Introduction

Sometimes an individual wants to know something about a group of

people. Maybe the individual is a would-be senator and wants to know who they're
representing or a surveyor who is looking to see if there is a need for a mental health
program. Descriptive research is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate
way. More simply put, descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the
study. It is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to
describe what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The methods
involved ranges from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which
investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to
determine changes over time. Descriptive research is conclusive in nature, as opposed to
exploratory. This means that descriptive research gathers quantifiable information that can be
used for statistical inference on your target audience through data analysis. As a consequence
this type of research takes the form of closed-ended questions, which limits its ability to
provide unique insights. However, used properly it can help us for better definitions and
measurements of the significance of something about a group of respondents and the
population they represent.
When it comes to online surveying, descriptive is by far the most commonly
used form of research. Most often, organizations will use it as a method to reveal and
measure the strength of a target groups opinion, attitude, or behaviour with regards to a
given subject. But another common use of descriptive research would be the surveying of
demographical traits in a certain group (age, income, marital status, gender, etc.). This
information could then be studied at face value, measuring trends over time, or for more
advanced data analysis like drawing correlations, segmentation, benchmarking and other
statistical techniques.
.There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project, and
they are:

Observational, defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants

Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals

Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific

topic

Observational studies are all about watching people, and they come in two
flavors. Naturalistic, also known as field observation, is a study where a researcher
observes the subject in its natural environment. This is basically what Jane Goodall did; she
observed the chimpanzees in their natural environment and drew conclusions from this.

This makes the observations more true to what happens in the chaotic, natural world. But it
also means you have less control over what happens.
The other flavor is laboratory observation, where a researcher observes the subject in a
laboratory setting. This gives the researcher a little more control over what happens so they
don't have to fly out to some tiny little island in the middle of a war zone to observe
something. However, it does ruin some of the naturalness that one might get from field
observation. An example of a laboratory observation in psychology would be done to
understand something about children at a certain age, such as the process of how a child
learns to speak and mimic sounds.

Survey
A survey comes in different flavors, be it interviewing people face to face or handing out
questionnaires to fill out. The main difference between surveys and observations is that in a
survey, you don't watch people; you ask them about themselves.
Surveys are useful because they don't take as long as an observational study since you're
asking people about themselves instead of spending weeks observing them. On the other
hand, if the person doesn't know very much about themselves or if they lie, then you run
into a problem. For instance, if I asked you how often you pick your nose, you will likely
deny you have ever done so. But I bet you have, and I bet you do it regularly.

Case Study
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the
patients personal history).
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or
reconstructing the case history of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a
school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow
a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were
trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with
the aim of averagin The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers
select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for
case studies such as qualitative techniques(unstructured interviews, participant
observation, diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official
document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).
The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory,
interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc.
All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they

are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference
to a comparison group.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones
carried out bySigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private
lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their
illnesses.
Freud's most famous case studies include Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b).
Even today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal
psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they can give a vivid insight
into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to endure.
Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and
reporting descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such
as a school. In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular
individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's
past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in
his or her everyday life.
In order to produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the
psychologist may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records,
employer's reports, school reports or psychological test results. The interview is also an
extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be
used to collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer, work mates and
others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the
person him or herself.
This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a
psychologist, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification.
There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a
person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behavior or
atypical development.
The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of
the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The
client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then
writes up the information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the
information.
Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A
good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and
which is inference or the opinion of the researcher.

Strengths of Case Studies

Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.

Provides insight for further research.

Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies give psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which
could not possibly be engineered in research laboratories. For example, the Money Case
Study.
Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new
ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating
theories and can help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each
other. The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of
view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).

Limitations of Case Studies

Cant generalize the results to the wider population.
Researchers own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher
bias).

Difficult to replicate.

Time consuming.
Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure
whether conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the
study are not generalizable because we can never know whether the case we have
investigated is representative of the wider body of "similar" instances

Because they are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot
depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has
acquired. This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that
the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data
means.
For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the
information was sometimes distorted to fit the particular theories about behavior
(e.g. Little Hans). This is also true of Moneys interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case
study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Case studies are stories. They present realistic, complex, and contextually rich situations and
often involve a dilemma, conflict, or problem that one or more of the characters in the case
must negotiate.
A good case study, according to Professor Paul Lawrence is:

the vehicle by which a chunk of reality is brought into the classroom to be worked
over by the class and the instructor. A good case keeps the class discussion
grounded upon some of the stubborn facts that must be faced in real life
situations.
(quoted in Christensen, 1981)
Although they have been used most extensively in the teaching of medicine, law and
business, case studies can be an effective teaching tool in any number of disciplines. As an
instructional strategy, case studies have a number of virtues. They bridge the gap between
theory and practice and between the academy and the workplace (Barkley, Cross, and Major
2005, p.182). They also give students practice identifying the parameters of a problem,
recognizing and articulating positions, evaluating courses of action, and arguing different
points of view.
Case studies vary in length and detail, and can be used in a number of
ways, depending on the case itself and on the instructors goals.

They can be short (a few paragraphs) or long (e.g. 20+ pages).

They can be used in lecture-based or discussion-based classes.

They can be real, with all the detail drawn from actual people and
circumstances, or simply realistic.
They can provide all the relevant data students need to discuss and resolve
the central issue, or only some of it, requiring students to identify, and
possibly fill in (via outside research), the missing information.
They can require students to examine multiple aspects of a problem, or just
a circumscribed piece.
They can require students to propose a solution for the case or simply to
identify the parameters of the problem.

Finding or creating cases

It is possible to write your own case studies, although it is not a simple task. The material for
a case study can be drawn from your own professional experiences (e.g., negotiating a labor
dispute at a local corporation or navigating the rocky shoals of a political campaign), from
current events (e.g., a high-profile medical ethics case or a diplomatic conundrum), from
historical sources (e.g., a legal debate or military predicament), etc. It is also possible to find
published cases from books and on-line case study collections. Whatever the source, an
effective case study is one that, according to Davis (1993):

tells a real and engaging story

raises a thought-provoking issue
has elements of conflict
promotes empathy with the central characters
lacks an obvious or clear-cut right answer
encourages students to think and take a position
portrays actors in moments of decision
provides plenty of data about character, location, context, actions
is relatively concise

A case study is an in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories
were developed through individual case studies.
In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to
seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from
studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies
tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger
population.
Types of Case Studies
Explanatory: Used to do causal investigations.

 Exploratory: A case study that is sometimes used as a prelude to further,

more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information
before developing their research questions and hypotheses.

Descriptive: Involves starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are

then observed and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing
theory.

Intrinsic: A type of case study in which the researcher has a personal interest
in the case.

Collective: Involves studying a group of individuals.

Instrumental: Occurs when the individual or group allows researchers to

understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Case Study Methods
Prospective: A type of case study in which an individual or group of people
is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of
individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the
progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective: A type of case study that involves looking at historical

information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as
a disease, and then backwards at information about the individuals life to
determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.
Sources of Information Used in a Case Study
There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to
gather information about an individual or group. The six major sources that have
been identified by researchers (Yin, 1994; Stake, 1995) are:

1. Direct observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a

natural setting. While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more
common to utilize a group of observers.

2. Interviews: One of the most important methods for gathering information in

case studies. An interview can involves structured survey-type questions, or
more open-ended questions.

3. Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc.

4. Archival records: Census records, survey records, name lists, etc.

5. Physical artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments and other artifacts often

observed during a direct observation of the subject.

6. Participant observation: Involves the researcher actually serving as a

participant in events and observing the actions and outcomes.

REFERENCES

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Case Study Method. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html
Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review
and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151(3), 298-304
Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud
Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306
Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen ber einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der
"Rattenmann"). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE, 10: 151-318.
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing.

Barkley, E. F, Cross, K. P. & Major, C. H. (2005) Collaborative Learning Techniques: A

Handbook for College Faculty. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Christensen, C. R. (1981) Teaching By the Case Method. Boston: Harvard Business School.
Davis, B. G. (1993) Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/casestudy.htm
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/teach/instructionalstrategies/casestudies.html
http://casestudychallenge.blogspot.com/
http://www.simplypsychology.org/case-study.html
http://fluidsurveys.com/university/descriptive-research-defining-respondents-drawingconclusions/
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/descriptive-research-design-definitionexamples-types.html#lesson
http://www.okstate.edu/ag/agedcm4h/academic/aged5980a/5980/newpage110.htm
Research Design in Occupational Education
Copyright 1997. James P. Key. Oklahoma State University
Except for those materials which are supplied by different departments of the
University
(ex. IRB, Thesis Handbook) and references used by permission.