells and one spring indicate that no CO2 leakage from the EOR zone has occurred into the USDW zones in the field
after 35 years of CO2 injection operations..
BEG/UT is also starting a study of UIC Class II CO2 injection well integrity records in Texas to double check that no
significant well integrity issues or CO2 leakage has occurred during the UIC programs history. A recent GHGT-9 paper by
Duncan et al at BEG/UT, 2008, reported on CO2 leakage risk assessment and blowouts (accidental flows) and concluded that
the risk is very low and in all 24 of the reported temporary blowouts during the last 37 years, no damage to USDW or life

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threatening asphyxiation had occurred. One of the 24 incidents occurred during the drilling of a new well and the others
happened during workover rig or other well operations in existing wells. This papers authors considered the 24 incidents
since 1983 against the total amount of operating CO2 EOR wells and calculated a negligible incident frequency rate at an
estimated 0.0087% of wells per year. Duncan et al concluded that The CO2-EOR industry has an excellent safety record.
Finally CCP has been studying the effects of CO2 on well integrity via a wellbore sampling and laboratory analysis
program underway since 2006. In a GHGT9 paper (Crow, 2008), a comprehensive study was described and conclusions
presented following an investigation of a 30-year old well from a natural CO2 production reservoir. The types of information
collected in this survey permitted analysis of individual components (casing, cement and reservoir fluid and pressure
measurements) for comparison to the larger scale system including the interfaces. Effective placement of the Portland-fly ash
cement system was a key element in the observed performance of a barrier system confirmed as having provided effective
hydraulic isolation.
The above discussed studies add up to an overwhelming amount of compelling evidence to validate the O&G industrys
great HSE performance record in CO2 EOR and CCS operations. This evidence should be broadly disseminated to help
public and interested organizations understand the significant contribution the O&G industry can make to the mitigation of
climate change and enhancement of energy security
API Collaboration can Improve HSE Performance for CCS Projects
The API welcomes new opportunities to improve industrys HSE performance and has supported all interested parties in such
efforts. For CCS projects, the API provided valuable information to the U.S. DOE, EPA, and environmental NGOs on CO2
EOR technology and best practices that will help ensure successful HSE performance. The APIs activity in CCS also
includes providing comments to government authorities in the legislative and executive branches. Accordingly, the
information from API and other studies may benefit the decision process for developing and commercializing CCS projects
and GS well construction, operations, and abandonment technology.
Sound Development Practices for CCS.
The O&G industry has a great record in sound development (SD) for operational surface facilities and wells in
environmentally and politically sensitive site locations. This may usually involves the use of HSE and well integrity standard
industry practices with more oversight by local regulators and community representatives.
Sensitive Sites.
Unlike solar and wind energy equipment and facilities, O&G wells, rigs and other structures can be hidden from public
view in order to satisfy concerns regarding unattractive industrial facilities and the effect on community interests such as
tourism and residential property values. O&G surface facilities and wells can also avoid environmentally sensitive locations
such as wildlife habitats in marshes and other wetlands. This is accomplished by drilling many directional wells from a single
location that is not near the sensitive area or that can be made to look like an office building or from totally submerged
subsea structures built offshore on the seafloor. Examples of safe and environmentally sound oil and gas operations being
conducted in sensitive areas can be found in many parts of the world. Similar approaches are equally viable for CCS projects.
Extended reach drilling technology can also enable CO2 to be safely injected many miles from a surface location via
directional wells from hidden facilities along the shore or on nearby islands and injected into storage reservoirs far away from
populated shorelines. For example in Figure 5 (Sakhalin-1), Exxon Neftegas Limited (ENL), a subsidiary of ExxonMobil,
drilled and completed an extended reach, offshore well at the Sakhalin-1 oil project on Russias east coast in the Chayvo field
which set a record distance from shore of nearly 7 miles (11 km). Extended-reach technology allows wells to begin vertically
on land and then curve to horizontally under the seabed to offshore reservoirs. This well was named the Z-12 well with a total
vertical depth of 8,350 ft beneath the Sea of Okhotsk and a rig-to-reservoir distance of 38,322 ft, which is equivalent to 125
US football fields.

10

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Figure 5. Yastreb drilling rig on the left and subsurface well schematic on the right for the Z-12 well in the Sakhalin-1 oil
development project at Sakhalin Island offshore Russia. (Courtesy of ExxonMobil)

Monitoring and Modeling for Long-Term Well and Reservoir Integrity Assurance
The O&G industry has developed a highly sophisticated suite of technologies for petroleum operations that can be applied to
CO2 storage integrity monitoring applications. These intermittent and long-term monitoring methods include: wireline
conveyed logging tools run in production, injection, and monitoring wells; seismic array data imaging; wellbore pressure
monitoring by wellhead and downhole gauges; injection and production volumetric monitoring by flowmeters; subsurface to
surface deformation measurements via tiltmeters and satellite radar; gravity surveys; etc. The applicability of these
techniques is site-specific and selection thereof requires an understanding of the sites subsurface characteristics, as well as
the measurement capabilities of the various techniques in order to match the sites monitoring, verification, and accounting
(MVA) objectives. A sites MVA program should adopt monitoring practices that are consistent with the leakage risk
assessment made during the site characterization phase, e.g., tailored to address the purpose of the monitoring and the
specific conditions and potential risks at the storage site. When multiple methodologies are available, selection should
consider the most cost-effective methods that meet the MVA objectives and regulatory requirements.
Monitoring, whether direct (e.g. observation wells) or indirect (e.g. seismic), can only evaluate limited geographical
areas/points at a point in time. Computer modeling serves as a proxy for visualization of what cannot be seen and for
predicting CO2 plume movements in the future. These models are verified by monitoring techniques and improved by
periodic calibration to actual monitoring data. Monitoring confirms and informs the models that ultimately provide the basis
for developing confidence during the injection, closure and post-closure phases of the CCS process.
Example MVA Case History at In Salah (Courtesy of Iain Wright, BP, and Phillip Ringrose, StatoilHydro)
Introduction.
The Krechba field is one of eight gas fields comprising the In Salah Gas project in Algeria which includes an industrialscale CO2 storage project that has been in operation since 2004 (InSalah, 2009). CO2 from several gas fields, which have a
CO2 content of 5-10%, is removed from the production stream to meet the sales gas export specification of 0.3% CO2. Rather
than vent that separated CO2 to atmosphere (as was normal industry practice for such gas plants), BP and its Joint Venture
(JV) partner, Sonatrach, invested an incremental $100 million in a project to compress, dehydrate, transport and inject that
CO2 into a deep saline formation down-dip of the producing gas horizon. StatoilHydro then joined the JV at production startup in August 2004. The investors derive no commercial benefit from the CO2 storage at In Salah, so it is being used as an
experimental and demonstration project to learn about CO2 geological storage in deep saline formations.
The injection formation (Figure 6) is a 20-metre thick Carboniferous sandstone, 1900m below ground with around 15%
porosity and 10mD permeability. Three state-of-the-art horizontal CO2 injection wells were drilled perpendicular to the stress
field, and therefore the dominant fracture orientation, to maximize the injection capacity. By the end of 2008, over 2.5
million tonnes of CO2 had been stored underground. A Joint Industry Project (JIP) was set up to monitor the CO2 storage
using a variety of geochemical, geophysical and production techniques over an initial 5-year period.

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Figure 6. Carbon Dioxide Injection and Storage at Krechba, Algeria.

Monitoring Results to Date.

Monitoring data includes geological, geochemical, geophysical, and satellite data (Figure 7). Standard oil industry
geological characterization data have been acquired, including wireline and LWD well logging suites, core sampling, and 3D
seismic. Geochemical monitoring data collected to date include surface and soil gas monitoring, down-hole gas
measurements (head gas and isotubes samples), and production monitoring. Different tracer chemicals (perflurocarbons) have
been used to tag the CO2 injected at each injection well, so that any CO2 detected, can be differentiated from the natural
CO2 in the sub-surface and traced back to an individual injection well. Geophysical monitoring data will gain momentum in
2009 with the deployment of a down-hole geophone detector string in a dedicated well to monitor microseismic events, and
the first time-lapse 3D seismic survey to monitor saturation and pressure changes.

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Figure 7.

Perhaps the most valuable, and initially surprising, monitoring method so far has been the use of satellite airborne radar
interferometry to detect subtle ground deformation above the injection wells (Mathieson et al. 2008). Permanent scatterer
interferometry is a multi-interferogram approach that draws on the phase changes occurring between a series of radar images

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and is specifically designed to overcome the effects of atmospheric noise and thereby determine surface movement histories
over periods of several years (Vasco & Ferritti, 2005). Permanent scatterer interferometry gives an accuracy of around
5mm/year and up to 1mm/year for a longer term average. Another related approach is differential interferometry, which
measures changes in a single interferogram developed from two radar images.
Surface uplift has been detected over all three of the In Salah CO2 injection wells (Vasco et al. 2008; Onuma & Ohkawa
2008 and Rutqvist, et al. 2008) with corresponding subsidence also observed over the gas production area. Figure 7 shows
one of the first permanent scatterer interferometry datasets based on a two year time sequence of data (Vasco et al 2008). The
observed surface uplift rate is around 5mm/year. Forward and inverse modelling (Rutqvist, et al. 2008) of the subsurface
pressure increase due to CO2 injection, demonstrates that the surface deformation is consistent with measured geomechanical
data, and is caused by propagation of the subsurface pressure increase through the overburden rock sequence to the surface.
In fact, similar millimeter-scale surface movements can be detected over most onshore oilfields as well as numerous civil
engineering projects, such as bridges, causeways and tunnels. Using the satellite observations, we are able to indirectly
image the subsurface plume propagation which follows the expected elongation along the NE-SW fracture direction
(Figure 7). Onuma & Ohkawa (2008) have also derived surface deformation data for this site using differential interferometry
and a continuous synthetic aperture radar data acquisition programme is underway.
More information on the MVA project at In Salah can be found in publications cited above and those listed as references
below under (In Salah and Wright et al). Note that paper SPE 127096 (Wright, 2009) presented at the same conference as this
paper will have more information on In Salah and its MVA project. In addition, an article written by Terry Knott on the In
Salah project including the MVA work is presented at BPs public webpage as listed in the references below under (In
Salah).

Conclusions

This paper is based on industry data obtained and studied by the API CCS workgroup.
The O&G industry experience with CO2 EOR has lead to the development many technologies and operating practices
that are relevant to CCS.
Industry CO2 EOR operations successfully demonstrate large scale injection of CO2 in volumes necessary for
commercial scale CCS.
O&G industry experience in CO2 EOR injection wells demonstrates wellbore performance and integrity equal to or
better than that seen with conventional O&G wells as noted by multiple studies that confirm industrys success.
Evaluations of CO2 EOR operations, including well integrity performance specific to CO2 EOR, have shown these
operations to be fully protective of the environmental medium.
Our experience with CO2 EOR demonstrates the effectiveness of conventional (established practices and accepted
standards) oilfield cements in both dry and wet CO2 environments.
The available studies show significant buffering of pH occurs from the reactions within underground formation rock
surfaces and in-situ waters which appear to limit corrosive effects of injected CO2 EOR.
API RP 65 provides numerous practices to help ensure the successful placement of well cements and long-term sealing
integrity of wells including those for CCS.
Example projects (Sakhalin and In Salah) show that when sound operating practices and technology are applied,
environmental concerns regarding risk and site integrity can be addressed.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on industry data obtained and studied by the API CCS workgroup and the authors thank the workgroup
for their contributions.. The authors thank their respective employers, API, ExxonMobil, and Halliburton, for their support in
preparing this paper. Special thanks also goes to Rebecca Smyth and Jiemin Lu at the Gulf Coast Carbon Center, Bureau of
Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin for Figures 4a and 4b, to Brian
Williams at BP for permission to add content for the In Salah case history, to Iain Wright (BP) and Philip Ringrose
(StatoilHydro) for writing the MVA case history on the In Salah project, to Terry Knott (BP) for content and Figures 6 and 7
from his article in the December 2008 issue of BPs Frontiers magazine (see In Salah reference below), to ExxonMobil for
permission to use their Sakhalin photo and schematic in Figure 5, and to BP, StatoilHydro and Sonatrach (JIP) for permission
to use their In Salah information and graphics in Figures 6 and 7.
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