APM

1
1
MATRICES
UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0
Objectives
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Definitions
1.3
Illustrative examples
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Rank of matrix
Canonical form or Normal form
Normal form PAQ
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this chapter a student has to learn the
Concept of adjoint of a matrix.
Inverse of a matrix.
Rank of a matrix and methods finding these.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
At higher secondary level, we have studied the definition of a matrix,
operations on the matrices, types of matrices inverse of a matrix etc.
In this chapter, we are studying adjoint method of finding the inverse of a
square matrix and also the rank of a matrix.
1.2 DEFINITIONS
1)
Definitions:- A system of m n numbers arranged in the form of
an ordered set of m horizontal lines called rows & n vertical lines called
columns is called an m n matrix.
The matrix of order m n is written as
a11 a12 a13 a1j a1n

a
21 a 22 a 23 a 2 j a 2n
....... ..... ....... ..... .....
a i1 a i2 a i3 a ij a in
a m1 a m2 a m3 a mj a mn
n n
Note:
i)
ii)
Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters.

The elements are generally denoted by corresponding small letters.
Types of Matrices:
1) Rectangular matrix :Any mxn Matrix where m n is called rectangular matrix.
For e.g
2
1
3
2
4
3 23
2) Column Matrix :
It is a matrix in which there is only one column.
1
x 2
4 31
3) Row Matrix :
It is a matrix in which there is only one row.
x 5 7 913
4) Square Matrix :
It is a matrix in which number of rows equals the number of
columns.
i.e its order is n x n.
e.g.
2 3
A
4 6 22
5) Diagonal Matrix:
It is a square matrix in which all non-diagonal elements are zero.
e.g.
2 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 0 33
6) Scalar Matrix:
It is a square diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal.
e.g.
5 0 0
A 0 5 0
0 0 5 33
7) Unit Matrix:
It is a scalar matrix with diagonal elements as unity.
e.g.
1 0 0
A 0 1 0
0 0 1 33
8) Upper Triangular Matrix:
It is a square matrix in which all the elements below the principle diagonal
are zero.
e.g.
1 3 0
A 0 0 1
0 0 5 33
9) Lower Triangular Matrix:
It is a square matrix in which all the elements above
diagonal are zero.
the principle
e.g.
0 0 0
A 3 4 0
1 3 2 33
10) Transpose of Matrix:
It is a matrix obtained by interchanging rows into columns or columns into
rows.
1 3 5
A
3 7 9 23
1 3
A Transpose of A 3 7
5 9 32
T
11) Symmetric Matrix:

If for a square matrix A, A AT then A is symmetric
1 3 5
A 3 4 1
5 1 9
12) Skew Symmeric Matrix :
If for a square matrix A, A AT then it is skew -symmetric matrix.
0 5 7
A 5 0 3
7 3 0
Note : For a skew Symmetric matrix, diagonal elements are zero.
Determinant of a Matrix:
Let A be a square matrix then
A = determinant of A i.e det A= A

If (i) then A 0 matrix A is called as non-singular and
If (i) then
A 0, matrix A is singular.
Note : for non-singular matrix A-1 exists.

a) Minor of an element :
Consider a square matrix A of order n
Let
A = a ij
n n
The matrix is also can be written as
a11 a12
a
21 a 22
A =
a n1 a n 2
a13
a 23
a n3
a1n
a 2n

a nn
Minor of an element a ij is a determinant of order (nd) by deleting the

elements of the matrix A, which are in 6th row and 5th column of A.
E.g. Consider,
a11 a12
A = a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32
a13
a 23
a 33
M 11 = Minor of an element a 11
a
A = 22
a 32
a 23
a 33
II y
a 22
a
M12 = 21
a 31 a 33
E.g.
(ii) Let,
2 5 8
A = 1 3 2
0 4 6
3 2
1 2
1 3
M11 =
, M12 =
, M13 =
4 6
0 6
0 4
5 8
2 8
2 5
M 21 =
, M12 =
, M 23 =
4 6
0 6
0 4
(b) Cofactor of an element :If A = a ij is a square matrix of order n and a ij denotes cofactor of the
element a ij .
Cij = 1
. Mij Where M ij is minor of a ij .
a1
If A = a 2
a 3
b1
b2
b3
i j
c1
c2
c3
A1 = The cofactor of A1 =(-1)11
b2
b3
c2
c3
B1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)1 2
a2
a3
c2
c3
C1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)13
a2
a3
b2
b3
E.g. Consider,
1 3 4
A = 0 2 1
3 7 6
c11 = 1
11
= 1
1 2
M11 c12
0 1
3 6
2 1
7 6
0 3
2 1
7 6
0 3
12 7
12 7
=
=
=5
11
11
1
1
1
1
3
3
= 3
(C) Cofactor Matrix :A matrix C = Cij where Cij denotes cofactor of the element a ij .
Of a matrix A of order nxn, is called a cofactor matrix.
In above matrix A, cofactor matrix is
5 3 6
C = 10 6 9
3 1 2
A1
C = A 2
A3
B1
B2
B3
C1
C2
C3
1 2
Similarly for a matrix, A =
the cofactor matrix is c=
3 9
4 3
2 1
(d) Adjoint of Matrix :If A is any square matrix then transpose of its cofactor matrix is called
Adjoint of A.
Thus in the notations used,

Adjoint of A CT
A1
Adj A = A2
A3
B1
B2
B3
C1
C2
C 3
Adjoint of a matrix A is denoted as Adj.A

Thus if,
1 3 4
5 10 3
A = 0 2 1 than Adj. A = 3 6 1
3 7 6
6 9
2
Note :
d -b
a b
If A =
than Adj . A =
-c a
c d 22
(d) Inverse of a square Matrix:Two non-singular square matrices of order n A and B are said to be
inverse of each other if,
AB=BA=I, where I is an identity matrix of order n.
Inverse of A is denoted as A-1 and read as A inverse.
Thus
AA-1=A-1A=I
Inverse of a matrix can also be calculated by the Formula.
A-1 =
1
Adj.A where A denotes determinant of A.
A
Note:- From this relation it is clear that A-1 exist if and only if A 0 i.e
A is non singular matrix.
1.3 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1: Find the inverse of the matrix by finding its adjoint
2
A 3
1
1
1
2
3
2
3
Solution: We have,
A 2 3 4 1 9 2 3 6 1
2 7 15
A 6
A 0
A1 exists
Transpose of matrix A=A1
2
A 1
3
3
1
2
1
2
3
We find co-factors of the elements of A1 (Row-wise)
C.F . 2 1, C.F . 3 3, C.F . 1 1

C.F . 1 7, C.F . 1 3, C.F . 2 5
C.F . 3 5, C.F . 2 3, C.F . 3 1
1
adj A 7
5
3
3
-3
-1
-5
-1
1
1
1
A
adj (A)
7
A
6
5
-1
3
3
-3
-1
-5
-1
Example 2: Find the inverse of matrix A by Adjoint method, if
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3
3 1 1
10
Solution: Consider
0 1 2
A = 1 2 3
3 1 1
= 0 1 1 8 2 5
= 0 8 10
= 2
Co factor of the elements of A are as follows
C11 = 1 .
2 3
1
1 1
C12 = 1
1 3
8
3 1
C13 = 1
1 2
5
3 1
1 2
1
1 1
11
1 2
1 3
C21 = 1
2 1
0 2
6
3 1
0 1
3
3 1
1 2
1
2 3
C32 = 1
0 2
2
1 3
C33 = 1
0 1
1
1 2
C22 = 1
C23 = 1
C31 = 1
2 2
23
31
3 2
3 3
Thus,
1 8 5
Cofactor of matrix C = 1 6 3
1 2 1
And Adjoint of A= C1
11
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
1
= 8 6 2 A 8 6 2
2
5 3 1
5 3 1
Note:- A Rectangular matrix does not process inverse.
Properties of Inverse of Matrix:i)
The inverse of a matrix is unique i.e
ii)
The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of inverse
T 1
i.e. (A ) (A1 )T
iii)
If A & B are two non-singular matrices of the same order
1
(AB) B1A1
This property is called reversal law.
Definition:-Orthogonal matrix.:If a square matrix it satisfies the relation AAT I then the matrix A
is called an orthogonal matrix. &
AT A1
Example 3:
Cos Cos
show that A =
is orthogonal matrix.
Sin Cos
Solution:
To show that A is orthogonal i.e To show that AAT I
Cos
A=
Sin
Sin
Cos
Cos
AT =
Sin
Cos
AAT =
Sin
Sin
Cos
Sin Cos
Cos Sin
Cos 2 Sin 2

Sin Cos Cos Sin
Sin
Cos
Cos Sin Sin Cos
Sin 2 Cos 2
12
1 0
=
I
0 1
A is an orthogonal matrix.
Check Your Progress:

Q. 1) Find the inverse of the following matrices using Adjoint method, if
they exist.
i)
1 2
,
2 2
1
3 2
iv) 3 0 5 ,
2 5 0
ii)
2 3
,
4 1
cos
v) sin
0
iii)
sin 0
cos
0,
0
1
cos
sin
sin
,
cos
1 2 3
3 1
vi) 2
3
1 2
1 1 1
vii) 1 2 3
2 1 3
cos
Q.3) If A =
sin
sin
, B =
cos
tan
1
tan
2 C=
,
1
tan
tan
2 ,
,
prove that A= B.C-1

4 3 3
Q. 4) If A = 1 0 1 , prove that Adj. A= A
4 4 3
1 2 1
Q. 5) If A = 0 1 1 , verify if (Adj.A)1= (Adj.A1)
1 1 2
1 2 1
Q.6) Find the inverse of A = 0 1 1 , hence find inverse of
2 2 3
3 6 3
A = 0 3 3
6 6 9
13
1.4 RANK OF A MATRIX

a) Minor of a matrix
Let A be any given matrix of order mxn. The determinant of any
submatrix of a square order is called minor of the matrix A.
We observe that, if r denotes the order of a minor of a matrix of
order mxn then 1 r m if m<n and 1 r n if n<m.
e.g. Let
1 3 1 4
A = 4 0 1 7
8 5 4 3
The determinants
1 3 1 3 1 4
4 0 1 , 0 1 7 ,
8 5 4 5 4 3
1 1 4
4 1 7 ,
8 4 3
1 3 0 1 3 4
,
,
, 1 , 0 , 3 ,
4 0 5 4 0 7
Are some examples of minors of A.
b) Definition Rank of a matrix:
A number r is called rank of a matrix of order mxn if there is
almost one minor of the matrix which is of order r whose value is non-zero
and all the minors of order greater than r will be zero.
e.g.(i) Let
1 0 2
A = 2 4 1
3 5 7
14
Consider e.g. Let
A1 =
1 0
0 2
4, A 2 =
8 etc.
2 4
4 1
1 0 2
A3 = 2 4 1 1 23 2 2 19 0
3 5 7
Rank of A= 3
1 1 2
(ii) A = 1 2 3
0 1 1
Here,
1 1 2
A1 = 1 2 3 11 1 1 2 1 0
0 1 1
A2 =
1 1
1 0
1 2
Thus minor of order 3 is zero and atleast one minor of order 2 is non-zero
Rank of A = 2.
Some results:
(i)
Rank of null matrix is always zero.
(ii)
Rank of any non-zero matrix is always greater than or equal to 1.
(iii) If A is any mxn non-zero matrix then Rank of A is always equal to
rank of A.
(iv)
Rank of transpose of matrix A is always equal to rank of A.
(v)
Rank of product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank of both of
the matrices.
(vi)
Rank of a matrix remains unleasted by elementary
transformations.
Elementary Transformations:
Following changes made in the elements of any matrix are called
elementary transactions.
(i)
Interchanging any two rows (or columns) .
(ii)
Multiplying all the elements of any row (or column) by a non-zero
real number.
15
(iii) Adding non-zero scalar multitudes of all the elements of any row
(or columns) into the corresponding elements of any another row (or
column).
Definition:- Equivalent Matrix:

Two matrices A & B are said to be equivalent if one can be
obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary transformations. Two
equivalent matrices have the same order & the same rank. It can be
denoted by
[it can be read as A equivalent to B]
Example 4: Determine the rank of the matrix.
1 2 3
A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
Solution:
1 2 3
Given A = 1 4 2
2 6 5
R2 R2 - R1 & R3 R3 - 2R1
1 2 3
0 2 1
0 2 1
Here two column are Identical . hence 3rd order minor of A vanished
1 3
Hence 2nd order minor
1 0
0 1
e(A) 2
Hence the rank of the given matrix is 2.
1.5 CANONICAL FORM OR NORMAL FORM
16
I o
If a matrix A of order mxn is reduced to the form r
using a
o o
sequence of elementary transformations then it called canonical or normal
form. Ir denotes identity matrix of order r .
Note:If any given matrix of order mxn can be reduced to the canonical
form which includes an identity matrix of order r then the matrix is of
rank r.
e.g. (1) Consider
Example 5: Determine rank of the matrix. A if
1 3 6
2
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solution:
1 3 6
2
A = 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
R1 R 3
1 1 1 2
3 3 1 2
2
1 3 6
R 2 3R1 , R 3 2R1
2
1 1 1
3 6 2 4
0 1 5 10
R 2 7R 3
2
1 1 1
0 1 33 66
0 1 5 10
17
R1 R 2 , R 3 R 2
1 0 32 64
0 1 33 66
0 0 28 56
1
R3
28
1 0 32 64
0 1 33 66
0 0
1 2
R1 32 R 3 , R 2 33 R 3
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
I3
Rank of A=3
Example 6: Determine the rank of matrix
1 2 7
A = 2 4 7
3 6 10
Solution:
1 2 3
A = 2 4 7
3 6 10
R 2 2R1 , R 3 3R1
1 2 3
2 4 7
3 6 10
R3 R 2
1 2 3
0 0 1
0 0 0
R1 3R 2
18
1 2 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
C2 2C1
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
C1 C3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
I2
Rank of A= 2
Example 7: Determine the rank of matrix A if
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A =
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
Solution:
1 1 2 4
2 3 1 1
A =
3 1 3 2
6 3 0 7
R 2 2R1 , R 3 3R1 , R 4 6R1 ,

1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
R 2 R3
19
1 1 2
0 1 6
0 4 9
0 9 12
4
3
10
17
R1 + R 2 , R 3 4R 2 , R 4 9R 2
1
0
0
1
0
0
8
6
33
66
7
3
22
44
R 4 2R 3
1
0
0
R3
1
0
0 8 7
1 6 3
0 33 22
0 0 0
1
11
0 8 7
1 6 2
0 3 2
0 0 0
C3 - C4
1
0
0 1 7
1 3 3
0 1 2
0 0 0
R1 + R 3 , R 2 3R 3
1
0
0
1
0
0
0 5
0 3
1 2
0 0
C4 - 5C1 3C2 2C2

1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
20
I3 0
0 0
Rank of A= 3
Check Your Progress:Reduce the following to normal form and hence find the ranks of the
matrices.
2 3 4
3 4 6
1 2 3
5 5 7
i)
ii) 4 3 1
iii)
3 1 2
1 2 4
3
1 4
iv)
1
2
3
6
2
4
2
8
3
3
1
7
0
2
3
5
vii)
2 6 2 6 10
3 3 3 3 3
1 2 4 3 5
2 0 4 6 10
1 0 2 3 5
v)
2
1 3 6
3 3 1 1
1 1 1 2
viii)
3 4
4 5
5 6
10 11
15 16
1
3
vi) 2
5
1
5 6
6 7
7 8
12 13
17 18
2 1 0
2 1 2
1 2 5
6 3 2
3 1 3
7
8
9
14
19
1.6 NORMAL FORM PAQ

If A is any mxn matrix r then there exist non singular matrices P and Q
such that,
Ir
0
0
PAQ
0
We observe that, the matrix A can be expressed as

A = Im In (i)
Where Im In are the identity matrices of order m and n respectively.
Applying the elementary transformations on this equation. A in L.H.S.
can be reduced to normal form. The equation can be transformal into the
equations.
Ir
0
0
PAQ (ii)
0
21
Note that, the row operations can be performed simultaneously on L.H.S.

and prefactor (i.e. Im in equation (i)) and column operations can be
performed simultaneously on L.H.S. and post factor in R.H.S. i.e. [(In in
eqn (i)]
Examples 8: Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in

normal and hence find the rank of A.
i)
2 1 3
A 3 4 1
1 5 4
Solution: Consider
A= I3 AI 3
2 1 3 1 0 0
1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
1 5 4 0 0 1
0 0 1
R1 R 3
1 5 4 0 0 1
1 0 0
3 4 1 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 1 3 1 0 0
0 0 1
C2 5C , C3 4C1
0 0 0 1
1 0
1 5 4
3 11 11 = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0
2 11 11 1 0 0
0 0 1
R 2 R3
0
1 0
1 0
0 =
2 11 11
0 0 1
1 5 4
1 1 0 A 0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
R 2 R1 , R 3 2R1 ,
0 0 0 1
1 0
1 5 4
0 0
0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 0
0 11 11 1 0 2
0 0 1
C3 C2
22
1 0 0 0 0 1
1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 1
0 11 0 1 0 2
0 0 1
1
R3
,
11
1
1 0 0 0 0
1 5 1
0 0 0 = 1 1 1 A 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
2
0
0
1
0
11
11
R 2 R3
1 0 0
0 1 0 =
0 0 0
0 1
0
1 5 1
1
2
11 0 11 A 0 1 1
0 0 1
1 1 1
Thus
0 1
0
1
1
P=
0 2 P =
11
11
11
1
1
Q=
1 5 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
Q =1
P and Q are non-singular matrices

Also Rank of A = 2
ii)
2 1 3 6
A 3 3 1 2
1 1 1 2
Solutions:
Consider
1
1 0 0
0
A= 0 1 0 A
0
0 0 1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
23
1
2 1 3 6
1 0 0
3 3 1 2 0 1 0 A 0
0
1 1 1 2
0 0 1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
R1 R 3
2
1 1 1
3 6 2 4
2 1 5 10
1
0 0 1
0 1 0 A 0
0
1 0 0
0
C2 C1 , C3 C1 , C4 2C 1
1 1 1 2
0
1 0 0
0 0 1
3 6 2 4 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
2 1 5 10
1 0 0
0 0 0 1
R 2 3R1 , R 3 2R1
0
1 0 0
0 6 2 4
0 1 5 10
1 1 1 2
0 0 1
0 1 3 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 2
0 0 0 1
R 2 6R 3 ,
1 1 1 2
0
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 28 56 6 1 9 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 5 10
1 0 2
0 0 0 1
C4 2C3
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 2
0 1 5 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
C3 5C2
1 1 4 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 28 0 6 1 9 A 0 1 5 0
0 0 1 2
0 1 0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1
1
R 2 , R 3 1
28
24
1 1 4 0
1
9 A 0 1 5 0
1
28
28
0 0 1 2
0
2
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 3
14
0 1 0 0 1
R 2 R3
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 3
14
I3
= 1
314
P = 1
314
2 A
9
1
28
28
0
0
2 A
9
1
28
28
0
0
1 1 4 0
0 1 5 0
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
1 1 4 0
0 1 5 0
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
1
2 , P
28
9
1
28
28
0
0
1 1 4 0
0 1 5 0
, Q 1
Q =
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1
P&Q are non singular.
Also,
Rank of A = 3.
A)
Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in normal
form and hence find rank of matrix A.
i)
1 0 2
2 3 4
3 3 6
ii)
1 2 3 2
2 3 5 1
1 3 4 5
3 1 1
iii) 1 1 1
1 1 1
25
iv)
1 3 5 7
2 3 4 7
3 4 7 9 (v) 4 6 8 10
15 27 39 51
5 4 6 5
6 12 18 24
1.7 LET US SUM UP
Definition of matrix & its types.

Using Adjoint method to find the A1 by
1
using formula A1 adjA
A
Rank of the matrix using row & column transformation

Using canonical & normal form to find Rank of matrix.
1.8 UNIT END EXERCISE
1)
1 2 3
Find the inverse of matrix A 4 5 6 if exists.
7 8 9
ii)
1 1 1
Find Adjoint of Matrix A 0 2 1
2 1 1
26
iii)
1
1
Find the inverse of A by adjoint method if A
1
iv)
1 2 3
Find Rank of matrix A 4 5 6
7 8 9
v)
Cos
Prove that the matrix A Sin
0
Also find A1.
0
1
vi)
Reduce the matrix A
3
1
find its rank.
vii)
Sin
Cos
0
0
1
0
3
1
1
2
0
0 is orthogonal
1
1 3 1
0 1 1
to the normal form and
1 0 2
1 2 0
Find the non singular matrix and . such that A is the normal
1 1 1
form when A = 1 1 1
3 1 1
Also find the rank of matrix B
1 1 1
1 2 1
X = 2 3 4 & Y 6 12 6
3 2 3
5 10 5
viii)
2
0
1
1
Under what condition the rank of the matrix will be 3!
2 4 2
A = 2 1 2
1 0
27
ix)
x)
1 1 1
1 2 1
If X = 2 3 4 & Y 6 12 6
3 2 3
5 10 5
Then show that xy yx where denotes Rank.
8 3 6 1
1 6 4 2
Find the rank of matrix A =

7 9 10 3
15 12 16 4
*****
2
LINEAR ALGEBRIC EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
2.1
Objectives
2.2
Introduction
2.3
Canonical or echelon form of matrix
2.4
Linear Algebraic Equations
2.5
Let Us Sum Up
2.6
Unit End Exercise
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this chapter you will be able to
Find the rank of Matrix.
Find solution for linear equations.
Type of linear equations.
Find solution for Homogeneous equations.
Find solution of non-Homogeneous equations.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
In XIIth we have solved linear equations by using method of
reduction also by rule. Here we are going to find solution of homogeneous
28
and non-homogeneous both with different case. Using matrix we can

discuss consistency of system of equation.
2.3 CACONICAL OR ECHOLON FORM OF MATRIX

Let A be a given matrix. Then the canonical or Echelon form of A is a
matrix in which
(i)
One or more elements in each of first r-rows are non-zero and
these first r-rows form an upper triangular matrix.
(ii)
The elements in the remaining rows are zero.
Note :
1)
The number of non-zero rows in Echelon form is the rank of the
matrix.
2)
To reduce the matrix to Echelon form only row transformations are
to be applied.
Solved Examples :Example 1: Reduce the matrix to Echelon and find its rank.
2
1
A
3
3 -1 1
-1 -2 4
1 3 2
3 0 7
Solution:
2
1
A
3
3 -1 1
-1 -2 4
1 3 2
3 0 7
R1 R2
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
R4 R4 6 R1
1
2
3
6
-1 -2 4
3 -1 1
1 3 2
3 0 7
29
1 1 2 4
0 5 3 7
A
0 4 9 10
0 9 12 17
4
R3 R3 R2
5
9
R4 R4 R2
5
2
4
1 1
0 5
3
7
A
0 0 33 5 22 5
0 0 33 5 22 5
R4 R4 R3
2
4
1 1
0 5
3
7
A
0 0 33 5 22 5
0
0
0 0
Rank of A e A
No. of non-zero rows

3

1) Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing to Echelon form.
1 2 3
i)
A 2 4 7 Ans : 2
3 6 10
ii)
iii)
1
3
A
1
1
3
2
A
-1
2 1 3
4 0 1
0 2 7
2
3 1
4 1 1
4 3 6
Ans : 4
-2 6 4
-1 2 -3
30
2.4 LINEAR ALGEBRIC EQUATIONS

i) Consider a set of equations :
a1 x b1 y c1 z d1
a2 x b2 y c2 z d2
a3 x b3 y c3 z d3
The equation can be written in the matrix form as :
a1
a
2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1
c2
c3
x
y

z
d1
d
2
d3
AX D
i.e.
Now we join matrices A and D

a1
A : D a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
c1 : d1
c2 : d 2
c3 : d3
It is called as Augment matrix

We reduce (A.D.) to Echelon form and thereby find the ranks of A and
(A:D)
1) If ( A) ( AD) then the system is inconsistent i.e. it has no solution.
( AD) ( A) then the system is consistent and if
2)
If
(i)
( AD) ( A) Number of unknowns then the system is

consistent and has unique solution.
(ii)
( AD) ( A) Number of unknowns and has infinitely many
solutions.
Non- Homogeneous equation:System of simultaneous equation in the matrix form is
AX=D..(I)
Pre-multiplying both sides of I by A1 we set
31
A1 AX A1D
IX A1B
X A1B
which is required solution of the given non-homogeneous equation.
Homogeneous linear equation:Consider the system of simultaneous equations in the matrix form.
AX D
If all elements of D are zero
i.e
then the system of equation is known as homogeneous system of
equations.
In this case coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A,O]
are the same. So The rank is same. It follow that the system has solution
x1 , x2 , x3 .......x4 0, which is called a trivial solution.

Example 2: Solve the following system of equations
2 x1 3x2 x3 0
x1 2 x2 3x3 0
4 x1 x2 2 x3 0
Solution: The system is written as
AX 0
2 3 1 x1
0
1 2 3 x 0
2

4 1 2 x3
0
Hence the coefficient and augmented matrix are the same
We consider
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
2 3 1
A 1 2 3
4 1 2
R1 R1 R2
32
1 2 3
A 2 3 1
4 1 2
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 4R1
1 2 3
0 7 7
0 9 10
R2 R2 1
7
1
2
0 1
1
0 9 10
R3 R3 +9R2 & R1 R1 2R2

1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 19
R3 R3 1
7
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
R2 R2 +R3 & R1 R1 R3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Hence Rank of A is 3
( A) 3,
The coefficient matrix is non-singular
Therefore there exist a trivial solution
x1 x2 x3 0
Example 3: Solve the following system of equations
x1 3x2 2 x3 0
2 x1 x2 4 x3 0
x1 11x2 14 x3 0
Solution: The given equations can be written as
AX 0
33
1 3 2 x1
0
2 1 4 x 0
2

1 11 14 x3
0
Here the coefficient & augmented matrix are the same
1 3 2
A 2 1 4
1 11 14
R2 R2 -2 R1 & R3 R3 R1
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 14 16
R3 R3 2R2
1 3 2
0 7 8
0 0
0
Here rank of A is 2 i.e
( A) 2
So the system has infinite non-trivial solutions.
1 3 2 x1
0 7 8 x
2
0 0
0 x3
x1 3x2 2 x3 0
7 x2 8x3 0
7 x2 8 x3
8
x2 x3
7
Let x3 8x3
8
x2
7
8
x1 3 2 0
7
24
x1 2 0
7
24
x1 2
7
10
x1
7
0
0
0
34
Hence x1
10
8
x2 and x3
7
7
10
7
x
1
x 8
2
7
x3
Hence infinite solution as deferred upon value of
Example 4: Discuss the consistency of
2 x 3 y 4 z 2
x y 3z 4
3x 2 y z 5
Solution: In the matrix form
2 3 4
1 1 3
3 2 1
x
y

z
-2
4
-5
Consider an Agumental matrix

2 3 4 : 2
A : D 1 1 3 : 4
3 2 1 : 5
1
R1
2
3
R3 R3 R1
2
R2 R2
2
3
4 : 2
5
A : D 0 2 5 : 5
0 5
5 : 2
R2 R3 R2
3
4 : 2
2
A : D 0 5 2 5 : 5
0
5 : 7
0
35
AD 3
A 2
AD A
The system is inconsistent and it has no solution.

Example 5: Discuss the consistency of
3x y 2 z 3
2 x 3 y z 3
x 2y z 4
Solution: In the matrix form,
3 1 2 x 3
2 3 1 y -3

1 2 1 z 4
A
Now we join matrices A and D
Consider
3 1 2 : 3
A:D 2 -3 -1 : -3
1 2 1 : 4
We reduce to Echelon form

R1 R3
1 2 1 : 4
A:D 2 -3 -1 : -3
3 1 2 : 3
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
1 2 1 : 4
A:D 2 -7 -3 : -11
0 -5 -1 : -9
R3 R3
5
R2
7
36
1 2 1 :
4
........(1)
A:D
0
-7
-3
:
-11

0 0 8 7 : 8 7
This is in Echelon form
AD 3
A 3
AD A Number of unknowns
system is consist and has unique solution.

Step (2) : To find the solution we proceed as follows. At the end of the
row transformation the value of z is calculated then values of y and the
value of x in the last.
The matrix in e.g. (1) in Echelon form can be written as
1
1 2
0 7 3
0 0 8 7
x
4
y -11

z
-8 7
Expanding by R 3
8
Z 8
7
7
z -1
expanding by R 2
7 y 3z 11
7 y 3(1) 11
7 y 3 11
7 y 14
y2
exp anding by R1
x 2y z 4
x 4 1 4
x 1
x 1, y 2,z -1
Example 6: Examine for consistency and solve
5x 3 y 7 z 4
3x 26 y 2 z 9
37
7 x 2 y 10 z 5
Solution:
Step (1) : In the matrix form
5 3 7
3 26 2
7 2 10
x
4
y 5

z
6
X D
A
Consider
5 3 7 : 4 x
4
A : D 3 26 2 : 9 y 5
7 2 10 : 5 z
6
R1
1
R1
5
1 3 5 7 5 : 4 5
A : D 3 26 2 : 9
7 2 10 : 5
R 2 R2 3 R1
R 3 R3 7 R1
7 5 : 45
1 3 5
A : D 0 121 5 11 5 : 33 5
0 11 5 1 5 : 3 5
R 3 R3
1
R2
11
7
1 3
: 4
5
5
5
A : D 0 1215 115 : 33 5
0
0
0
: 0
AD 2
A 2
AD A 2 3 Number of unknowns
The system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.

Step (2) :- To find the solution we proceed as follows:
Let
38
z k....... k parameter
By expanding R 2
121 5 y 11 5z 33 5
11y-z 3
z3
11
put z k
k 3
11
By exapanding R1
x 3 y7 z 4
5
5
5
7 16k
x
11 11

Solve the system of equations:
i)
2 x1 x2 2 x3 x4 6
6 x1 6 x2 6 x3 12 x4 36
4 x1 3x2 3x3 3x4 1
2 x1 2 x2 x3 x4 10
Ans : consistent
x1 2, x2 1, x3 1, x4 3
ii)
2 x1 x2 x3 x4 2
3x1 x2 x3 x4 2
x1 2 x2 x3 x4 1
6 x1 2 x2 x3 x4 5
Ans : Infinitely many solutions,
5
9
x1 k , x2 3 4k , x3 2 k , x4 k 3
2
2
x1 x2 x3 4
3
2 x1 5x2 2 x3 3
x1 7 x2 7 x3 5
iii)
Ans : Inconsistent
x1 x2 x3 0
iv)
39
x1 2 x2 x3 0
2 x1 x2 3x3 0
Ans: Trivial Solution.
x1 2 x2 3x3 0
v)
2 x1 4 x2 7 x3 0
3x1 6 x2 10 x3 0
Ans : Definitely many solution
x1
x
2
x3

1

2
0
2.5 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter we have learn
Using row echelon from finding Rank of matrix.
Representing linear equation m x n in to argumented matrix.
Consistency of matrix.
Solution of Homogeneous equations.
Solution of non homogeneous equations.

1) Reduce the following matrix in Echolon form & find its Rank.
i)
ii)
1
1
A
1
1
4
A
3
3 6 1
4 5 1
Ans : Rank = 2
5 4 3
2 1 3
1 2 1
Ans : Rank = 3
1 1 2
2 0 1
40
iii)
1 2 3
A 2 1 0
0 1 2
iv)
1 1 1
A 1 1 1
3 1 1
Ans : Rank = 2
Ans : Rank = 2
2) Solve the following system of equations.

i) x1 + x2 + x3 = 3, x+2x2 +3x3 = 4, x1 +4x2 +9x3 = 6
Ans:- x 2, y 1, z 0.
ii) 2x1 - x2 - x3 = 0, x1 - x3 = 0, 2x1 + x2 - 3x3 = 0
Ans:iii)
1
x1 x2 x3 ..... 1 .
1
5x1 - 3x2 -7x3 + x4 = 10
-x1 +2x2 +6x3 - 3x4 = -3

x1 + x2 +4x3 - 5x4 = 0
iii)
2x1 +3x2 - 2x3 = 0
3x1 - x2 +3x3 = 0
7x1 +5x2 - x3 = 0.
iv)
x1 - 4x2 - x3 = 3
3x1 + x2 - 2x3 =7
2x1 - 3x2 + x3 = 10.
v)
x1 - 4x2 +7x3 = 8
3x1 +8x2 - 2x3 = 6
7x1 - 8x2 +26x3 = 31
*****
41
3
LINEAR
DEPENDANCE
INDEPENDANCE
OF VECTORS
AND
UNIT STRUCTURE
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Objectives
Introduction
Definitions
The Inner Product
Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
Summary
Unit End Exercise
3.1 Objectives
After going through this chapter you will able to
Find linearly independent & linearly dependent vector.
Inner product of two vector
Find characteristic equation of matrix
Find the of characteristic equation i.e
Find the corresponding .Eigen vector to Eigen value.
3.2 Introduction
In this chapter we are going to discuss linearly dependent &
independent also. Inner two vector using the characteristic equation of
matrix. We are going to evaluate .Eigen value & Eigen.vector of matrix A.
Vector :- An set of n elements written as x x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,.............xn is
called a vector of n-dimensions.
Note : Any two or column matrix is called as a vector and numbers are
called as scalars.
3.3 Definitions
Linearly Independent Vector
Let
Let x1 , x2 ,.............xn be n vectors of some order
42
Let c1 x1 c2 x2 ........... cn xn 0
Where c1 , c2 , ...... are scalars.
If (i) c1 c2 .............. cn 0 then

x1 , x2 , ........xn are linearly independent
and (ii) if not all ci are zero then x1,x2 ,.......... xn
are linearly dependent
If x1 , x2 ,.........xn are linearly dependent then a relation exists
between them which can be found out
Solved examples:Example 1: Examine for linear dependence
T
T
x1 1 2 4 , x 2 3 7 10
Solution: We have,
1
3
x1 2 , x 2 7
4
10
Let c1 x1 c2 x 0
1
3 0
i.e. c1 2 c2 7 0
4
10 0
c1 3c1 0
i.e. 2c1 7c2 0
4c1 10c2 0
c1 3c2 0
2c1 7c2 0
4c1 10c2 0
Consider first two equations in matrix form.
1 3 c1 0
2 7 c 0
2
A X 0
A 76
A 1
A 0
system has zero solution.

i.e. c1 c2 0
x1 , x 2 are linearly independent
43
Example 2: Examine for linear dependence.

T
T
T
x1 1 2 3 , x2 3 -2 1 , x3 1 -6 -5
Solution:
Step (1) We have
1
3
1
x1 2 , x 2 2 , x 3 6
3
1
5
Let c1 x1 c21 x2 c3 x3 0
1
3
1 0
c1 2 c2 2 c3 6 0
1
3
5 0
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c1 2c2 6c3 0
3c1 c2 5c3 0
c1 3c2 c3 0
2c1 2c2 6c3 0
3c1 c2 5c3 0
Step (ii) In matrix form,
1 3 1 c1
0
2 2 6 c 0
2

3 1 5 c3
0
A
X 0
Consider
1
3
1 : 0
A:0 2 3 6 : 0
3 1 5 : 0
R2 R2 2 R1
R3 R3 3 R1
1 3
A:0 0 8
0 8
R3 R3 R2
1
R2 R2
8
1 3
A:0 0 1
0 0
e A 0 2
1 : 0
8 : 0
8 : 0
1 : 0
1 : 0
0 : 0
44
e A 2
e A:0 e A 2 Number of unknowns
system has non-zero solution

i.e. c1 , c2 , c3 are non zero
x1 , x 2 , x3 are linearly dependent
Step (iii):
To find relation between
x1 , x 2, x 3
Let
c3 k
By exp anding R2
c2 c3 0
c2 -c3
c 2 k
By expanding R1
c1 3c2 c3 0
c1 3k k 0
c1 2k
c1 x1 c2 x2 c3 x3 0
2kx1 kx 2 kx 3 0
2x1 x 2 x3 0 is a relation.
Check your progress:
1)
Show that the vectors x1 1 1 1 , x 2 1, 2, 3 , x 3 2, 3, 8
are linearly independent
2)
Are the following vectors linearly dependent? If so find the
relation
x1 1 2 4 , x 2 2, -1, 3 , x3 0, 1, 2 , x 4 3, 7, 2
i)
Ans : Dependent 9 x1 12 x2 5x3 5x4 0
(ii)
x1 2 -1 3 2 , x2 1 3 4 2 , x3 3 -5 2 2
Ans :- Dependent, 2x1 x2 x3 0
(iii)
x1 1 1 1 3 , x2 1 2 3 4 , x3 2 3 4 9
Ans : Independent.
3.4 THE INNER PRODUCT
45
If X ( x1 , x2 .......xn ) and Y ( y1 , y2 ....... yn )

then<X,Y> denotes inner product
X , Y x1 y1 x2 y2 x3 y3 ........ xn yn is in inner product of X and Y.
Let V be a vector space and X,Y V then<X,Y> it said to be an inner
product if it satisfies following properties.
i)
<X,Y> =0
ii)
<X,Y> = <Y,X>
iii)
<X,Y+Z> = <X,Y> + <X,Z>
iv)
<X, Y> = <X,Y> where is scalar.
v)
<X,Y> = 0 if and only if X=0.
Example 3: Show that X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
Satisfies all properties of inner product
Solution: X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
i)
X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
( x1 )2 2( x2 )2 4( x3 )2 0
X , Y 0
2
X , Y 0( x1 ) 2( x2 )2 4( x3 )2 0
x1 0, x2 0, orx3 0
X , X 0 x 0
X , Y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
ii)
y1 x1 2 y2 x2 4 y3 x3
Y , X
X , Y Z x1 ( y1 z1 ) 2 x2 ( y2 z2 ) 4 x3 ( y3 z3 )
iii)
x1 y1 x1 z1 2 x2 y2 2 x2 z2 4 x3 y3 4 x3 z3
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3 x1 z1 2 x2 z2 4 x3 z3
X , Y X , Z
iv)
X , Y x1 ( y1 ) 2 x2 ( y2 ) 4 x3 ( y3 )
x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
( x1 y1 2 x2 y2 4 x3 y3 )
x, y
Here all properties are satisfied
X , Y is an inner product.
Prove all the properties of an inner product for the following: X , Y 16 x1 y1 25x2 y2
i.
ii.
X , Y 8x1 y1 x2 y2 x3 y3
46
iii.
X , Y 3x1 y1 x2 y2 4 x3 y3
iv.
f , g f (t ).g (t ).dt
3.5 Eigen Values And Eigen Vectors

Definition:Let A be a given square matrix.
Then there exists a scalar and non-zero vector X such that
AX X ..........(1)
Our aim is to find and x for given matrix A using equation (1)
is called as eigen value, latent roots of a matrix value, characteristic
value or root of a matrix A and x is called as eigen vector or characteristic
vector etc.
X is a column matrix
Method of finding and x :We have,
AX X
AX- IX 0..... x IX, I unit matrix
A- I X 0.............(2)
Equation 2 is a set of homogenous equation and for non-zero x, we have
A I 0..........(3)
This equation is called the characteristic equation of
First we solve equation (3) to find eigen values or roots. Then we solve
equation (2) to find Eigen vectors.
Let
a1 b1 c1
x1
A a2 b2 c2 and x x2
a3 b3 c3
x3
equation (2) i.e. A- I x 0 becomes
a1
a2
a
3
b1
b2
b3
c1
c2
c3
1 0 0 x1 0
0 1 0 x 0
2
0 0 1 x3 0
47
b1
c1
a1
i.e. a2
b2
c2
a3
b3
c3
x1 0
x 0 (2)
2
x3 0
and equation (3) i.e. A- x 0 is
b1
c1
a1
a
b2
c2 0 (3)
2
a3
b3
c3
Note :
1)
Equation (2) is called as matrix equation of A in
2)
Equation (3) is called as characteristic equation of A in
3)
Usually given matrix A is of order 3X3 . Therefore it will have 3
eigen values and for every eigen value there will be corresponding eigen
vector which is a column matrix of order 3X1. There are 3 such column
matrices.
4)
Eigen vectors are linearly independent.
5)
Method of finding eigen values is same for any given matrix A.
Method of finding eigen vectors is slightly different and we study 3 types
of such problems.
Type (I) : When all eigen values are distinct and matrix A may be
symmetric or non- symmetric.
Type (II) : When eigen values are repeated and A is non-symmetric
Type (III) : When eigen values are repeated and A is symmetric.
Solved examples :Type (I) : All roots are non- repeated.
Example 4: Find eigen values and given vectors for
2 2 3
A 1 1 1
1 3 1
Solution:
Step (1) : Charactristic equation of A in i s
A- I 0
2- -2
3
i.e. 1 1-
1 0
1
3 -1-
3 sum of diagonal elements of A 2
sum of minors of diagonal elements of A - A 0

A 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 3 1
48
-8-4 6
A 6
Characteristic equation is given by
3 2 2 4 5 4 - 6 0
3 2 2 -5 6 0
sin ce sum of coefficient 0

-1 is a factor.
Synthetic division:
1
-2
1
-1
-5
-1
-6
-1 2 6 0
-1 -3 2 0
1, -2, 3
The roots are non- repeated
Step (ii) :- Now we find eigen vectors
Matrix equations is given by
A I X 0
3 x1 0
2- -2
i.e. 1 1-
1 x 2 0
1
3 1 x 3 0
Case (i) : When 1, matrix eq n becomes
1 -2 3
1 0 1
1 3 2
x1 0
x 0
2
x 3 0
Solving first two rows by Cramers rule.

We have,
x1 2 x2 3x3 0
x1 x2 x3 0
x1 x2 x3

-1 1
1
x1 x2 x3
-2 2 2
6
-6
0
49
1
x1 1
1
Case (ii) :- When 2 2
Matrix equation is given by
4 2 3
1 3 1
1 3 1
x1
x
2
x 3
0
0

0
x1 x 2 x 3
-11 1 14
x
x
x
1 2 3
-11 -1 14
11
x 2 1
14
Case (iii) : When 3 3 matrix equation is given by
1 2 3 x1 0
1 2 1 x 0
2
1 3 4 x 3 0
x
x
-x
1 2 3
4 4 4
1
x1 x 2 x 3
x 3 1
1
1
4
1
Type (II) :- Repeated eigen values and A is non- symmetric.
Example 5: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for
2 1 1
A 2 3 2
3 3 4
Solution:
Step (1) :- Characteristic equation of A in is
A I 0
i.e. 3 -9 2 6 5 4 -7 0
3 -9 2 15 -7 0
since sum of co-efficients 0
1 is a factor
synthetic division
50
1 1 9 15
1 8
1 8 7
2 -8 7
7
0
-7 1
3 -9 2 15 -7 0
-1 1 -7 0
7, 1, 1
Here two roots are repeated. First we find eigen vectors for non-repeated
root.
Step II :- Matrix equation of A in is
A I X 0
1
1
2
2
3
2
3
4
3
x1 0
x 0
2
x 3 0
Case (i) :- For 7

Matrix equation is
5 1 1 x1
0
2 4 2 x 0
2

3 3 3 x 3
0
x
x
-x
1 2 3
6 -12 18
x1 x 2 x 3
1
2
3
1
x1 2
3
Case (ii) :- Let 1

Matrix equation is
1 1 1 x1 0
2 2 2 x 0
2
3 3 3 x 3 0
By cramerss rule we get
x1 x2 x3
0
0
0
0
i.e. 0
0
But by definition we want non-zero x2
51
So we proceed as follows
Expanding by R1
x1 x2 x3 0
Assume any element to be zero say x1 and give any conventional value
say 1 to x2 and find x3
Let
x1 0, x 2 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Case (iii) :- Let x=1
Again consider
x1 x 2 x 3 0
Let x2 0, x1 1
x3 1
0
x2 1
1
Type (iii) :- A is symmetric and eigen values are repeated
Example 6: Find eigen values and eigen vectors for .
6 2 2
A 2 3 1
2 1 3
Solution:
Step :- Characteristic equations of A in
A I 0
A 32
2
6 2
2 3 1 0
2
1 3
i.e. 3 12 2 8 14 14 -32 0
3 12 2 36 -32 0
-2 is a factor
Synthetic division :2 1 12 36 32
2 20 32
1 10 16
0
is
52
2 10 6
8 2
3 12 2 36 32 0
2 2 8 0
8, 2, 2
Step (ii) :- Matrix equation is

2
6 2
2 3 1
2
1 3
x1
0
x 0
2

x 3
0
Case (i) :- For 8

2 2 2 x1
0
2 5 1 x 0
2

2 1 5 x 3
0
x
x
x
1 2 3 ........By cramer's rule
12
6
6
x1 x2 x3
2
1 1
2
x1 1
1
Case (ii) :- Let 2
4 2 2
2 1 1
2 1 1
Expanding R1
4 x1 2 x2 2 x3 0
Let x1 0, x 2 1
x3 1
0
x 2 1
1
Case (iii) :- Let
2
A is symetric
x1 , x 2 , x3 are orthogonal
x1 0
x 0
2
x3 0
53
l
Let, x 3 m
n
x1 , x3 are orthogonal
x11 , x 3 0
2l-m n 0..........(1)
x 2 , x3 are orthogonal
x 21 , x 3 0
ol m n 0..........(2)
solving (1) and (2) by cramer's rule
l m n
-2
2
2
l
m n

1 1 1
1
x 3 1
1

1) Find eigen values and eigen vectors for
i)
2 8 12
A 1 4
4
1
0 0
Ans :- Eigen values are 0,1,2
4
4
2
x 1 x 2 0 , x 3 1
0
1
0
(ii)
3 1 1
A 1 5 1
1 1 3
Ans
Eigen values are 2,3 and 6
1
x1 0
1
1
1
x 2 1 x 3 2
1
1
54
(iii)
2 2 3
A 2 1 6
1 2 0
Ans :
Eigen values are 5, -3,-3
1
x1 2
1
2
3
x 2 1 x 3 0
0
1
3.6 SUMMARY
Linearly dependent & independent vector.
Inner product of two vector i.e same as dot product 7 its properties.
Characteristics equation & its root by using

A I 0
Eigen vector which is corresponding to Eigen value which we get

from A I 0

1)
by dependent?
Is the system of vector x1 (2, 2,1)T , x2 (1,3,1)T linear
2)
independent set.
Show that the vectors (1,2,3) (2,20) form a linearly
3)
Show that the following vector are linearly dependent
& find the relation between them
x1 (1, 1,1), x2 (2,1,1), x3 (3,0, 2)
4)
Prove the properties of an inner product.
i.
X , Y 3x1 y1 4 x2 y2 .
ii.
X , Y 9 x1 y1 3x2 y2 4 x3 y3
5)
matrix.
Find Eigen value and Eigen vector for the following
55
i)
ii)
2
A 2
7
1
A 0
0
2 0
1 1
2 3
2 4
2 4
0 3
iii)
1 0
A
2 4
iv)
2 1
A
8 4
v)
1 1 1
A 1 2 1
3 2 3
vi)
1 3 0
A 3 2 1
0 1 1
vii)
Cos0 Sin
A
Sin Cos0
viii)
2 2 1
A 1 3 1
1 2 1
*****
56
4
CAYLEY HAMILTON THEORY
UNIT STRUCTURE
4.1
Objective
4.2
Introduction
4.3
Cayley Hamilton Theorem
4.4
Similarity of Matrix
4.5
Characteristics Polynomial
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Minimal Polynomial
Complex Matrices
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
4.1 OBJECTIVE
Find by using Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
Application of Cayley- Hamilton Theorem.
Find diagonal matrix on similar matrix.
Characteristic Polynomial & Minimal Polynomial of matrix A.
Derogatory & non-derogatory matrix.
Complex matrix like Hermitian, Skew-Hermitian unitary matrix.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we learn about Eigen values & Eigen Vector. How
here we are going to discuss Cayley Hamilton Theory & its application
also we had study only Real matrix. We introduce here complex matrix
with type of complex matrix also minimal polynomial.
4.3 CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM

Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
If the characteristic Equation for the nth order square matrix A is
n
A I 1 n a1 n1 a2 n2 ........ an then
a1 An1 a2 An2 ........ an I 0
57
Example 1:
Show that the given matrix A satisfies its characteristic equation.
2 1 1
A 0 1 0
1 1 2
Solution:
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is A I 0
2
1
0
1
1
1
1
0 0
2
2 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
2 2 3 2 1 1 0
4 6 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 0
3 5 2 7 3 0
3 5 2 7 3 0
By Cayley Hamilton theorem,

A3 5 A2 7 A 3I 0 ..(1)
Now, we have
2 1 1 2 1 1 5 4 4
A2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 2 1 1 2 4 4 5
2 1 1 5 4 4 14 13 13
A 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 2 4 4 5 13 13 14
3
A3 5 A2 7 A 3I
14 13 13
0 1 0 -5
13 13 14
5 4 4
2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
4 4 5
1 1 2 0 0 1
58
14 13 13
0 1 0 -5
13 13 14
14 13 13
0 1 0 13 13 14
5 4 4
2 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 +7 0 1 0 3 0 1 0
4 4 5
1 1 2 0 0 1
25 20 20 14 7 7 3 0 0
0 5 0 + 0 7 0 0 3 0
20 20 25 7 7 14 0 0 3
28 20 20 28 20 20
0 8 0 0 8 0
20 20 28 20 20 28
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
A3 5 A2 7 A 3I 0
Thus the matrix A satisfies its characteristic equation.

Example 2 :
Calculate A7 by using Cayley Hamilton theorem.
3 6
Where A =
1 2
Solution :
The characteristic equation of A is
A I 0
3
1
6
0
2
3 2
60
6 2 3 2 6 0
2 5 0
By Cayley Hamilton theorem,
A2 5 A 0
i.e. A2 5 A
59
Now to calculate
A7 A5 . A2 A5 .5 A 5 A6
5 A4 . A2 25 A5
25 A3 . A2 125 A4
125 A2 . A2 125(5 A).(5 A)
3125 A2 3125(5 A)
15625A
3 6
A7 15625
1 2
46875 93750
15625 31250
46875 93750
The value of A7
15625 31250
Example 3:
By using Cayley Hamilton theorem find A1
1 1 1
A 1 1 2
1 2 1
Solution:
The characteristics equation of A is
A I 0
1
1 1
1 1
2 0
1
2 1
1 1 2 2 4 1 1 2 12 1 0
2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 0
3 3 2 3 9 0
3 3 2 3 9 0
By Cayley Hamilton theorem
A3 3 A2 3 A 9I 0
60
Multiply by A1
A3 A1 3 A2 A1 3 AA1 9IA1 0 A1
A2 3 A 3I 9 A1 0
1
A1 3 A 3I A2
9
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 0
2
A 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 6 3
1 2 1 1 2 1 0 3 6
.(1)
1 1 1
1 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3I A 3 1 1 2 3 0 1 0 0 6 3
1 2 1
0 0 1 0 3 6
3 3 3 3 0 0 3 0 0
3 A 3I A 3 3 6 0 3 0 0 6 3
3 6 3 0 0 3 0 3 6
2
3 3 3
3 0 3
3 3 0
1
A1 3 A 3I A2
9
3 3 3
1
3 0 3
9
3 3 0
1 1 1
1
1 0 1
3
1 1 0
1 1 1
1
A 1 0 1
3
1 1 0
1

1)
Find the characteristic polynomial of the matrix.
3 1 1
A 1 5 1 Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for this
1 1 3
matrix.
61
Hence find A1
7 2 3
1
1 4 1
Ans: A1
20
2 2 8
2)
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find inverse of the matrix.
1 1 3
A 1 3 3
2 4 4
3)
24 8 12
1
Ans:
10 2 6
8
2 2 2
Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find the inverse of
1 2 4
A 1 0 3
3 1 2
6
3 8
1
Ans: A 1 7 14 7
7
1 5
2
4)
Show that the following matrices satisfy their characteristics
equation
2 2 1
A 1 3 1
1 2 2
1 0 2
A 0 2 1
2 0 3
5)
Using the characteristics equation show that inverse of the matrix
i)
1 0 2
A 2 2 4
0 0 2
ii)
3 1 1
A 1 5 1
1 1 3
iii)
2 1 1
A 1 2 1
1 1 2
3 1 1
1
Ans: A 1 3 1
4
1 1 3
1
62
4.4 SIMILARITY OF MATRIX

Two matrix A and B of order nxn over F are said to be similar if
there exist a non-singular matrix P (invertible matrix) of order nxn such
that B P1 AP
This transformation of matrix A by a non-singular matrix P to B is
called a similarity transformation.
Diagonal matrix: If a square matrix A of order n has linearly independent
eigen vectors then matrix P can be formed such that P 1 AP is diagonal
matrix i.e.
D P1 AP
Example 4:
Two similar matrices A and B have the same eign values.
Solutions:
Since A and B are similar, there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
B P1 AP
Consider
B I P 1 AP I
B I P 1 AP P 1IP
P 1 A I P
P 1 A I P
A I P 1 P
A I
P 1 . P 1
B I = A I
Hence the characteristics equation of A and B are the same
A and B have same eigen values.
Example 5:
1 1
1 0
and B
have same characteristics equations
0 1
0 1
but A and B not similar matrices.
Show that A
Solutions:
Let A
1 1
1 0
and B
0 1
0 1
63
Characteristics equation of A is
i.e.
A I 0
1
1
2
= 1 = 2 2 1 0 s equation
0 1
Characteristics equation of B is
B I 0
i.e.
1
0
2
= 1 = 2 2 1 0
0 1
Characteristics equation of A = Characteristics equation of B
Now we will show that A and B are not similar

Suppose A B
There exist non-singular matrix C such that, B 0 C1 AC
1 0
Let C
0 2
1 0
C
2, C is non-singular as C 0
0 2
C 1 exists
2 0
adj C
0 1
1 0
1
1 2 0
C
adj C
1
0
1
C
2
0

2
1
1 0
1 1 1 0
C AC
1
0
0 1 0 2
2
1
1 0
1 0 1 2 B

1
0
0 2 0 1
2
Hence A and B are not similar matrices.
2 2 3
Example 6: Let A 2 1 6 , Find similarity to a diagonal matrix.
1 2 0
Find the diagonal matrix.
64
2 0 0
Ans : A 0 2 0
0 0 8
4.5 CHARACTERISTICS POLYNOMIAL

Solving the determinant A I , a polynomial is obtained which
is called as a characteristics polynomial.
2 1 1
For e.g. A 1 2 1
1 1 2
The characteristics polynomial is given by
2
A I 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
2 2 1 1 2 1 +1 1 2
2 2 4 3 2 2 3 6 2 3 4
3 6 2 9 4
4.6 MINIMAL POLYNOMIAL

Monic Polynomial: A Polynomial in , in which the coefficient of the
highest power of is unity is called a monic polynomial.
For e.g. 5 2 4 3 3 6 5 is a monic polynomial of degree
polynomial.
If a polynomial f annihilates A then f also f annihilates. A for
R , therefore there exists a monic polynomial annihilating A.
If the characteristics roots of the characteristics equation are
distinct then f ( ) = 0 is called minimal equation.
If matrix of order 3x3 are having characteristics root 2,3,3 then,
2 3 0
Or A 2 A 3 0 is the minimal equation.
65
Hence the degree of the equation is 2 and less than the order of the
polynomial.
Derogatory Matrix: A nxn matrix is called derogatory if the degree of its
minimal polynomial is less than n.
Non-Derogatory Matrix: A nxn matrix is called non-derogatory if the
degree of minimal polynomial is equal to n.
Properties of Minimal Polynomial:
(1)
There exists a unique minimal polynomial of the matrix A.
(2)
The minimal polynomial of A divides the characteristics
polynomial of A.
(3)
If is the root of the minimal polynomial of A then is also
characteristics of root of A.
(4)
If the n characteristics of root of A are distinct then A is non
derogatory.
Example 7:
Check whether the following matrix is derogatory or non derogatory also
find its minimal polynomial.
2 2 3
A 1 1 1
1 3 1
i)
Solution:
The characteristics polynomials of matrix A is
2 2
A I 1
1
1
3
3
1
1
3 sum of diagonal element of A 2
sum of
minor of diagonal element of A A
2 2 3
2 1 1 1 2 3
2 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 3 1 1 1
1 3 1
3
3 2 2 4 4 5 6
66
3 2 2 5 6
2 1 3
The characteristics roots are -2, 1 and 3 which are distinct.
Therefore matrix A is non-derogatory.

2 1 1
A 2 3 2
3 3 4
ii)
Solution:
1
2
A I 2
3
3
3
1
2
4
sum of
minor of diagonal element of A A
2 1 1
3 2 2 1 2 1
2 3 4
2 3 2
3 4 3 4 2 3 3 3 4
3
3 9 2 6 5 4 7
3 9 2 15 7
1 1 7
The characteristics roots are 1, 1 and 7 which are not distinct.
Therefore matrix A is derogatory.
Example 8:
Show that the matrix A is derogatory also find its minimal polynomial.
1 6 4
A 0 4 2
0 6 3
Solution:
67
1
A I 0
0
6
4
6
4
2
3
sum of
minor of diagonal of matrix A A
1 6 4
4 2 1 4 1 6
1 4 3
0 4 2
6 3 0 3 0 4
0 6 3
3
3 2 2 0 3 4 0
3 2 2
( 2 2 1)
1 1
The characteristics roots are 0, 1 & 1 which are not distinct.
Therefore matrix A is derogatory matrix.
But we know that characteristic root of A is root of minimal polynomial.
f 1 2 .
Now check whether f .annihilated matrix A.
f A2 A
1 6 4 1 6 4
A A. A 0 4 2 0 4 2
0 6 3 0 6 3
2
1 6 4
0 4 2
0 6 3
1 6 4 1 6 4
A A 0 4 2 0 4 2
0 6 3 0 6 3
A2 A 0
2
f A 0
The minimal of polynomial of A is f 2
68
& degree of polynomial is 2 which is less than 3

Hence matrix A is derogatory.
Example 9:
Find the minimal polynomial and show that it is derogatory matrix.
2 2 1
Where, A 1 3 1
1 2 2
Solution:

2
2
A I 1
3
1
2
1
1
2
2 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 3
2 2 5 6 2 2 1 1
3 5 2 4 2 2 10 8 3 3
3 7 2 11 5
1 1 5
The characteristics roots of matrix A are 1, 1 and 5.
roots are.
The matrix A is derogatory.
But we know that characteristics root of A is also a root of its minimal

polynomial.
f 1 5 2 6 5
Now check whether f annihilated matrix A i.e.
f A A2 6 A 5I 0..............( I )
2 2 1
1 0 0
7 12 6
A 6 A 5I 6 13 6 6 1 3 1 5 0 1 0
6 12 7
1 2 2
0 0 1
2
69
7 12 6 12 12 6 5 0 0
6 13 6 6 18 6 0 5 0
6 12 7 6 12 12 0 0 5
f A 0
The minimal of polynomial of A is f 2 6 5
And degree of polynomial is 2 which is less than 3
The matrix A is derogatory.

(1)
Show that the following matrices are derogatory and hence find the
minimal polynomial.
1 2 3
(i) A 0 2 3
0 0 3
2 1 1
(ii) A 0 3 2
2 4 3
Ans: 2 3 2 0
Ans: 2 0
(2)
Check whether the following matrix is derogatory or nonderogatory also find the minimal polynomial.
1 3 0
(i) A 3 2 1 Ans: Non derogatory
0 1 1
2 1 0
(ii) A 0 2 0
0 0 2
Ans: Derogatory
4.7 COMPLEX MATRICES
70
Z =x+iy is called a complex number, where i 1 and x, y R and
Z x iy is called a conjugate of the complex number Z

Let A be a mxn matrix having complex numbers as its elements, then the
matrix is called a complex matrix.
Conjugate of a Matrix:
The matrix of order mxn is obtained by replacing the elements by their
corresponding conjugate elements, is called conjugate of a matrix. It is
denoted by A
2 3i 1 i
3
For e.g. A
2i 1 2 2i 3
2 3i 1 i
3
2i 1 2 2i 3
Properties of conjugate of matrix:

(1)
A A
(2)
A B A B
(3)
AB A.B
Conjugate Transpose:
Transpose of the conjugate matrix A is called conjugate transpose. It is
denoted by A .
For e.g. A
1 i i
1
3 i 2 3i 2
3
1 i
1 i
i
1
A
then A i
i 2
3 i 2 3i 2
1 3i 2
Properties of Transpose of Conjugate of a matrix:

(1)
(2)
A B
(3)
AB
A B
B . A
Hermitian matrix:
71
A square matrix A is called Hermitian matrix if A= A i.e. A= A aij
mn
is Hermitian if aij a ji i and j.

Example 10:
2 i 3 i
1
Show that the matrix A 2 i

3
i is Hermitian
3 i
i
3
Solution:
2 i 3 i
1
Here A 2 i
3
i
3 i
i
3
2 i 3 i
1
A 2 i
3
i
3 i i
3
2 i 3 i
1
A 2 i
3
i
3 i
i
3
A A
Hence by definition A is Hermitian matrix.
Skew Hermitian Matrix:
A Square matrix A such that A A is called a Skew Hermitian Matrix.
i.e. if A aij mn is Skew Hermitian if aij a ji i and j.
Here aij = purely imaginary or re aij = 0.
Example 11:
5 i 6 i
2i
Show that the matrix A 5 i

0
i is called a Skew Hermitian
6 i i
0
Matrix.
Solution:
5 i 6 i
2i
Here A 5 i
0
i
6 i i
0
72
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i
0
i
6 i
i
0
2i 5 i 6 i
A 5 i
0
i
6 i
i
0
5 i 6 i
2i
A 5 i
0
i
6 i i
0
Hence A = -A
The matrix A is Skew Hermitian Matrix.

Note:
Let A be a square matrix expressed as B+iC where B and C are Hermitian
and Skew Hermitian Matrices respectively.
1
1
A A A i A A B iC
2
2i
1
1
A A and C A A
2
2i
Unitary Matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if A A 1
Example 12:
Show that the matrix A
1 1 3i 2 i
is Unitary matrix.
15 1 2i 3 i
Solution:
Here A
A
AA
1 1 3i 2 i
15 1 2i 3 i
1 1 3i 1 2i
15 2 i 3 i
1 1 3i 2 i 1 3i 1 2i
15 1 2i 3 i 2 i 3 i
73
1 15 0 1 0
I
15 0 15 0 1
AA I
Hence A is Unitary Matrix.
Example 13:
2 i 1 3 3i
Express the matrix, A i
1 i 2 i As the Hermitian Matrix and
1 i 3
5
Skew Hermitian Matrix.
Solution:
2 i 1 3 3i
A i
1 i 2 i ......( I )
1 i 3
5
Let
2 i 1 3 3i
A i 1 i 2 i
1 i 3
5
2i
1 1 i
A 1
1 i 3 ......( II )
3 3i 2 i 5
Adding I and II we get

2 i 1 3 3i 2 i
i 1 i
A A i
1 i 2 i 1
1 i 3
1 i 3
5
3 3i 2 i 5
4
1 i 4 4i
i 1
2
i 1
4 4i i 1 10
4
1 i 4 4i
1
1
B A A i 1
2
i 1 ......( III )
2
2
4 4i i 1 10
also
2 i 1 3 3i 2 i
i 1 i
A A i 1 i 2 i 1 1 i 3
1 i 3
5
3 3i 2 i 5
74
2i
1 i 2 2i
i 1
2
5i
2 2i 5 i
0
2i
1 i 2 2i
1
1
A A 2 i 1 2 5 i ......( IV )
2
2 2i 5 i
0
Now, A=B+iC
4
1 i 4 4i
2i
1 i 2 2i
1
1
A i 1
2
i 1
i 1
2
5i
2
2
4 4i i 1 10
2 2i 5 i
0
Example 14:
Prove that the matrix, A
1 1 i
2 i 1
Solution:
1 1 i
Let A
2 i 1
A
A A
1 1 i
2 i 1
1 1 i 1 1 i
2 i 1
2 i 1
i i
1 1 i 2
2 i i i 2 1
1 2 0 1 0
I
2 0 2 0 1
AA I
Hence A is Unitary.
(1)
Show that the following matrices are Skew Hermitian.
1 i 2 2i
2i 2 3
4i
(i) A 2 4i 6
(ii) A i 1
i
5i
3i
3 6 0
2 2i 5i
(2)
Show that the following matrices are Unitary matrices.
75
(i) A
1 1 1 i
3 i 1 1
(ii)
1 1 i 1 i
2 i 1 1 i
(3)
If A is Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is Skew- Hermitian
matrix.
A
4.8 LET US SUM UP

Cayley Hamilton theorem & it application like Higher power of

matrix & Inverse of matrix.
Minimal .polynomial & derogatory & non-derogatory matrix.
Complex matrix.
Hermitian matrix. i.e A A
Skew Hermitian matrix. i.e A A
Unitary matrix= AA I .

1.
i)
Show that the given matrix A satisfies its characteristics equation.

1 2 2
A 1 3 0
0 2 1
ii)
2 4 3
A 0 1 1
2 2 1
iii)
1 3 7
A 4 2 3
1 2 1
2.
Using Cayley Hermitian theorem find inverse of the matrix A.
i)
2 1 1
A 1 2 1
1 1 2
ii)
3
1 1
A 1
3 3
2 4 4
76
3.
4.
1 4
Calculate A5 by Cayley Hamilton Theorem if A
2 3
2 2 3
Let A 2 1 6 . Find a similarity transformation that
1 2 0
diagonalises matrix A.
5.
6 2 2
Let A 2 3 1 Find matrix P such that is diagonal matrix
2 1 3
.
6.
1 0 1
Diagonalise the matrix 1 2 1
2 2 3
7.
4 1 0
For the matrix A 1 4 1 .
0 1 4
Determine a matrix P such that is diagonal matrix.

8.
If show that is Hermitian matrix.
9.
Show that the following matrix are skew Hermitian matrix.
i)
2i 3 4
A 3 3i 5
4 5 4i
ii)
1 i 2 3i
0
1 i
0
6i
2 3i 6i
0
10.
Show that the following matrix are unitary matrix
i)
1 i
2
A
1 i
2
1 i
2
1 i
2
77
ii)
1 1
1
A
1 w
3
1 w2
1
w2
w
11.
Prove that a real matrix is unitary if it is orthogonal.
12.
Check whether the following matrix is derogatory or nonderogatory.
2 2 3
i)
A 2 1 6
1 2 0
ii)
1 0 1
A 1 2 1
2 2 3
iii)
1 2 3
A 2 4 6
3 6 9
iv)
2 0 1
A 0 3 0
1 0 2
v)
1 1 3
A 1 5 1
3 1 1
vi)
5 0 1
A 0 2 0
1 0 5
vii)
2 2 1
A 1 3 1
1 2 2
viii)
9 4 4
A 8 3 4
16 8 7
ix)
3 10 5
A 2 3 4
3 5 7
78
13.
Show that the following matrix is derogatory also find minimal
polynomial.
i)
2 2 2
A 1 1 1
1 3 1
ii)
3 10 5
A 2 3 4
3 5 7
iii)
2 2 3
A 2 1 6
1 2 0
*****
79
5
VECTOR CALCULAS
UNIT STRUCTURE
5.0
Objectives
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Vector differentiation
5.3
Vector operator
5.3.1 Gradient
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient
5.3.3 Divergence
5.3.4 Solenoidal function
5.3.5 Curl
5.3.6 Irrational field
5.4
Properties of gradient, divergence and curl
5.5
Let Us Sum Up
5.6
Unit End Exercise
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
Learn vector differentiation.
Operators, del, grad and curl.
Properties of operators
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Vector algebra deals with addition, subtraction and multiplication of
vertex. In vector calculus we shall study differentiation of vectors
functions, gradient, divergence and curl.
Vector:
Vector is a physical quantity which required magnitude and direction both.
Unit Vector:
80
Unit Vector is a vector which has magnitude 1. Unit vectors along coordinate axis are i and j , k respectively.
i = j = k = 1
Scalar Triple Vector:
Scalar triple product of three vectors is defined as a. b c or a b c .

Geometrical meaning of a b c is volume of parallelepiped with cotter
minus edges a, b and c .

We have,
a b c = b c a = c a b
a b c = - b a c
Vector Triple Product:
Vector triple product of a b and c is cross product of a and b c i.e.
a b c or cross product of
a b and c
= a . c b a . b c
a b c = a . c b b . c a
a b c
Remark : Vector triple product is not associative in general
i.e. a b c
Coplanar Vectors:
Three vectors a, b
a b
and
are coplanar if
a b c
= 0 for
a 0,b 0,c 0
5.2 VECTORS DIFFERENTIATION

Let v be a vector function of a scalar t. Let v be the small increment in
a corresponding to the increment t in t.
Then,
81
v v t + t - v(t)
v t + t - v(t)
v
=
t
t
Taking limit t
0 we get,
v t + t - v(t)
v
= lim
t 0 t
t 0
t
v t + t - v(t)
dv
v
= lim
= lim
t 0 t
t 0
dt
t
v t + t - v(t)
dv
= lim
t 0
dt
t
lim
Formulas of vector differentiation:

(i)
d
dv
= k v = k
dt
dt
(ii)
d
dt
u + v =
(iii)
d
dt
u . v = u .
(iv)
d
dt
k is a constant
du
dv
dt
dt
dv
du
v.
dt
dt
v = u
dv
du
v
dt
dt
(v) If v v1i + v2j + v3k
dv1 dv2 dv3

dv
i+
j+
k
Then, dt
dt
dt
dt
Note:
If r xi + yj + zk then r = r = x 2 y2 z 2
Example 1:
If r
t + 1 i + t 2 + t - 1 j + t 2 - t + 1 k
find
dr
d2 r
and
dt
dt
82
Solution:
r
t + 1
i + t 2 + t - 1 j + t 2 - t + 1 k
dr
i + 2t + 1 j +
dt
d2 r
2j + 2 k
dt 2
2t - 1 k
Example 2:
If r a cos wt + b sin wt where w is constant show that
dr
d2 r
r
= w a b and 2 = -w r
dt
dt
Solution:
r a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (i)

dr
a cos wt + b sin wt------------ (ii)
dt
dr
r
a cos wt + b sin wt -aw sin wt + bw cos wt
dt
a a=0
a b w cos 2 wt b a w sin 2 wt
b b=0
b a = 0
a b w cos 2 wt a b w sin 2 wt
= -a b
a b w cos 2 wt sin 2 wt
a b w 1
w a b
Again differentiating eqn (ii) w.r.t. t

d2 r
-a w 2cos wt - b w 2sin wt
dt 2
= -w 2 a cos wt + b sin wt
-w 2 r from (i)
Example 3. Evaluate the following:

i)
d
a b
dt
ii)
da
d
a
dt
dt
d2 a
dt 2
83
Solution: i)
d
a b
dt
d
a . b
dt
d
= a.
b c
dt
dc
= a . b
+
dt
c
+ b c .
da
dt
db
da
c + b c .
dt
dt
db
da
c + b c .
dt
dt
db
dc
da
= a b
+ a
c + b c
dt
dt
dt
dc
= a . b
+a.
dt
Solution: ii)
da
d
a
dt
dt
d2 a
dt 2
da d3 a
da
d2a d2a
= a
+
a
c
+
3
2
2
dt dt
dt dt
dt
(From Result i)
da d 3 a
= a
+0+0
3
dt dt
d 2 a da
dt 2 dt
da d 3 a
= a .
dt dt 3
d
= a b c
dt
Example 4. Evaluate the following:
d
= a
dt
dc
= a b
+
dt
dc
= a b
+
dt
b c
d
a b c
dt
db
da
+
b c
a
dt
dt
dc
db
da
= a b
+ a
c + b c
dt
dt
dt
Solution:
Example 5. Show that r
dr
=
dt
dr
dt , where r = r
2
r
r
84
Solution : We have r =
r
r
dr
d r

dt
dt r
dr
dr
r
-r
dt 2 dt
r
1 dr r dr
r dt r 2 dt
r
r
r
1
dr r dr
r
r dt r dt
r
1 dr
r r dr
r
r dt
r 2 dt
r
dr
2
0
r
dt
dr
r
dt
r2
R.H.S
L.H.S. r =
rr 0
Example 6. If r = t 3 i + 2t 3 - 2 j . Then show that

5t
Solution:
r = t 3i + 2t 3
j
5t 2
dr
2
3t 2i + 6t 2
j
dt
5t 3
L.H.S.
dr
dt
t3
1
5t 2
2
6t 2 3
5t
3t 2
2t 3
k
0
0
dr
= k
dt
85

2
1
i 0 - j 0 + k t 3 6t 2 3 - 3t 2 2t 3 2
5t
5t
2
3
k 6t 5 6t 5
5
5
k
R. H. S.
Example 7. If
r =a e
mt
+be
mt
. Show that
d2 r
= n2 r
2
dt
Solution:
r = a e mt + b e mt .......................................................(i)
dr
m a e mt - m b e mt
dt
d2 r
m 2 a e mt + m 2 b e mt
2
dt
m 2 a e mt + b e mt
m2 r
(from (i))
d r
m2 r
2
dt
du
dv
= w u and
= wv
dt
dt
d
Show that
u v = w u v
dt
(1) If
(2) If r = t i 3t - t
2
(3) If:
dr d 2 r
,
j + 7t + 1 k Find
dt dt 2
dr d 2 r dr
d2 r
r = t i t j + st - 1 k , Find
,
,
,
dt dt 2
dt
dt 2
(4) If r = e t i 2cos 3t j + 7sin 3t j Find
(5) Show that:

magnitude of a .
a.
da
da
=a
dt
dt
d2 r
at t =
2
2
dt
where a = a1i a 2 j a 3k and a is
86
5.3 VECTOR OPERATOR

j
k
The vector differential operator is defined as = i
.
x
y
z
5.3.1 Gradient:
The gradient of a scalar function is denoted by grad or and is

+j
+k
. Note that grad is a vector
defined as = i
x
y
z
quantity.
5.3.2 Geometric meaning of gradient:
The grad is a vector right angled to the surface, whose equation is
x, y, z = c, where c is constant.
Hence for r = x i + y j + z k any point on surface . dr = 0
i.e. at is right angles to dr and dr lies on the tangent plane to the
surface at P r .
dr
Geometrically represents a vector normal to the surface x, y, z =
constant.
Example 8: Find grad , where = x 2 y3 ez

2
3 z
+j
+k
Solution: grad = i
x y e
y3 e z + j
x 2 y3 e z + k
y
z
= i 2xy3e z + j 3x 2 y 2 e z + k x 2 y3 e z
= i
= x y 2 ez 2y i +3xj + xyk
Example 9: If r xi yj zk find grad r
Solution:
y3 e z
87
r = xi + yj + zk
r = x 2 + y2 + z 2

2
2
2
+j
+k
Grad r = i
x +y +z
y
z
x
= i
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + j
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + k
x 2 + y2 + z2
x
y
z
1
1
1
= i
. 2y + k
2x + j
2z
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 x +y +z
2 x +y +z
2 x + y2 + z2
x y z
i+
j+ k
r
r
r

xi yj+zk
=
r
r
grad r =
r
=
1
Example 10: If r xi yj zk find grad
r
Solution:
r = xi + yj + zk
r=
x 2 + y2 + z2
r 2 = x 2 + y2 + z2
r
2r
= 2x
x
2r x 2r y 2z z
,
,
2x r 2y r 2r r

= i
+j
+k
y
z
x
1
1 + k
= i
+ j

x r
y r
z
grad
1
r
1 r
1
= i 2
+ j 2
r x
r
1 r
r
= 2 i
+ j
+k
r x
y
r
+k
y
r
y
1

r
1

r
1 r
2
r z
88
1 x y z
i + j + k
r2 r
r
r
1 1
= 2.
xi + yj + zk
r
r
1
= 3 r
r
r
= 3
r
=
Example 11: If 2x 3 y y2 z find grad at (1, -1, 2)

Solution:

3
2
= i
+j
+k
2x y - y z
y
z
x
= i
2x 3 y - y 2 z + j
2x 3 y - y 2 z + k
x
y
z
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x 3 - 2yz + k - y 2
grad
2x y - y z
3
= i 6x 2 y + j 2x 3 - 2yz - k y2
At (1, -1, and 2)

grad
= 6 1 1 i + j 2 1 2 1 2 k 1
2
= 6 i + j 2 4 k
= -6 i + 6j k
Example 12: Evaluate grad e r , where r 2 x 2 y2 z 2
2
Solution : Grad
e
r2
r2
= i
+j
+k
e
y
z
x
2
2
2
= i
e r + j
e r + k
er
x
y
z
2
2
2
r
r
r
= i e r .r
+ j e r .r
+ k e r .r
x
y
z
2
2
2
x
y
z
= i e r .r. + j e r .r
+ k e r .r
r
r
r
2
= r e r xi + y j + z k
= r er r
89
Example 13: Find grad r n

Solution: grad r n = r n
n
= i
+j
+k
r
y
z
x
n n
n
= i
r + j
r + k
r
x
y
z
r
r
r
= i n r n 1
+ j n r n 1
+ k n r n 1
x
y
z
x
y
z
= i n r n 1
+ j n r n 1
+ k n r n 1
r
r
r
n 2
n 2
n 2
= inr x + jnr y +knr z
= n r n 2 xi + yj + zk
= n r n 2 r
Example 14: Find grad log x 2 y2 z 2
Solution:
grad log x 2 y2 z 2
= grad log r 2 = grad (2log r) = 2 grad ( log r)

= 2 i
+j
+k
( log r)
y
z
x

= 2 i
( log r)+ j
( log r)+ k
( log r)
y
z
x
1 r 1 r 1 r
= 2 i
+j
+k
r y
r z
r x
1x
= 2 i
+j
r r
2
= 2 xi +y j
r
2r
= 2
r
Example
1y 1z
+k
r r
r r
1y
+z k
r r
15:
r r i +yj + zk
Show
that
a. r
grad n
r
a n a. r
n n2 r
r
r
where
90
Solution: let
a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k
a .r = a1 x + a 2 y + a 3
a. r
grad n
r
a. r
n
r
a x + a 2 y + a3 z
i j k 1
y
z
rn
x
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
now i
x
rn
n
n 1
r a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr
i
r 2n
n
n 1
r a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nr
i
r 2n
r n a1 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nx n 1
i
r 2n
r
x
x
r
r n 2
similarly
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
j
y
rn
r n a 2 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z ny r n 2
r 2n
and
a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z
k
z
rn
n
r a 3 - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2
r 2n
a . r
grad n
r
r n a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k - a1 x + a 2 y + a 3 z nz r n 2 xi + yj + zk
r 2n
91
ar n - n r n 2 r a .r
r 2n
- n a .r r n 2 r
ar n
r 2n
r 2n
n a .r
ar n
r
2n
r
r n 2
n a .r
a
n r
r
r n2

(1) If r x i +y j + z k and r
Show that:
a) grad log r
r
r2
b) grad r 3 3 r r
c) grad f r f 1 r
r
r
(2) If = 4x 2 yz + 3xyz2 5xyz

Find grad at (3, 2, -1)
(3) Show that grad r 3 -3 r 5 r
(4) If F x, y, z x 2 y2 + z 2 Find F at (1, 1, 1)
(5) Show that f r r 0 where r xi + yj + zk
(6) Find unit vector normal to the surface x 2 y2 z 2 3a 2 at (a, a, a)
[Hint :- Unit vector normal to surface i.e.
5.3.1 Divergence:
If v (x, y, z) = v1i + v2 j + v3 k can be defined and differentiated at each
point (x, y, z) in a region of space then divergence of v is defined as
div v = . v
92

= i
j
x
=
v1
x

k
. v1 i +v 2 j + v3 k
y
z
v 2 v3
y
z
Example 16 If F = x 2 y2 i + 2xyj + y2 2xy k , find F

Solution: div F = . F

2
2
2
= i
j
k
. x y i 2xyj + y 2xy k
y
z
x
2
=
x y2
2xy y2 2xy
x
y
z
= 2x 2x 0
= 4x
Example 17 Show that div r = 3 where r = xi + y j +z k

Solution: div r
=.F

= i
j
x
=
x
x
= 111
=3
k
. xi + yj + zk
y
z
y z
y
z
Example 18 For r = xi + y j +z k show that
div r n r
= (n+3) r n
where r r
Solution: L.H.S. div r n r = . r n r

n
= i
j
k
. r xi + yj + zk
n
n
n
=
r x
r y
r z
x
y
z
r
r
r
= r n 1 + x nr n 1
+ r n 1 + y nr n 1
r n 1 + z nr n 1
x
y
z
93
r
r
r
= 3r n + nr n 1 x
+ y
+z
y
z
x
y
z
x
= 3r n + nr n 1 x. y. z.
r
r
r
n
= 3r + nr
n 1
= 3r n + nr n 1
y2 z2
r
2
r
r
= 3r n + nr n
= 3 + n rn
= R.H.S.
Example 19 Evaluate div r where r = xi + y j +z k

Solution: We have r n =
r
r
xi + y j +z k
r
div r
. r

xi + yj + zk
= i
j
k
.
y
z
r
x
x
y
z
=

x r y r z r
r
r
r
r 1 - y
r 1 - x
r 1 - z
y
x +
z
=
r2
r2
r2
x
y
z
r -x
r -y
r -z
r +
r
r
=
2
2
2
r
r
r
2
2
2
2
2
r -x
r -y
r - z2
=
+
r3
r3
r3
r 2 - x 2 +r 2 - y 2 r 2 - z 2
=
r3
3r 2 - x 2 + y 2 z 2
=
r3
94
3r 2 - r 2
r3
2
=
r
Example 20 If F = x 2 y3 z 4 Find div (grad F)

Solution: grad F
= F

2
3 4
= i
j
k
x y z
3 4
2 4
= 2xy z i + 3y z j + 4x 2 y 3z 3 k
div (grad F)
= . 2xy3 z 4 i + 3y 2 x 2 z 4 j + 4x 2 y3z 3 k
=
2xy3 z 4 +
3y 2 x 2 z 4 +
4 x 2 y3 z 3
x
y
z
= 2xy3 z 4 + 6x 2 y z 4 + 12 x 2 y3 z 2
Example 21 Find the value of div a r r n where a is a constant
vector and r = xi + y j +z k
Solution: div a r r n
= i
. a r rn
x

= i .
. a r r n a r
x
i . a
r
n
r n
n 1 r
r a r n r
x
x
i . a
x
i r n a r n r n 1
r
= i . a i r n nx r n 2 a r
= nr n 2 x i a r
=
nr n 2 a r
0
x
x i
i. a i = 0
95
nr n 2 a r r
xi r
nr n 2 a r . r
nr n 2 0
0
5.3.4 Solenoidal Function: A vector function F is called Solenoidal if
div F = 0 at all points of the function.
5.3.5 Curl: The curl of a vector point function F is defined as curl
F F if F1i + F2j +F3k .
curl F F

= i
j
x
i
j
x
F1
y
F2
k
F1i + F2 j +F3 k
y
z
z
F3
F3 F2 F3 F1 F2 F1
= i
- j
+ k x y
y z x z
The curl of the linear velocity of any particle of rigid body is equal to
twice the angular velocity of body.
i.e. if w = w1i + w 2j +w 3k be the angular velocity of any particle of the
body with position vector defined as r = xi + yj +zk then linear velocity
v=w r .
Hence curl v v
= w r
i
= w1
x
j
w2
y
k
w3
z
= i w 2 z -w 3 y j w1z -w 3 x k w1y -w 2 x
96
i
j
k
=
x
y
z
w 2 z -w 3 y w 3 x -w1z w1y -w 2 x
= i w1 + w1 j w 2 -w 2 k w 3 + w 3
= 2w1i 2w 2 j 2w 3k
= 2w
curl v = 2w
5.3.6 Irrotational field:

A vector point function F is called irrotational if F 0 at all points of the
function.
Example 22 Find curl (curl F ) If F = x 2 y i -2 x z j 2 y z k at (1, 0, 2)
Solution: Curl F
i
j
k
=
x
y
z
2
x y 2xy 2yz
= 2z +2x i 2z -x 2 k
curl curl (F) = 2z + 2x i + 0j + 2z x 2 k
i
j
k
=
x
2z +2x
y
0
z
2z x 2
= i
2z x 2 0 j
2z x 2 2z 2x
z
z
x
k 0 2z 2x
y
x
= i 0 j 2x 2 k 0
= 2x 2 j
At (1, 0, 2)
97
curl F 2(1) + 2 j
4 j
Example 23 Find curl V if V = x 2 + yz i + y2 +2x j z 2 +xy k
Solution: curl V
V
i
j
k
=
x
y
z
x 2 yz y 2 zx z 2 xy
2
2
2
2
i
z +xy
y +2x - j
z +xy
y +yz
z
z
x
2
+ k
y +2x
x + yz
y
x
i x - x - j y - y + k z - z
0
Example 24 Evaluate curl r where if r = xi + yj zk
Solution: Curl r
i
j
k
x
x
y
y
z
z
z y
y x
z x
i - j + k
x z
y z
x y
0k
0i - 0j+
0
r
Example 25 Evaluate curl where if r = xi + yj zk
r
Solution:
r
r = 2
r
r
x
y
z
= 2 i 2 j 2 k
r
r
r
r
98
y
z
r
x
curl = 2 i 2 j 2
r
r
r
r
x
x
r2
y
y
r2
z
z
r2
i
y
+ k
x
z y z x
2
2 - j
2
2
r z r
x r z r
2z
i 3
r
2z
i 3
r
2r
2y 2r
+ 3
+ -------------+--------------2y
r 2z
y
2y z
+ 3
+ -------------+--------------r
r r
y x
2
2
r y r
2yz 2yz 2zx 2zx 2xy 2xy

i
+j
+k
r3
r3
r3
= 0i + 0j + 0k
0
Example 25 If F = x 2 y i + xzj 2yzk find div (curl F )
Solution: curl F
x
x2y
y
xz
z
2yz
i
2yz xz - j
z
x
y
+ k
x2 z
x z
y
x
i 2z - x - j 0 - 0 + k z - x 2
2z - x i + z - x 2 k
div (curl F)
2yz
x z
2
99

i
j
+ k . 2z - x i z x 2 k
y
z
x
z x2
2z - x
x
z
= 1 + 1
0
Example 27 If F = grad xy + yz zx , find (curl F ).
Solution: F = grad xy + yz zx
xy + yz +zx

i
j
+ k xy + yz +zx
y
z
x
i
xy + yz +zx + j
xy + yz +zx + k xy + yz +zx
x
y
z
i y + z + j x z + k y + x
(curl F)
i
j
k
x
y
z
yz x + z x + y
i x + y x + z - j
z
y
+ k
x + z y + z
y
x
x + y
y + z
i 1 - 1 - j 1 - 1 + k 1 - 1
0 i + 0 j + 0 k
0
5.4 PROPERTIES OF GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND

CURL
(i) f g = f g
(ii) . A B = . A . B
(iii) A B = A . B
100
Proof:

+j +k
(i) f g i
f g
y
z
x
i
f g j
f g + k
f g
x
y
z

i f + j f + k
g
i g+ j g +
y
z
y
z
x
x
f g
(ii) Let A = A1i + A2j +A3k
B = B1i + B2 j +B3k
. A B
. A1 B1
A1 B1 +
x
A1 +
x
y
i A B j A B k
2
2
3
3
A 2 B2 +
A 3 B3
y
z
A2 +
A3
B1 +
y
x
. A . B
(ii) Let
A B
i
x
A1 B1
y
A 2 B2
i y A
B3
z
A 3 B3
A 2 B2
A B
x
A
B
i
x
x
x
A B
B
x
B2 +
B3
101

(1) If A = A1i + A2j +A3k , r = x i + y j + z k Evaluate div A r
(2) Prove that
log r 1
div
r
1 2 log r
r
r
r
r = x i + y j + z k ) show that the vector div 3
r
solenoidal and irrotational.
(3) For
(4) Prove that div a. r a = a
is both
(5) For r = x i + y j + z k show that . r n = n n 1 r n 2

(6) show that the vector F = yzi + zxj + xyk solenoidal.
A = ax + 3y +4z i + x - 2y +3z j + 3x + 2y - z k
(7) If
solenoidal find value of a.
(7) Find the direction derivative of a scalar field
in the direction of (3, 2, 1).
is
x 2 y z at (4, -1, 2)
[Hint :- direction derivative of (x, y, z) along a is = a . grad ]
5.4 PROPERTIES OF GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND

CURL
1) If S represents displacement vector,
represents acceleration.
2) For
ds
i j k
dt
x
y
z
grad f F
grad F . F
curl F F
3) grad F and curl F are vector quantities.

4) div F is scalar quantity.
ds
d2 s
represents velocity and 2
dt
dt
102
5.5
LET US SUM UP
Differentiation of vectors.
Partial derivative of vectors.
The vector differential Operator Del.( )
Divergence of a vector function.
Curl of a vector.
Properties of divergence, gradient & curl.
5.6
UNIT END EXERCISE
1)
If A x 2 yi 2xzj xy2k, B 3zi 2yj 2x 2 k
2
Find the value
(A B)G (1, 0,1)
yx
1 1
2)
If r xi yi zk prove that 3 r.
R R
where R r
3)
Find the unit normal vector to the surface at the point(1,0,1).
4)
Find the directional derivative of f (x, y, z) xy2 yz3 the point
(1,-1,1) in the direction of (3,-1,1)
5)
If f 3x 2 y xyj 3y2 zk find div F curl F.
6)
Show that the vector f (x 3y)i (y 3z)j (x 2z)k is
solenoid.
7)
Show that the vector f (3x 2 y)i (x 3 2yz 2 ) j (3z 2 2y2z)k is
irrotational.
8)
Show that div r =3
where r xi yi zk
9)
Show that for any vector F
Div (Curl F)=0
10)
If a a1i a 2i a 3k and
Find Curl (r x a)
*****
r xi yj zk
103
6
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Objective
Introduction
Differential Equation
Formation of differential equation
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
6.1 OBJECTIVE
i.
Define differential equation
ii.
Order & degree of differential
equation
iii.
Formulate the differential equation
6.2 INTRODUCTION
We have already learned differential equation in XIIth . Hence we
are going to discuss differential equation in brief. In this chapter we
discuss only formulation of differential equation.
6.3 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Definition:An equation involving independent and dependent variables and the
differential coefficients or differentials is called a differential equation.
dy
=9
e.g.
1
dx
x=independent variable
y= depedent variable
2
d2 y
dy
2 +y=0
2
dx
dx
dn y
y=0
dx n
104
These are all examples of differential equations.

The differential equation is said to be ordinary if it contains only one
independent variable. All the examples of above are of ordinary
differential equations.
Order and Degree of a Differential Equations:(i) Order:The order of the differential equations is the order of the highest orderal
derivatives present in the function or equation.
If y = f (x) is a function, then
dy
is the first order derivative,
dx
d 2 y d dy
is the second order derivative.
dx 2 dx dx
d2 y
dy
2 y 0
e.g 1)
2
dx
dx
Order = 2
di
2) E = Ri + L
dt
Order = 1
Degree:The degree of differential equation is the degree of the highest ordered
derivative in the equation when it is made free from radicals and fractions.
e.g.
1
d2 y
k2 y 0
2
dx
order = 2, degree = 1
2
d2 y
dy
2 Y 0
2
dx
dx
Order =2, degree =1
1
dy
y x
dy
dx
dx
Order=1, degree=2
3
dy 2
dx 2
d2 y
2
dx
dy
dx
1
Cubing both sides
dy

dx
105
3 2
d 2y
dy
2
dx
dx
Squaring both sides
2
d 2 y dy
2
dx dx
Order=2, degree=2
3
Solved examples:
Example 1: Find the order and degree of the following
dy 2
1
dx
i) e
d2y
dx 2
Solution:
2
d 2 y dy
e 2 1
dx
dx
Squaring both sides
2
d 2 y dy
e 2 1
dx dx
order = 2, degree = 2
2
d
d2y
ii)
x
dx dx3
Solution:
x
sin( xy ) e
iii)
d 3y
d3 y d 4 y
x
3 x 3 3 4 sin( xy) e
dx
dx dx
Order = 4, degree=1
dy
5
y x
dy
dx
dx
Solution:
2
dy
dy
y x 5
dx
dx
Order =1, degree=2
106
dy
dy
y x
5 1
dx
dx
iv)
Solution:
dy
dy
y x 5 1
dx
dx
Squaring on both sides
2
dy 2
dy
y-x 25 1
dx
dx
2
dy 2
dy
2 dy
y 2 xy x 25 1
dx
dx
dx
2
Order =1, degree=2
2u
u
u
2
x
y
1)
Ans : order =2, degree=1

4
2)
3)
11
d3y
d3y
d2y
dy
x
3 5 3 7 2 y e
dx
dx
dx
dx
Ans : order=3, degree=7
y y
11 3
1 4
ex

x
y11 11 1
4)
y
5)
y11 1 y12

y1 x y xy1
Ans : order =1, degree=3
6.4 FORMATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Formation of differential equation involves elimination of arbitrary
consonants, in the relation of the variables.
Consider
107
y ax2 1
Where y= independent variable
x = dependent variable
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
2ax (2)
we have
dx
From equation (1) we have
y
a 2
x
Put value of a in equation (2), we have
dy
y
2 2 x
dx
x
dy 2 y
dx
x
dy
x
2y
dx
dy
x 2y 0
dx
This is the required differential equation
Note:To eliminate two arbitrary constants, three equations are required. To
eliminate three arbitrary constants, four equations are required.
In general to eliminate n arbitrary constants. (n+1) equations are required.
In other words elimination of n arbitrary consonants will bring us to
differential equation of nth order.
Solved Examples:Example 2: Form the differential equations if y c1 cos x c2 sin x
Solution: We have
Y= c1 cos x + c 2 sinx -------------(1)
This equation contains two arbitrary constants, therefore we shall require
three equations to eliminate c1 and c 2 .
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x
dy
= -c1 cos x c2 cos x.

dx
Again differentiate with respect to x
d2 y
= -c1 cos x c2 sin x
dx 2
108
d2 y
= (c1 cos x+c2 sin x)
dx 2
d2 y
= y from eq ----(1)
dx 2
d2 y
+y=0
dx 2
This is the required differential equation.
Example 3: Form the differential equation from
x= a sin (wt+c) where a and c are arbitrary constants.
Solution: We have,
x= a sin (wt+c)--------(1)
Differentiate equation (1) with respect
dx
+ acos (cot+c) w
dt
dx
+ aw cos(cot+c)
dt
Again differentiating w.r.t. 't'
d2 x
-a wsin cot c w
dt 2
d2 x
-w 2 a sin cot c
dt 2
d2 x
-w2 x........u sin g equation 1
dt 2
d2x
w2x 0
2
dt
This is the required differential equation
Example 4: From the differential equation if y= log (ax)

Solution:
y log(ax) (1)
Differentiate equation (1) with respect to x .
dy 1
dx Ax
dy 1
dx x
dy
x
1
dx
109
Example 5: Obtain the differential equation for the equation Y=cx+ c2

Solution: we have,
y cx c2 (1)
Differentiate equation (1) with repect to x
dy
c
dx
Put value of c in equation (1)
dy dy
y= x
dx dx

Example 6: Obtain the differential equation for the relation
y= a e2x b e3 xWhere a,b are constants.

Solution: we have,
y= a e2x b e3 x -------------(1).
Here the number of arbitrary constants is two
Hence we shall require three equations to
Eliminate and b. So we differentiate the given equations twice.
dy
= 2a e2x 3b e3 x -------------(2).
dx
d2 y
= 4a e2x 9b e3 x -------------(3)
2
dx
From equation (1) (2) & (3) elimination of a & b gives directly
y
dy
dx
d2y
dx 2
3 0
In the determinant
1st column is LHS
Column 2nd column 2nd column contains coefficients a e2x
Expanding the determinant
2nd column contains coefficients of b e3x
dy
d2y
y 18 12 9 4 2 3 2 0
dx
dx
dy d 2 y
6y-5 2 0
dx dx
110
d2 y
dy
-5 +6y 0
2
dx
dx
Example 7: Find the differential equation of all circles
touching y axis at the origin and centers on x-axis
Solution:
The equation of such a circle is
x a
i.e.
y2 a2
x2 2ax a 2 y 2 a 2
x2 y 2 2ax 0 (1)
Where a is the only arbitrary contents

Differentiate equation (1) with respect to x We have
dy
2 x 2 y 2a 0
dx
dy
x2 y2 2x x y 0
dx
dy
x 2 y 2 2 x 2 2 xy 0
dx
dy
-x 2 y 2 2 xy 0
dx
111
dy
x2 y2 0
dx
Which is the require differential equation.
2 xy

1)
Form the differential equation of all circles of radius a.
Ans.
2
dy 2
2d y
1 a 2
dx
dx
2)
Obtain the differential equation whose general solution is given by
x
y e A cos x B sin x
Ans
d2y
dy
2 2y 0
2
dx
dx
3)
Find the differential equation whose general solution is given by
x
y c1e c2e2 x c3 e3 x
Ans
4)
i)
Ans
ii)
Ans
iii)
d3y
d 2y
dy
5
6 y 0
3
2
dx
dx
dx
Obtain the differential equations for the following:
y A e3 x B e2 x
d2y
dy
5 6y 0
2
dx
dx
2t
s c1e c2 et
d 2 s ds
2s 0
dt 2 dt
y A cos 2t+ B sin 2t
iv)
d2 y
4y 0
dt 2
y ax3 bx 2
Ans
x2
Ans
v)
Ams
vi
Soln
Vii
d2y
dy
4x 6 y o
2
dx
dx
x A cos(nt
d2y
n2 x 0
2
dt
Y A Bx Cx2
d2y
0
dx 2
Y sin x c
112
Soln
Viii
Ans
dy
cos x
dx
y (c1 c2 x)e x
d2y
dy
2 y 0
2
dx
dx
6.5 LET US SUM UP

dy
Equation in term
of is called differential equation.
dx
Degree & order of differential equation.
Formation of differential equation while removing arbitrary

constant likes A&B,&C.
6.6
UNIT END EXERCISE
1)
Find the order 7 degree of Differential equation given below

2
i.
d3y
d2y
dy
3
3
2 3 y
dx
dx
dx
ii.
dy 2
i
dx
iii.
d2y
2
dx
iv.
d2y
dx 2
dy
1
dx
2
d 2 y 3 dy
1 y 0
dx 2
dx
i.
ii.
1
dy
y x
dx dy
dx
Formulate the differential equation
Y A Blogx
X = asin(w++c)
iii.
Y = c x (Acosx+ Bsinx)
v.
2)
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Y = em cos x
Y = ax 2 bx
Y = cx+2c 2 c3
X 2 +Y 2 = 2ax
Y 2 = 4ax
e x +Ce y = 1
113
x.
Y = ACos2x+ BSin2x
*****
7
SOLUTION
EQUATION
OF
DIFFERENTIAL
UNIT STRUCTURE
7.1
Objectives
7.2
Introduction
7.3
Solution of Differential equation
7.4
Solution of Differential Equation of first order and first degree
7.5
Let Us Sum Up
7.6 Unit End Exercise
7.1 OBJECTIVES
Find general & particular solution of differential equations.
Classification of differential equation.
Apply particular method first find the solution of differential

equation.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
We have already formed differential equation in previous chapter.
Here we are going to find solution of differential equation with different
method. It is very useful in different field.
7.3 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

General Solutions:The general Solution of a differential equation is the most general
relation between the dependent and the independent variable occurring in
the equation which satisfies the given differential equation.
Particular Solutions:-
114
Any particular solution that satisfies the given equation is called a

particular solution e.g.
dy
5
dx
dy=5dx
Integrating both sides we get
dy=5 dx constant
Y= 5x+C
This is called as general solution

Suppose C=7 is given
Then particular solution is given by putting of c in the general solution
y = 5x+7
Check Point:1)
Find the general solution and particular solution of the differential
equation
dy
x When y 4 at x 0
dx
Solution:
y= x
yx
Differential equations of first order and of First Degree :An equation of the form,
dy
M+N
0
dx
Where M and N are functions of x and y or constant. is called
differential equation of first order and first degree.
This equation can also be written as
Mdx Ndy 0
7.4 SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF

FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
There are many methods that can be used to solve the differential
equations. Important one among those are listed below.
1)
Variable seperable form.
2)
Equations reducible to variable seperable form.
3)
Homogeneous equations.
4)
Exact differential equations.
5)
linear differential equations.
6)
Equations reducible to linear differential equation.( Bernoulliss
differential equation)
115
7)
Methods of substitution.
We will explain all these methods one by one in detail.
7.4.1 Variable Separable form:Working Rule
1)
Consider the differential equation Mdx+ Ndy=0
2)
If possible rearrange the terms and get f(x) dx +g(y).dy=0
3)
Integrate and write constant of integration in suitable form, usually
C.
4)
Simplify if possible.
Solved Examples:-
Example 1: Solve 3x tan y dx 1 e x Sec 2 y.dy 0

Solution: 3x tan y dx 1 e x Sec 2 y.dy 0
throughout by 1-ex tan y we get
3e x
x
1-e
sec2 y
dx
dy 0 1)
tan y
This is in variable separable form

Integrate equation (1), we get
3e x
Sec 2 y
dx
1e x
tan y dy constant
-3
e
Sec 2 y
dx
tan y dy c
ex 1
-3log ex 1 log tan y log c
log ex 1 log tan y log c

3
log e x - 1 tany = logc

-3
tany
e - 1
x
=c
Removing log both side

tany = c e x - 1
This is the general solution of a given differential equation.

y dy
1 x2 y 2 x2 y 2
Example 2: Solve
x dx
116
y dy
2
1 x y 2 1 x 2
x dx
Solution:
y dy
= 1+ x 2 1+ y 2
x dx
y dy
= 1+ x 2 1+ y 2
x dx
y
dy = x 1+ x 2 dx - - - - - - - - - -1
2
1+ y
Integrate equation (1)
1
2y
1
dy 2 x 1 x 2 dx c
2
2
1 y2
f 1 x
dx = 2 f x + c
\
f
x
n
1
f x f x dx
n+1
f x
=
n+1
3
1
1 2
2 1+ y 2 = 1+ x 2 2 +c
2
2 3
3
1
1+ x 2 2 +c
3
This is in required general solution.
dy
Example 3: Solve
1 x 1 2e y
dx
Solution: The given equation is
dy
1 x 2e y 1
dx
1
1
-y
dy =
dx
x+1
2e - 1
1+ y 2 =
ey
1
1
dy
=
dx
y
e 2e-y - 1
x+1
ey
1
dy
dx
y
2e
x 1
0=
1
ey
dx
dy
x+1
2 ey
117
1
ey
dx y 2 dy 0 (1)
x 1
e
This is in variable separable form,
1
ey
dx
x 1
e y 2 dy =log c
log x 1 log e y 2 log c
log x+1 e y 2 log c
x 1 e y 2 c
This is the required general solution.

Example 4: Solve 3e x tan y dx 1 e x sec2 y dy 0
given
when x=0
3e x tan y dx 1 e x sec2 y dy 0
through out by 1+e x tan y
3e x
sec2 y
dx
dy 0 (1)
1+e x
tan y
This is in variable separable form,

Integrate equation (1) we get
3ex
sec2 y

dx
dy log c
1+ex
tan y
3
ex
sec2 y
dx
1+ex
tan y dy log c
3log 1 e x log tany=log c

log 1+ex log tany=log c
3
x 3
log
1+e tan y log
c
1+ex tan y =c---------------(2)

3
This is the required general solution

To final particular solution:put y=
at x=0 in equation --------(2)
118
3
1+1 tan
c=8
Put value of c in equation (2)

1 e x tan y 8
3
This is a particular solution

Example 5: Solve
dy x 2log x 1
dx sin y y cos y
dy x 2log x 1
dx sin y y cos y
sin y y cos y dy x 2log x 1 dx (1)
sin y y cos y dy x 2log x 1 dx cons tan t

siny dy y cos y dy 2 x log x dx xdx c
x2 x2 x2
cos y y sin y cos y 2 log x c
2 2 2
y sin y x 2 log x x 2 x 2 c
y sin y x 2 log x c
This is required general solution
1)
solve:
dy
e x y x 2 e y
dx
x3
x
e ey c
3
dy
2 dy
2)
solve:
y x a y
dx
dx
ans
1 ay x a cy
3)
ans
4)
ans
solve:
log
dy
ax by
dx
eax eby
c
a
b
solve:
x cos x cos y sin y
x sin x cos x log cos y c
dy
0
dx
119
solve:
Sec2 x tan y dx sec2 y tan x dy 0
tan x tan y c
dy
e x2 y
6)
solve:
dx
1 2y x
e e c
ans
2
7.4.2 Equations Reducible to variable separable forms:
Sometimes we come across differential equations which cannot be
converted into variable separable form by mere rearrangement of its terms.
These differential equation can be suitable substitution
Solved Examples:2 dy
Example 6: solve: x y a 2
dx
2 dy
Solution: we have
x y a 2 (1)
dx
Substitute x-y=t
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1
dx dx
dy
dt
1
dx
dx
Using equation (1) we have
5)
ans
dt
t 2 1 a 2
dx
dt a 2
1 2
dx t
dt
a2
1 2
dx
t
dt t 2 a 2
dx
t2
t2
2
dt dx
t a2
This is invariable separable form
Integrating we get
t2
dx t 2 a2 dt cons tan t
t 2 a2 a2
x= 2
dt c
t a2
120
a2
dt c
t 2 a2
1
t a
x=t+a 2 log
c
2a
ta
x= dt
a
t a
x=t+ log
c
2
ta
t=x-y
x ya
a
x=x-y+ log
c
2
x ya
x ya
a
y= log
c
2
x ya
dy
cos x y
Example 7: Solve
dx
dy
cos x y (1)
Solution: We have
dx
Put
x y t
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+
dx dx
dy dt
1
dx dx
Using equation (1)
dt
1 cos t
dx
dt
1 cos t
dx
1
dt dx
1 cos t
1
dt dx
2 cos 2 t
2
This is invariable separable form,
Integrating we get
1

dt dx cons tan t
2cos 2 t
2
1
sec2 t dt x c
2
2
121
1 2
tan t x c
2
2 1
tan t x c
2
t=x+y
x y
tan
xc
2
This is the required general solution,
2 dx
Example 8: Solve
4x y 1
dy
dy
2
4 x y (1)
dx
Put 4x y t
Differentiating above with respect to x
dy dt
4
dx dx
dy dt
4
dx dx
Using equation (1), we have
dt
4 t2
dx
dt
t2 4
dx
1
2
dt dx
t 4
Integrating we get,
1
2
dt dx cons tan t
t 4
2 tan
t
xc
2
t=x+y
1
x y
tan 1
xc
2
2
x y
tan 1
2 x c1 where c1 c
2
dy
Example 9: Solve x y y 0
dx
122
Solution:
dy
x y y 0 (1)
dx
Put x y t
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy dt
1+
dx dx
dy dt
1
dx dx
Using equation (1), we have
dt
t 1 t x 0
dx
dt
x t
1
dx
t
dt
x
1 1
dx
t
dt x
dx t
xdx tdt

Integrating we get,
xdx= tdt+constant
x2 t 2
c
2 2
x 2 t 2 2c
t=x+y
x 2 x y 2c
2
x 2 x2 2 xy y 2 2c
2xy y 2 2c
y 2 2xy c1 where c1 2c
Example 10: Solve
x
y
y
y
y
cos dx sin cos dy 0
x
x
x
x
y
Solution:
The equation is,
x
y
y
y
y
cos dx sin cos dy 0
x
x
x
x
y
123
Substitute
y
v
x
y=vx
Differentiating above with respect to x, we get

dy
dv
v x
dx
dx
But the above equation can be written as
y
y x
y
y dy
cos sin cos 0
x
x y
x
x dx
dy
1

v cosv- sin v cos v v x 0
dx
v

By rearranging the terms, we have
1
sin v v cos v
dx
dv
x
v sin v
1
sin v v cos v
dx
dv 0
x
v sin v
Integrating we get,
1
sin v v cos v
dx
dv cons tan t
x
v sin v
logx+log vsinv c
log
x vsinv log
c
xv sinv=c
y
v=
x
y
y
x sin c
x
x
y
ysin c
x

Solve the following
dy y x y
e
1)
dx
x
2)
1 e x y e x y 1
-y
Ans : log cx=e
x
x dy
y
0
Ans
:
x+y
e
c
y dx
124
3)
2x y e
y
x
y x e
y y
2
tan x x sec
y
x
dy 0 Ans:y2 2 x 2e y x c
dx
y
y
dx sec2 dy 0
x
x
y
Ans x tan c
x
7.4.3 Homogeneous Equations
A differential equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is said to be homogeneous if M & N
are homogeneous functions of x and y of same degree
Working Rule:
1)
Check whether differential equation is homogenous in x and y
dy
2)
Express
in terms of x and y
dx
3)
Put y=vx
dy
dv
v x
4)
dx
dx
5)
Separate x and y variables and get F(ex)dx+ g(v) dv=0
6)
Solve by integration
y
7)
Put v =
and simplify
x
Solved examples:Example 11: Solve
x
x
y 2 dx 2 xy dy 0
2
y 2 dx 2 xy dy 0
Solution: We have
Here M and N are homogeneous expressions in x and y of the second
degree
2xy dy=- x 2 y 2 dx
2xy dy=- x 2 y 2 dx
x2 y 2
dy

(1)
dx
2 xy
put y=vx
dy
dv
v x
dx
dx
Using equation 1 we have
vx
dv x 2 v 2 x 2
dx 2 x vx
125
dv x 1 v
v x
dx
2v x 2
2
dv 1 2v 2
1
dx
2v
dv 1 3v 2
dx
2v
-2v
1
dv dx
2
1+3v
x
Integrating above expression we have
1 6v
1
-
dv= dx cons tan t
2
3 1+3v
x
1
- log 1+3v2 log x log c
3
1
- log 1+3v2 log cx
3
x
log 1+3v2 3log cx

log 1+3v2 3log cx
1+3v 2
v
1
cx
3 3
y
x
y2
1
3 3
2
x
cx
1
x 3 3xy 2 3
c
1+3
1
c3
dy
dy
y 2 x 2 xy
Example 12: Solve
dx
dx
Solution:
dy
dy
y 2 x 2 xy
The given equation is
dx
dx
dy
dy
y 2 xy x 2
dx
dx
dy
y 2 xy x 2
dx
x 3 3xy 2 k where k=
126
dy
y2
(1)
dx xy x 2
This is a homogeneous equation

Put
y=vx
dy
dv
v x
dx
dx
Using equation (1),we have
v x
dv
v2 x2
dx x vx x 2
v x
dv
v 2 x 2
2
dx x v 1
dv
v2
v
dx v 1
dv
v
dx v 1
v 1
1
dv dx
v
x
1
1
1 dv dx
x
v

Integrating we get,
1 v dv = x
dx cons tan t
vlogv=logx+logc
v=logv+logx+logc
v=log vxc
v=
y
x
y
y
=log x c
x
x
y
=log cy
x
y=xlog cy

Example 13: solve
Solution:
y 3 dx 3xy 2 dy 0
127
y 3 dx 3xy 2 dy 0
This is a homogenous equation
y3 dx 3xy 2 dy
Put
dy x3 y 3
(1)
dx
3xy 2
y vx
dy
dv
v x
dx
dx
dv x3 v3 x3
v x
dx 3x v 2 x 2
3
3
dv x 1 v
v x
dx
3v 2 x3
dv 1 v3
v
dx 3v 2
dv 1 2v3
dx
3v 2
3v 2
1
dv dx
3
1 2v
x
Integrating we have
1
6v 2
1
3 dv dx cons tan t
2 2v 1
x
1
log 2v3 1 log x log c
2
log 2v3 1 2log cx
3
log
2v 1 log
cx
2v3 1
Put
v=
1
c x
2 2
y
x
y3
1
1 2 2
3
x
c x
x
2y3 x3 2
c
128
2y3 x3 kx where k=
1
c2

Example 14: solve
2 y
2 y
x tan y sec dx x sec dy 0
x
x
x
Solution:
2 y
2 y
x tan y sec dx x sec dy 0
x
x
x
y
y
y sec 2 x tan
dy
x
x
dx
2 y
x sec
x
y
tan
dy y
x (1)

dx x sec2 y
x
This is a homogeneous equation
Put y vx
dy
dv
v x
dx
dx
dv
tan v
v 2
dx
sec v
dv tan v
x
dx sec2 v
v+x

sec2 v
1
dv dx
tan v
x
sec2 v
1
dv dx 0
tan v
x
Integrating we get,
sec2v
1
tan 2 v dv xdx cons tan t
log tanv + log x =log c
log
tanv x
x tanv = c
=log
c
129
y
x
y
x tan = c
x
1) solve the following
Put v =
i)
xdy ydx x 2 y 2 dx
ans
y x 2 y 2 cx 2
ii)
ans
x
x y cot dy ydx 0
y
x
y c sec
y
iii)
y 2 x2
ans
cy e
dy
dy
xy
dx
dx
y
x
ans
x y dx 2xydy
x x 3y c
v)
iv)
dy
y x2 a2
dx
x2
ans
y ce
vi)
x y
ans
3 y2
dy
x y
dx
y 2 2 xy x 2 c
7.4.4 Exact Differential Equation

Definition:The equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is said to be an exact differential equation if
and only it.
Mdx+ Ndy=du
Where u is some function of x and y
e.g. xdy+ydx=0 is exact
u=xy
Where
xdy+ydy = du
130
Necessary and sufficient condition :The necessary and sufficient condition that the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is
exact is.
M N
y x
Rules for the General solution:If the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is exact then its general solution is given by
M treat y as constant dx N terms free from x dy c

Where
(1)
In first integral with respect to x, treat y as constant
(ii)
In second integral do not take the terms containing x i.e. take only
those terms of N which are free from x. If no such term is available then
second integrals may not be considered.
(iii) c is arbitrary constant of Integration.
Solved Examples:-
Example15: Solve 5x4 6 x 2 y 2 8xy dx 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4 dy 0

Solution: The given equation is:
5x
6 x 2 y 2 8xy3 dx 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4 dy 0 (1)
M= 5x4 6 x 2 y 2 8xy3
N= 4 x3 y 12 x 2 y 2 5 y 4
5 x 4 6 x 2 y 2 8 xy 3
Y Y
= 0+12 x2 y 24 xy 2
M
12 x 2 y 24 xy 2
Y
N
4 x3 y 12 x2 y 2 5 y 4
x x
12 x2 y 24 xy 2 0
N
12 x 2 y 24 xy 2
x
M N
y x
Hence differential equation (1) is exact

Its solution is given by
M treat y constant dx N terms free from x dy c
131
5x
+6x 2 y2 -8xy3 dx 5 y 4 dy c
x5
x3 4 3 x 2
y5
2
5 6 y 8 y 5 c
5
3
2
5
x 5 2 x3 y 2 4 x 2 y 3 y 5 c
dy
4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
4
dx
2 x y x cos xy
Example 16: Solve
Solution:
dy
4 x3 y 3 y cos xy
4
dx
2 x y x cos xy
4 x3 y 2 y cos xy dx 2 x 4 y cos xy dy 0...........(1)
Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we have
M 4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
N 2 x4 y x cos xy
4 x3 y 2 y cos xy
y y
M
8 x3 y 2 cos xy xy sin xy
y
N
2 x 4 y y cos xy
x x
N
8 x3 y cos xy xy sin xy
x
M N
y x

Min treat y constant dx N terms free from x dy c

4x y y cos xy dx ody c
x dx y cos xy c
3
4 y2
4y 2
x4
sin xy
y
c
4
y
x 4 y 2 sin xy c
Example 17: Solve
x 2e dy y x sin x dx 0 .
y
132
Solution:
The equation given is
x 2e dy y x sin x dx 0
y+xsinx dx x 2e dy 0 (1)
y

M y x sin x
N x 2e y
M
y sin x
y y
M
1
y
N
x 2e y
x x
N
1
x
M N
y x


y+xsinx dx 2 e dy c
y
xy x cos x sin x 2 e y c

Example 18: Solve
y 1 x cos y dx x log x x sin y dy 0
y 1 x cos y dx x log x x sin y dy 0 (1)

1
M y 1 cos y
x
N x log x x sin y
M 1
y 1 cos y
Y y x
133
M
1
1 sin y
Y
x
N
x log x x sin y
x x
N
1
1 sin y
x
x
M N
Y x
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact
y 1 x cos y dx ody c
1
y 1 dx cos y dy c
x
y x logx x cos y c
dy y cos x sin y y
0
Example 19: Solve
dx sin x x cos y x
dy y cos x sin y y
0
dx sin x x cos y x
y cos x sin y y
dy
dx
sin x x cos y x
sin x x cos y x dy y cos x sin y y dx

y cos x sin y y dx+ sin x x cos y x dy 0 (1)

M=y cos x sin y y
N=sin x x cos y x
y cos x sin y y
y y
M
cos x cos y 1
y
N
sin x x cos y x
x x
N
cos x cos y 1
x
134
M N
y x
Hence the differential equation (1) is exact


y cos x sin y y dx ody c
y y cos x dx sin y dx y dx c
y sin x x sin y xy c
Which is the require general solution
Solve:(1)
Ans.
a 2 x x 2 y xy 2
(2)
1 e x y dx e x y 1
Ans.
x y e
2 xy y 2 dx x y dy 0
2
y3
c
3
x
dy 0
y
(3)
cos x tan y cos x y dx sin x sec2 y cos x y dy o
Ans.
sin x tan y sin x y c
(4)
y e
2 xy 2
4 x3 dx 2 xy e xy 3 y 2 dy 0
2
Ans. e xy x 4 y3 c
2
(5)
1 log xy dx 1
x
dy 0
y
Ans. y x log xy c
(6)
2xy e dx x
y
xe y dy 0
Ans. x 2 y xe y c
y sin xy xy 2 cos xy dx x sin xy x 2 y cos xy dy 0
M N
sin xy xy cos( xy) 2 xy cos( xy) x 2 y 2 sin( xy)

Ans.
y x
(7)
General solution is given by
xy sin
xy c
135
7.5 LET US SUM UP

solution of D.E:- general solution, particular solution
variable separable form:- dx
f x dx f y dy c
Equations reducible to variable separable form.

dy f ( xy )
Homogeneous differential equation i.e

dx g ( xy )
With substituting Y=Yx.

Solve the following differential equation.
dy sinx+ xcosx
=
i.
dx Y(1+ 2logu)
dy
x 2 x 2 e3 y
ii.
dx
iii.
2x Cosy dx -(1+ x2 )siny dy = 0
dy
( x 1) 1 e2 y
iv.
dx
dy
ax by c
v.
dx
dy
= sin(x+ y)+cos(x+ y)
vi.
dx
y
dy
=e x +y
vii.
x
dx
dy
= (4x+ y +1)2
viii.
dx
dy y
=
+ sin y
ix.
x
x
dx
dy
= (x+ y +1)2
x.
dx
dy
1 y Cos y
xi.
x
x
dx
dy
( x3 y 3 ) = x 2 y
xii.
dx
2
y
2y
xiii.
4 - 2 dx+ dy = 0
x
x
136
xiv.
xv.
dy x 2 +3y 2
+
=0
dx 3x 2 + y 2
dy
4( x y ) = 3x - 4y
dx
*****
8
EQUATION REDUCIBLE TO EXACT
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
8.1
Objective
8.2
Introduction
8.3
Definition
8.4
Linear Equation And Equations Reducible To Linear Form
8.5
Equations reducible to linear form
8.6
Let Us Sum Up
8.7
Check your progress
8.8
Unit End Exercise
8.1OBJECTIVE
Find the solution of non-exact .differential equation.
Find the solution of linear .differential equation.
Reducing to non-linear equation into linear equation.
Find the solution of non-linear equation.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have learn about exact differential equation & its
solution. Now here we are going to discuss none exact differential
equation. To find the solution of non-exact differential equation we use
integrating factor which convert non-exact differential equation to exact
differential equation. Also we discuss about solution of linear differential
equation.
137
In some cases equations which are not exact can be converted to exact
differential equation by multiplying by some suitable factor called as
Integrating factor.
8.3 DEFINITION
Integrating Factor
If the equation leMdx +leNdy=0 is exact
then le is said to be an integrating factor of the equation Mdx+ Ndy = 0
8.3.1 Rules of finding Integrating factor :Rule (1)
If the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 is homogeneous then
1
Mx Ny
integrating factor
Solved Example:
Example 1: x 2 y 2 xy 2 dx- x 3 3x 2 y dy 0
x y 2xy dx- x
2
3x 2 y dy 0........(1)
This is a homogeneous equation.

Comparing with Mdx +Ndy=0 ; we have
M x 2 y 2 xy 2
N - x 3 3x 2 y
I.f.
1
Mx Ny
1
x y 2 x y x3 y 3x 2 y 2
3
y 2 xy 2
x2 y 2
x
dx-
3x 2 y
x2 y 2
dy 0 is exact
1 2
x 3
i.e. dx- 2 dy 0 is exact
y
y x
y
Its general solution is given by
M treat y const dx N terms free from x dy c
is
138
y x dx y dy c
1
dx-2 x dx 3 y d y c
x
2log x 3log y c
2

Solve
i)
3xy
y3 dx xy2 2 x 2 y dy 0
1
x y2
Hint : I.F.
y
cy 2
c x
3
x
ii)
3xy 2 y 2 dx x 3x-2y dy 0
1
x3
x 2 log x 3xy y2 cx2
Hint: I.F.
8.3.2 Rule (II) :

If the equation Mdx+Ndy=0 can be written as
M y f1 xy dx, N xf 2 xy dy 0
i.e. M y f1 xy , N x f 2 xy
then
1
is an integration factor.
Mx-Ny
Note :- f1 x y , f 2 x y are functions of xy.

Solved Examples :Example 2: Solve x 2 y 2 2 ydx 2 2 x 2 y 2 xdy 0
Solution: The equation is given by
x y
2
2 ydx 2 2 x 2 y 2 xdy 0
139
M x 2 y2 2 y
N
2-2x y x
I. f .
1
Mx Ny
I.f.
1
xy x y 2 2 2x 2 y 2
2
1
3x3 y 3
I. f .
x y
2
2 y
3x3 y 3
2-2x y x dy 0
2
dx
3x3 y 3
1 2 1
i. e 3 2 dx
3x 3 x y
which is a exact equation
2
2
3 3 dy 0
3x y 3 y
Its General solution is given by
M treat y constant dx N (terms free from x) dy c

1 2
1
2
3 2 dx - dy c
3y
3x 3 x y
1 1
2
1
2 1
dx 2 3 dx dy c
3 x
3y
x
3 y
1
2
2
log x 2 2 log y c
3
6x y 3
log x-
1
2log y c1 where c1 2c
x y2
2

1.
solve :
2 2
x y xy 1 y dx x 2 y 2 xy 1 xdy 0
1
2x 2 y2
G.S. is given by
1
xy log x- log y c
xy
Hint: I.F.
2.
y xy 2 x 2 y 2 x xy-x 2 y 2 dy 0
Ans
x cy e
2
1
xy
140
8.3.3 Rule (III):

M N
y x
If
a function of x alone. Say f(x) then e f x dx
N
integrated. factor.
Solved Examples :Example 3: Solve ( y 4 2 y)dx ( xy3 2 y 4 4 x)dy 0

( y 4 2 y)dx ( xy3 2 y 4 4 x)dy 0

Comparing with Mdx+Ndy=0; we get
M y4 2 y
N xy3 2 y 4 4 x
y4 2 y
y y
M
4y3 2
y
xy3 2 y 4 4 x
x x
N
y3 4
x
N M
x y
-3 y3 2
y y3 2
3
function of y alone
y
f y dy
I.F. e
-3
ydy
e-3 log y
is
141
1
log 3
y
I .F .
1
y3
2y
y3
xy
dx
2 y4 4x
y3
dy 0
This is exact differential equation

Comparing with Mdx+ Ndy=0; we get
2
M y 2
y
N x 2y 4
x
y3
2
y 2 dx 2
y
2
y 2
y
dx 2
y dy
y2
c
2
2
2
y 2 xy c
y
This is required general solution.

Solve :
i)
2xy4e y 2xy3 y dx x2 y 4e y x2 y 2 3x dy 0
1
..........
y4
Hint : I.F.
x2 x
x e 3 c
y y
2 y
ii)
x 2 y 3dx x3 y 2 dy 0
Ans
3x3 y 2 y 6 cy e
8.4
LINEAR
EQUATION
AND
REDUCIBLE TO LINEAR FORM
EQUATIONS
142
The first order and first degree linear Differential equation is of the type
dy
py Q
dx
Where y is dependent variable and x is independent variable. and p& Q
are functions of x only. (may be constant )
The above differential equation is known as Leibnitzs linear differential
equation.
Working Rule:
1)
Consider linear differential equation.
dy
py Q
dx
Where P and Q are function of x or constants only
Its integrating factor is given by
pdx
I .F . e
y I.F. Q I .F . dx c
Where c is arbitrary constant.
2)
For linear differential equation
dx
p1 x Q 1
dy
Where p1 and Q1 are functions of y or constants only
Its integrating factor is given by
p1dy
I.F. e
x IF Q ( IF ) dy c
Where c is arbitrary constant.
Solved Examples:dy
2
y e x x 1
Example 4: Solve x 1
dx
dy
2
x 1 y e x x 1
dx
Dividing throughout by x 1 we have
dy
1
y e x x 1 .........(1)
dx x 1
This is of the type
dy
py Q
dx
Hence equation (1) is linear differential equation.
143
Where
1
, Q e x x 1
x 1
I.F. e
1
dx
e x 1
e
I .F . e
pdx
-log x 1
1
log
x 1
1
x 1
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y I.F. Q IF dx c
I .F .
1
1
e x x 1
dx c
x 1
x 1
y
e x dx c
x 1
y
ex c
x 1
y ex c x 1
This is the required solution.

Example 5: Solve 1 y 2 dx
tan y

1 y 2 dx
tan y
-1
x dy
x dy
dx tan y 1 x
dy
1 y2
dx tan 1 y
1
x
2
dy 1 y
1 y2
dx
1
tan 1 y
..........(1)
dy 1 y 2
1 y2
This is of the type

dx
px Q
dy
1
tan 1 y
,
Q
1 y2
1 y2
Hence equation (i) is a linear differential equation
pdy
I.f e
Where p
1 y 2 dy
I .F . etan
144
The solution of differential equation (i) is

x I .F . Q I.F. dy c
tan 1 y tan 1 y
e
dy c
1 y2
consider the integral
x e tan 1 y
tan -1 y tan 1 y
1 y 2 e dy
put z tan -1 y
Differentiating with respect to z
1
dy
1
2
1 Y dz
1
dy dz
1 Y 2
z ez dz
z e z dz
z ez dz dz
dz
z
z
z e l e dz
z ez e z
ez z 1
put z tan -1 y
etan
tan
y 1
solution is given by
x etan
-1
etan
tan
y 1 c
x tan -1 y 1 c e tan
Example 6: Solve
x 1 x 2
dy
2 x 2 1 y x3
dx
dy
x 1 x 2 2 x 2 1 y x3
dx
through out by x(1-x 2 ) we have
2
dy 2 x 1
x3
..........(1)
dx x 1 x 2
x 1-x 2
Hence equation (1) is linear in dependent variable y

This is of the type
145
dy
py Q
dx
2 x 2 1
x3
where P
,
Q
x 1 x 2
x 1 x 2
I.F. e
Let P
pdx
2x2 1
x 1 x 1 x
1
1
1
P
x 2 1 x 2 1 x
( By partial fraction)
1
IF e
e
-logx
x 21 x 21 x dx
1
1
log 1 x log 1 x
2
2
- logx 1-x 2
log x 1-x 2
IF
x 1 x2
Hence solution of differential equation (i) is
y IF Q IF dx c
y
1
x 1-x 2
x
1 x
2
x 2
1
dx c
2
1 x x 1 x2
dx c
3
1
2 x 1 x 2 2 dx c
2
1
2 2
1 1 x
2 1
2
y
x 1 x
1
1 x2
y x cx 1 x 2
Which is the required solution.
Example 7: Solve
f1
f n1
n 1
146
e2 x
y dx
1
x dy
x
e2 x
y dx
1
x dy
x
dy
y
e2 x
........(1)
dx
x
x
Which is of the type
dy
py Q
dx
1
e-2 x
where P
,Q
x
x
The equation (1) is linear in y
I.F. e
1
x dx
e
I .F . e2 x
Hence the solution of differential equation (1) is
y IF Q IF dx c
pdx
y e
2 x
e2 x 2 x
e dx c
x
1
dx c
x
y e2 x 2 x c
Example 8: Solve 1 y 2 x e tan

1 y x e
2
x-e tan
x-e tan
1
-1
-1
tan 1 y
dydx
dydx
dydx 1 y
1 y 2
dx
x
e tan y

........(1)
dy 1 y 2 1 y 2
dx
px Q
dy
dx
dy
147
1
1
e tan y
where p
,
Q
1 y2
1 y2
The equation (1) is linear differential equation
Hence
pdy
IF e
1
1 y 2 dy
1
IF etan y
Hence solution of differential equation (1) is given by
x IF Q (IF) dy c
1
x e
tan 1 y
x e
tan 1 y
e tan y tan 1 y
e
dy c
1 y2
1
e2tan y
dy c..............(2)
1 y2
put tan -1 y t
1
dy dt
1 y2
equation (2) becomes
x etan
-1
e2t dt c
e 2t
c
2
put t tan -1 y
x e tan
-1
e2 tan y
xe
c
2
1
1
2 x etan y e2tan y c1 where c1 2c
tan 1 y

1)
i)
Solve
2 y x2 dx xdy
Ans: y x 2 log cx
dy
y
x2 x
dx 1 x
Ans : 2y 1-x c 2 x 2
ii)
dy
x 3 -2xy x
dx
x4
x2
2
Ans : x 1 y
c
4
2
iii)
148
iv)
x 1 1 x2
dy
x
y
2
dx 1 x 2 3 2
1 x2

H int I.F. e
y
1
1 x 2
1
1
1 x2
cc
1 x 2
dx xdy e y sec2 dy
v)
H int : I.F. ey
x e y tan y c
vi
vii
dy
cos x x sin x y 1
dx
x
H int : I.F.
sec x
xy cos x x c
3
2
4 x x 2 1 y 1
x2 1 dy
dx
x cos x
H int : If x 2 1
1 y tan 1 x c
2
dy
1
dx
H int : I.F. e-y
x y 2 c ey
viii
x y 1
ix
x 2 y dy ydx
3
H int I.F.
1
y
x y3 cy
8.5 EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO LINEAR FORM

I) Bernoullis Equation :
The equation of the form
dy
py Q y n
dx
is called as Bernoulli's equations
throughout by yn , we get
dy
y n P y1n Q.........(1)
dx
149
Let y1-n u
1-n y n
dy du
dx dx
u sin g equation (1) we get

1 du
Pu Q
1-n dx
du
1-n pu 1 n Q
dx
This is Bernoullis differential equation and can be solved.
Note: The equation is also Bernoullis equation
We divide by xn and substitute u= x1-n and proceed.
Solved Examples:Example 9: Solve
dy y
xe x y 2
dx x
.
Solution:
dy y
xe x y 2 .............(1)
dx x
dy
Py Q y n ........
dx
1
Where p , Q xe x , n 2
x
Equation (1) is Bernoulli's differential equation
throughtout by y2 , we get
dy 1
y-2 y 1 x e x .................(2)
dx x
Put y-1 u
Differentiating with respect to x
dy du
-1 y 2
dx dx
dy
du
y-2
dx
dx
u sin g equation 2 we get
du 1
- u x ex
dx x
du 1
u x ex
dx x
Which is linear differential equation.
1
where p , Q -x e x
x
Pdx
I .F . e
150
1
- dx
e x
e log x
I .F . e
1
log
x
1
x
Hence, General solution is given by
u IF Q IF dx c
I.F.
1
1
-x e x
dx c
x
x
Put u y-1
1
y-1 e x dx c
x
1
e x c
xy
Example 10: Solve xy 1 xy 2
dy
1
dx

dy
xy 1 xy 2 1
dx
dx
xy x 2 y 3
dy
dx
xy x 2 y 3 .........(1)
dy
which is of the type,
dx
px Q x n
dy
where p -y, Q y3 , n 2
Equation 1 is a Bernoullis differential equation
through out by x 2 , we get
dx
x -2 x 1 y y 3 .........(2)
dy
-1
Let x u
dx du
-x -2
1y dy
dx
du
x2
dy
dy
151

du
uy y 3
dy
du
uy y 3
dy
which is a linear differential equation.
p y, Q y3
I.F. e
e ydy
pdy
y2
I .F . e 2
Hence general solution is given by
u IF Q IF dy c
u e
y2
y e
3
y2
2
dy c
y2
t
2
y dy dt
Let
u e
u e
y2
y2
2
2t et dt c
2 t e et c
2
Put u x 1 , t y
y2
y2
y
2 e 2 e 2
2
2
1 y
e
x
y2
y2
1 y2 2
e
y2 e 2 2 e 2 c
x
y2
y2
1 y2 2
e y2 e 2 2 e 2 c
x

i) solve:i)
ii)
dy
y tan x y 4 sec x
dx
Hint : If sec3 x
sec3 x
3tan x tan 3 x c
y3
x2
dy
xy y 2 e 2 log x
dx
Hint : I.F. e
x2
152
iii)
1 x2 2
e
x log x x c
y
2
dy
xy
y 3 e-x
dx
2
Hint : If ex
2
ex y2 2x c
iv)
ans
v)
1
dy
2
3 y x 4e x y 3
dx
1
2
y 2 x 6 e x c 1
2 xdx y 2 y 3 x 2 dy 0
H int : If e
y
y3
3
x2 c e 3 y3 3
dy
e x y e x e y
vi)
dx
x
Hint : IF ee
e y c e e e x 1
dy
2 y 1 2 xy
dx
Hint :-I.F. e2x
1
2 x 1 c e2 x
y
8.5.1 (II) Equation of the type :
dy
f 1 x p f y Q
The equation
dx
Where P and Q are functions of x can be reduced to linear by substituting
f(y) =u and equation becomes
du
pu Q
dx
Similarly the equation
dy
f 1 x p f ( x) Q
dx
Can be reduced to linear by substituting f (x)=u
Solved Examples:dy
Example 12: Solve sin y 1 x cos y cos y
dx
Solution:
dy
sin y 1 x cos y cos y
dx
x
153
dy
cos y x cos 2 y
dx
throughout by cos2 y, we get
sin y dy cos y

x
cos 2 y dx cos 2 y
dy
secy tany sec y x.........(1)
dx
which is of the form
dy
f 1 y pf y Q
dx
where f(y) secy, p -1. Q -x
Let secy u
dy du
secy tany
dx dx
du
u x
dx
Which is a linear differential equation.
Where p -1, Q -x
sin y
I.F. e
e x
I .F e x
Hence General solution is given by
u IF Q IF dx c
pdx
u e x x e x dx c
- x e x dx c
u e x x e x 1 e x c
Put u sec y
sec y x 1 c ex
1)
Solve :
dy 1
1
tan y 2 tan y sin y
I)
dx x
x
H int throughout by tany sin y
1
1
2 c
x sin y 2 x
154
dy 3
x cos 2 y x sin 2 y
dx
dy
H int
x sin2y x 3 cos 2 y
dx
through out by cos 2 y
ii)
IF e x
2 tan y x 2 1 c1 e x
8.6 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter we have learned
Integrating factor for non-exact equation.
Using integrating factor find the solution of non-exact equation.
Using integrating factor find the solution of linear differential

equation.
Bernoullis equation.

Solve the following D.E:
dy
4x
1
2
y 2
i.
dx ( x 1)
( x 1)3
dy
x 2 y x5
ii.
dx
dy (1 2 x)
y 1
iii.
dx
x2
(1+ y 2 )dx = (tan-1 y - x)dy
iv.
v.
(x2 + y 2 +1)dx - 2xy dy = 0
vi.
(4xy+3y 2 - x)dx+ x(x+2y)dy = 0
vii.
viii.
(x2 + y 2 )dx -(x2 + xy )dy = 0

y(1+ xy)dx+(1- xy ) dy = 0
(2y 2 +4x2 y)dx+(4xy+3x3 )dy = 0
dy
+(cotx)y = Cosx
dx
dy
+ y secx = tanx
dx
dy
(1 x 2 ) + 2xy - 4x 2 = 0
dx
dy
(1 x 2 ) + y = e tan 1 x
dx
dy
y
+
= 1 x
dx (1 x) x
Sec x dy = (y+Sin x)dx
(y log x -1)y dx = x dy
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
155
xvii.
xviii.
xix.
xx.
dy
+ xy = x3 y 3
dx
dy
xy
+
= xy 1
2
dx 1 x 2
dy
y - Cosx = y 2 (1- Sinx)Cosx
dx
y dx+ x(1- 3x 2 y 2 )dy = 0
*****
9
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
UNIT STRUCTURE
9.1
Objective
9.2
Introduction
9.3
Geometrical
9.4
Physical Application
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
Simple Electric Circuits

Newtons Law of Cooling
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
9.1 OBJECTIVE
Use differential equation to find the equation of any curve.
Use differential equation physics like projectile motion, S.H.Ms,

Rectilinear motion, Newtons law of cooling.
Use differential equation in electric circuits.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
In previous chapter we have learn to solve differential equations.
We differ type. Now here we are going use differential equation in
different field its useful to geometrical, physical, and electronic circuits,
civil engineering and so on we are going to discuss few application of
differential equation.
156
9.3 GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS

Cartesian Co-ordinates:
Let f ( x1 y1 ) = 0 be the equation of the curve Let p ( x1 y1 ) i.e. any point
on it.
The tangent and normal at p meet X axis in T and respectively.

Let PM X axis
Let MTP =
MTP = ...... [Geometrical Construction]
Then,
dy
Slope of Tangent at p = tan = x 1, y
1
dx
Equation of tangent at p is
X
intercept of tangent =
dy
y y x x 1
1
dx
dx
x1 y1 p
dy
157
x1
intercept of tangent =
y1
dy
d x p
y x dx P
dy
Equation of the normal at P is given by

dx
y- y (x x 1)
1
dy
6) Length of tangent = PT =
dx 2
1
dy
7) Length of Normal at
P PN y1
8) Length of Sub tangent
9) Length of Sub normal
d y
y1
dx
dy
1+
dx
y1
d y
dx
10) If e is a radius of curvature at p then

3
d y 2 2
1

d x
e
d2 y
d x2
Solved Examples:
Example 1:
Find the curve which passes through the points [ 2, 1 ] and [ 8, 2 ]
for which sub tangent at any point varies as the abscissa of that point.
Solution: Let p (x,y ) be a point on the curve
We know,
158
y
dy
dx
From given conditiony
x
dy
dx
y
kx.....[k constant]
dy
dx
dy
y kx
dx
1
k
dx dy
x
y
dy 1
k
dx
y x
which is in variable seperate form
integrate both side
1
k. dy constant
y
k. log y =log x + log c
subtangent
log
y =log cx
k
y cx ....... 1
k
The Curve passes through the points [2,1] and [6, 2]

put x = 2 , y = 1, in equation [1]
1 2c
k
1 2c
1
2
put x = 8, y = 2, in eqn
[1]
2 c x 8
k
1
4
x8
2
24
2 2
k
K 2
put Value of C and K in eqn
[1]
159
1
x
2
y2
2
2y x
This is the equation of the Curve
Example 2: Find the curves in which the length of the radius of
curvature at any point is equal to two times the length of the normal at that
point.
Solution: Let p [x , y ] be a point on the curve
We Known that,
dy 2
1+
dx
Radius of curvature =
d2 y
dx 2
dy
Lenght of normal = y 1+
dx
3/2
From given condition 3/2
dy 2
1+
dx

d2 y
dx 2
dy
25 1+
dx
1/2
dy 2
1+
dx

dy 2
1+
dx
= 25
2
d y
dx 2
d2 y
dy
1+ = 25
[1]
dx 2
dx
Let
dy
=z
dx
dy 2
d dy
=

2
dx
dx dx
=
=
d
z
dx
dz
dy
dy
dx
1+
dy

dx
2 1/2
160
dz
z
dy
d2 y
dz
=z
2
dx
dy
From eq n 1
1 + z 2 = 25 z
2zy
dz
dy
dz
= 1 + z2
dy
2z
1
dz = dy
2
1+z
y
which is in variable separable form

Integrate both side
2z
1 + z
1
dz dy constant
y
log 1+z 2 log y log c

log 1+z 2 log cy
1+z2 = cy
z 2 = cy - 1
z = cy - 1
Again put z =
dy
dx
dy
= cy - 1
dx
1
dy = dx
cy - 1
Integrate both sides
1
c 1
dy dx constant
c
cy 1
1
2 cy 1 = x + c1
c
161
2 cy 1 = cx + cc1
2 cy 1 = cx + c2
Where c2 cc1
which is the eq n of the curve.

1)
Determine the curves for which sub normal is the arithmetic mean
between the abscissa and the ordinate
[ Hint :
dy
x
y
=
+ ; simplify
dz
z
z
Equation is homegeneous.
Ans : x + 2y x + y = c
2
9.4 PHYSICAL APPLICATION

Rectilinear Motion:
It is a Motion of a body of Mass in start moving from a fixed point O
along a straight line OX under the action of a force F. Let p be the position
of the body at any instant
Where OP = X , then
dv
2) The acceleration =
dt
2
d x
= 2
dt
dv
=v
dx
1) velocity v
dx
dt
By chain rule dv dv dx
dt dx dt
dv
v
dx
dv
dx
3) Newtons second law of motion is given by
162
f = ma
= m
dv
dt
d2x
= m 2
dt
f = mv
dv
dx
where f = effective force
D Alemberts principle:Algebraic sum of the forces acting on a body along the given direction is
equal to the product of mass and acceleration in that direction.
ie m
d2 x
F
dt 2
F - m
d2 x
O
dt 2
Solved examples:
Example 3:
A moving body is opposed by a force per unit mass of a value CX and
resistant per unit mass value bv, where X and V are the displacement and
velocity of the particle at that instant. Show that the velocity of the
particle. If it starts from rest, is given by.
v2
c
cx
1 e2bx
2
2b
b
Solution: Consider the motion

Step 1) :
Let m be the mass of the particle moving to right. Now the opposing
forces mcx and mbv2 will act to the left.
mcx
mv
dv
dx
mbv2
ie
mcx and
mbv2 are forces to the right
By D Alemberts principle
mv
dv
mcx mbv2
dx
step[2]
v
dv
bv2 cx
[1]
dx
163
Let v2 z
2v
dv dz
dx dx
eq n [1] becomes
1 dz
bz cx
2 dx
dz
2bz 2cx
dx
which is a linear equation in z

p = 2b. Q = -2cx.
I.F. = e
2bdx
pdx
=e
I.F. =
2bx
Its general solution is given by

z [ IF ] =
ze
2bx
Q IF dx constant
-2cx e
2bx
-2c x e
dx c1
2bx
dx c1
d
2bx
-2c x e dx- x
dn
2bx
2bx
e
e
-2c x
1
dx
2b c1
2 b
ze
2bx
2bx
x 2bx
1
e
e
= 2c
+
2b
2b c1
2b
ve
2
2bx
v =
2
-cx e
2bx
c
2bx
+ c1
2 e
2b
cx
c
-2bx
2 c1 e
[3]
b 2b
[III] to find c1 , we impose initial conditions
ie for x = o , v = o in eqn [3]
2bx
dx c1
164
o=0+
=-
c
2b2
put values of
v2 =
v2 =
c
+ c1
2b2
in eq n [3]
cx
c
c
+
e2bx
2
2
b
2b
2b
c
cx
1 e2bx
2
2b
b
Example 4: A body of mass m. Falling from rest, is subject to the force

of gravity and an air resistance proportional to the square of the velocity
[ie kv2 ]. If it falls through a distance x and possesses a velocity v at that
instant show that
a2
2k x
log 2
, where mg = ka 2
2
m
a v
Solution:
Step
Let the body of mass m fall from O
The forces acting on the body are
1)
Its weight mg acting vertically downwards.
2)
The resistance kv2 of the air acting vertically upwards.
The net forces acting on the body vertically downwards
= mg
kv2 . . . . [ mg
ka2 given]
= ka2
kv2
= k [ a2
v2 ] . . . . . .[ 1 ]
Step [ 2 ] By DAlemberts Principle
mv
dv
k a 2 v2
dx
v
k
dv
dx
2
a v
m
2

Integrating both sides
1
2v
k
2 2 dv dx c1 . . . c1 constant
2 a v
m

1
k
log a 2 v 2 x c1
2
2
m
165
Step [ 3 ] To Final c1 , we put initial conditions

ie when x = o , v = o.
From 2
1
log a 2 c1
2
put value of c1 in eqn [ 2 ]

1
k
1
log a 2 v2 x log a 2
2
m
2
1
k
1
log a 2 v2 x log a 2
2
m
2
2kx
log a 2 v2
log a 2
m
2kx
log a 2 log a 2 v2
m

a2
2kx
log 2
2
m
a v

1)
A particle of Unit mass is projected upward with velocity u and the
resistance of air produces a retardation kv2 and v is the velocity at any
instant show that the velocity v with which the particle will return to the
point of projection is given by
1
1 k
= 2
2
v
u
g
2)
Determine the least velocity with which a particle must be
projected vertically upwards so that it does not return to the Earth. Assume
that it is acted upon by the gravitational attraction of the earth only.
Ans : Least Velocity vo 2 gR
R Radius of earth
3)
A paratrooper and his parachute weigh 50 kg. At the instant
parachute opens. He is Travelling vertically downward at the speed of 20
m/s. If the Air resistance varies directly as the instantaneous velocity and
its 20 Newtons. When the velocity is 10 m/s Find the limiting velocity, the
position and the velocity of the paratrooper at any time t.
-gt/25
v 5 s e . . . = 25 m/s
25 -gt/25
x =5 st+ e c1
g
125
-gt/25
x =25t
1 e
166
9.5 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

The following Notations are frequently used. Units are given in Brackets .
t seconds
Time
q coulombs
Ch arg e on capacitor
i ampere
Current
e volts
voltage
R ohms
Re sis tan ce
L Hentries
Indua tan ce
C Farads
capaci tan ce
Current is the rate of electricity

dq
dt
[ II ] Current at each point of a network is got from Kirchhoffs laws :
1) The algebraic sum of the currents into any point is zero.
2)
Around any closed path the algebraic sum of the voltage drops in
any specific direction is zero.
3)
Voltage drops as current i flows through a resistance R is Ri ;
di
q
through an induction L is L
and through a capacitor C is .
c
dt
Solved examples:
Example 5: A constant emf E volts is applied to a ckt. containing a
constant resistance. R ohms in
series and a constant inductance L henries. It the initial current is zero,
show that the current builds upto half its theoretical maximum
L log 2
in
seconds.
R
Solution:
Step (1)
R
i=
Let i be the current in the circuit at any time t .

The by Kirchoffs law, we have
167
E L
di
Ri
dt
di
Ri E
dt
di R
E
i
(1)
dt L
L
L
Which is a linear equation in i .

R
E
P=
Q
L
L
pdt
I.F. = e
R
= e L
dt
R
t
L
I.F. = e
The general solution is given by
i .( IF ) = Q .( IF ) dt + constant
R
E RL t
e dt c
L
E L RL t
e c
L R
R
t
E R t
i. e L e L c
R
-R
t
E
i=
c e L
(2)
R
To find c , we impose initial conditions
i.e. at t = o , i = o
E
O=
C
R
E
C=
R
Equation (2) becomes
t
i. e L
E
R
E
i=
R
i=
E
e
R
R
t
L
L
(3)
1 e

This is the expression for i at any time t.
R
t
L
Now as t increases decreases e

increases and its maximum
E
value is
R
Step ( 2 )
Let the current in the circuit be half its theoretical maximum after a
time T seconds then.
168
From eqn ( 3 )
R
t
1 E
E
L
=
1 e
2 R
R
R
t
1
=1 e L
2
R
t
1
e L = 1
2
R
1
t = log
L
2
1
= log
2
= log 1 log 2
= O log 2
R
t = log 2
L
L log 2
R
1)
The equation of the eml in terms of current i for an electrical
circuit having resistance R and a condenser of capacity C, in series is.
i
E Ri dt
c
Find the current i at any time t , when
E = Eo sin wt
t
WcEo
RC
i=
cos wt o + c1 e
Ans :
1+R 2C 2W 2
t=
-1
where o = tan (RCW)

2)
An electrical circuit contains an inductance of 5 henries and on
resistance of 120 in series with an emf 120 sin (20t) Volts. Find current if
it is zero when
t = o ; at t = 0.01
20
-3
12 sin (0.2) 100 cos (0.2) + 100.e
Ans :
10144
125
9.6 NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING

The law states that the rate at which the temp of a body changes is
proportional to the difference between the instantaneous temp of the body
and the temp of the surrounding medium.
If Q is the instantaneous temp of the body an Qo the temp of the
surrounding then.
169
dQ
Q Qo
dt
dQ
k Q Qo
dt
Where k is a constant and Q decreases as t increases i.e.
dQ
is negative
dt
hence negative sign is added.

Solved Examples:
Example 6: The temperature of the air is 300C.and the substance cools
from 1000C to 700C in 15 minutes, find when the temperature will be
400C.
Solution:
Initially at t 0, T 100
log 100 20 0 c1
c1 log 80
Put value of c1 in eq n
log T 20 kt log 80
kt log80 log T 20
When t 1 , T 60 c
0
from 2
k log 80 log 40
(3)
n
Divide eq (2) by (3) we have
log80 log(T 20)
t
(4)
log80 log 40
when t 2min ute, T ?
from eq n (4) we have
80
log
T 20
2
280
log
40
80
4
T 20
80
4=
T 20
4T 80 80
4T 160
160
40
T 1
4
T 400 c
170
The temp of the body at the end of second minute will be 400c
(i)
A body at temperature 1000 c is placed in a room whose temp is
200c and cools to 600 c in 5 minutes. Find its temp. after a fruther interval
of 3 minutes.
Ans :- 46.40 c.
9.7 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter we have learn Application of Differential equation like
Geometrical Application:- like to find the equation of curve
the equation of normal.
Physical application: 1) Rectilinear motion.

2) DAlemberts Principle.
In electronics Circuits.
Newtons law of cooling.

i.
Find the equation of the curve whose slope is equal to
y3
at
x2
every point of it and which passes through the point (0,0).

A curve passing though (3, 0) has as gradient 7
ii.
at this point such
d2y
x . Find the equation of the curve.
that at every point on it
dx 2
iii.
If the slope of the curve at any point is
y 2logx - y
and the curve
x
passes through the point (1,1). Find its equation.

iv.
The curve i in an electric circuit containing resistance R and selfdi

inductance satisfies the differential equation L + Ri = E Sin.wt where R,
dt
E & W are constant. If i=0 find the current at time t.
The change of a condenser, capacity C, discharged in a circuit of
resistance .R and self-inductance .L satisfies the differential equation
v.
171
d 2
d2
+ R + = 0 Solve the equation with initial conditions that 0
2
dt
dt c
d2
0 when t 01 and CR2 < 4L .
,
dt
L
vi.
A radioactive substance decomposes at the rate proportional to the

amount present at the time. How much mass will be left if initially a
substance 2mg is supplied.
vii.
The Newtons Law of Cooling states that the rate of cooling of a

substance is proportional to the difference in the temperature of the body
and that of the surrounding is 20. If water cools down to 60 in first
20minutes, during what time will it cool to 30 ?
viii.
If L
t=0.
*****
di
= 30 Sin 10t find i in terms of t given that L=2 and i=0, at
dt
172
10
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
10.1 Objective
10.2 Introduction
10.3
Some standard results
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Type III: Using Complex Numbers

Problems
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
10.1 OBJECTIVE
Find higher order derivative
Formula of nth order derivative
Leibnitzs theorem
Application of Leibnitzs theorem
10.2 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we shall study the methods of finding higher
ordered derivatives for a given functional expression.
This is done in two stages:
Stage I : We shall establish some standard results and solve some
problems using these results.
Stage II : We shall prove Leibnitz theorem and using it find higher order
derivatives of given function
Notation:- Different notations used for derivatives of y=f(x) with respect
to x are
dy d 2 y
dny
, 2 ,....... n ,.......
dx dx
dx
(Due to Lebinitz)
173
y, y, y,
(Due to Newton)
f x , f x ,..... f n x
(Due to langravge)
For convenience we also use notations
y1, y2, ...... yn ......or y ' , y '' , y ''' ...etc.
yn 0 value of n th
derivative of y at x=o
Stage (I)
10.3 SOME STANDARD RESULTS

(1) Let
y eax
y1 aeax y2 a 2eax ..... yn a neax

(2) Let
y a mx
y1 ma mx loga , y2 m2 a mx log a 2 .......
yn mn a mx log a
3)
y sin ax b
y1 a cos ax+b a sin ax b

2
y2 a 2 sin ax+b a 2 sin 2 ax b .......

2
yn a n sin ax b
2
If a=l then
y sin x b and yn sin x b

2
n
.
Also if b=0 then y= sin x and yn sin x
2
4)If
y cos ax b then on similar lines
yn a n cos ax b
m>n
174
y ax b
m>n
y1 ma ax b
m is integer
m 1
y2 m m 1 a 2 ax b
m 2
yn m m 1 m-2 ....... m-n+1 a n ax b
m n
yn n n 1 n-2 ......1.a n ax b n !a n
0
If m=n then
If a=1, b=0, then y=xn
yn n !
6) y ax b
m is positive integer
-m
y1 m a ax b
m 1
y2 m m 1 a 2 ax b
m2
............
yn m m 1 ...... -m-n+1 a n ax b
1 m m+1 ...... m+n-1 a n ax b
7)
y
y1
1
ax b
a
ax b
a ax b
m n
mn
1 a 2 2!.......
y2 a a 2 ax b
3
ax b
2
: :
1 n !a n
yn
n 1
ax b
n
yn
8)
x b
n
n 1
y log ax b
y1
a
ax b
if a=1 then y=
1
.....
x b3
175
1 a 2 1 a 2
y2
2
2
2
ax b ax b ax b
2 1
a 2
1 a n
yn
n
ax b
y eax sin bx c
n 1
9)
y1 eax a sin bx c b cos bx c
Let a = r cos , b = r sin ,

And
b
r= a 2 b2 =tan -1
a
y1 eax r cos sin bx c r sin cos bx c
reax sin bx c
b
eax sin bx+c+tan -1
a
similarly it can be proved that

y1 a 2 b2
y2 a 2 b 2
b
eax sin bx+c+tan -1 ........
a
yn a 2 b2
b
eax sin bx+c+tan -1
a
If a=1,b=1, c=0
y eax sin x
yn 2
n
ex sin x+
4
y eax cos bx c
yn a 2 b 2
eax cos bx c n tan 1

a
Type I
Example1: Find nth derivatives of the following :
i)
ii)
iii)
sin 3 x
cosx cos2x cos 3x
y ex cos x cos 2 x
iv)
y e x cos cos x sin
176
Solution:
1
sin3x=3sinx-4sin 3 x
3sin x sin 3x
4
4sin3 x 3sin x sin 3x
1
sin3 x= 3sin x sin 3x
4
Using the result for nth derivative of y=sin (ax+b) and nothing that
nth derivative of sum or difference is sum or difference of nth derivatives,
we get
Let y sin 3 x
i)
yn
ii)
3sin x n 3n sin 3x
4
2
2
Let
1
y cos x cos 2 x cos3x cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 2 x
2
1
1
1
cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 2 x cos 2 x c Ac B cA B cA B

2
2
2
1 1
1 1
cos 6 x cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 0
2 2
2 2
1
1
1
1
cos x cos 2 x 1 cos 4 x cos 6 x cos 2 x 1 cos 4 x
4
4
4
4
1
cos 6 x cos 4 x cos 2 x 1
4
1
n n
n n
n
yn 6n cos 6 x
4 cos 4 x
2 cos 2 x
4
2
2
2
iii) y ex cos x cos 2 x
ex
2
cos3x+cosx
1 x
e cos3x+e x cosx
2
[Using the result for nth derivative of y=eax cos (bx+c)
n
n
1
n
yn 10 2 e x cos 3x tan 1 3 2 2 e x cos x

2
4
x cos
ye
cos x sin
iv)
Here note a=cos , b=sin , c=0

yn cos2 sin 2 2 e x cos cos x sin n tan 1 tan
n
yn e x cos cos x sin n
177
Example2
1
n
2
If y sin px cos pxt , thanshow that : yn p n 1 1 sin 2 px
Solution: y sin px cos px

n
n
n
y n p n sin px
Results:3,4
p cos px
2
2

n
p n sin px
2

cos px
n

p n sin px
2

cos px

2
p 1 2sin px
2
n 2
cos
px
1
look at simplification: a+b a b) a b) 2 2
p n 1 sin 2 px n
p n 1 1 sin 2 px
sin n 0
and
n
cos nx 1
n
2SACA S2 A
SA+B S ACB C A S B
Example 3: If y x 1 than show that y y1

n
y
y2 y3
..... n x n
2! 3!
n!
.
Solution:
n
y x 1
yn x 1
n 1
y1 n x 1
y2 n n 1 x 1
n 1
n2
:
yn n !
y
y
y
y y1 2 3 ..... n
2! 3!
n!
n n 1
n!
n2
x 1 ......
2!
n!
n n 1
n
n 1
n2
2
n
x-1 n x 1 1
x 1 1 ...... 1
2!
x 1 x 1
n
x-1 1
n 1
178
a+b n a n na n1b
Note: See Binomial expansion
n n 1 n2 2
a b .......b n
2!
a x 1,, b 1
Hence
Type II
Find nth derivatives by method of fraction :

Example 4: Find nth derivative of y
x
x 1 x 2 x 3
Solution : Using method of partial fraction

x
y
x 1 x 2 x 3
x
A
B
C
x 1 x 2 x 3 x 1 x 2 x 3
A x-2 x 3 B x-1 x 3 C x-1 x 2
x
x 1 x 2 x 3
x-1 x-2 x 3
x A x-2 x 3 B x-1 x 3 C x-1 x-2

Put x 1 Put x 2 Put x 3
1
3
A
B -2
C
2
2
1
1
2
3 1
y
2 x-1 x 2 2 x-3
1 n ! 3 n !
1 1 n !
yn
2
n 1
n 1
2 x-1
2 x-3n 1
x-2
n
10.4 TYPE III : USING COMPLEX NUMBERS

Example 5: Find nth derivative of
Solution.:
We have
x ai x ai
By partial fractions,
1
x a2
2
179
1
1
2ai x ia 2ai x ia
1 1 n !
1
1
n 1
2ai x ia
2ai x ia n 1
n
Using result (7)
yn
n!
1
1
2ia x ia n 1 x ia n 1
n
To eliminate, we substitute
x ia r ei x-ia r ei
1 Becomes,
n!
i
1
2ia re n 1 re i n 1
n!
2ia r
n 1
ei n 1 ei n1
n ! ei n 1 ei n 1
ar n 1
2i
yn
r
ar
n!
n 1
a 2 x 2 , tan
a
x
Solution.:
x ia x ia
ia
ia
x ia 2ai x ia 2ai
1 1
1
2 x ia x ia
n
n
1 1 n ! 1 n !
yn
2 x ia n 1 x ia n 1
Let
ei n 1 ei n 1
2i
sin n 1
Example 6: Find nth derivative of
We have
sin
x+ia rei , x ia rei
x
x a2
2
180
r x a , tan
2
From
4
1
x
n!
1
1
n 1 i n 1
i n 1
n 1
2
r e
r e
yn
n ! ei n 1 ei n 1
r n 1
2
yn
n!
n 1
cos n 1
r x 2 a 2 , tan
-1 a
Example 7: Find nth derivative of tan-1 x

Solution.:
y tan 1 x
y1
1
1
x 1 x i x i
2
1 1
1
2i x i x i
is n-1 derivatives of y1 , we have

th
1 1 n 1! 1 n 1!
yn
n
2i X i n
X i
n 1
n 1
1 n 1!
1
1
n
n
X i X i
n 1
2i
Let x 1 rei ,
x i rei
1
r 1 x 2 , tan x

1 n 1!
n 1
yn
yn
rei n
2i
n 1
n 1 ! ein ein
rn
2 !
1 n 1! sin n

n
n 1
where
i n
re
x2 1
tan 1
x
181
x x 1
cos
1
xx
1
Example 8: Find nth derivative of :

Solution. :
x x 1
cos 1
1
xx
x x 1
y cos 1
1
xx
x2 1
cos 1 2
x 1
x tan
y cos1 cos 2
cos 1 cos 2
2
2 tan 1 x, from previous result.
1 n 1! sin n
2
n 1
yn
rn
Where r 1 x 2
tan
1 1
Example 9: If y=sinx (sinx), Show that
d2y
dy
tan x y cos 2 x 0
2
dx
dx
y sin sin x
Solution:
dy
cos sin x cos x
dx
d2 y
sin sin x cos 2 x sin x cos sin x
2
dx
d2 y
dy
+tanx +ycos 2 x
2
dx
dx
sin sin x cos2 x sin x cos sin x
tan x.cos x.cos sin x cos2 x sin sin x 0
Example 10: If p2 a 2 cos2 b2 sin 2 , Prove that p+

Solution.:
Diff. given relation twice,
dp
2p
-a 2 2cos sin +2b 2 sin cos
d
d 2 p a 2b 2
3
d 2
p
182
dp
b2 -a 2 sin cos (1)
d
2
d 2 p dp
2
2
2
2
b -a cos sin ....................(2)

2
d d
p3
2
2
2
2
d 2 p b -a sin cos
d 2
p2
b2 -a 2 cos 2 sin 2
d2 p
p 2 b2 -a 2 cos 2 sin 2 b2 -a 2 sin 2 cos 2
2
d
b 2 -a 2 p 2 cos 2 sin 2 b2 -a 2 sin 2 cos 2

b2 -a 2 a 2cos2 b2sin 2 cos2 sin 2 b2 -a 2 sin 2 cos 2
b2 -a 2 a 2cos4 b2sin 4
a 2b2 cos4 sin 4 a 4cos 4 b4sin 4
2
a 2b2 cos2 sin 2 2sin 2 cos 2 a 4cos 4 b4sin 4
a 2b2 a 2cos2 b2sin 2
a 2b 2 p 4
p3
d2 p
a 2b 2 p 4
2
d
p+
d 2 p a 2b 2
3
d 2
p
dy
3
1 2sin x
y sin 1
then show that
dx 2 sin x
2 sin x
Example 11: If
Solution.:
We have
1 2sin x 2sin x 4 3
3
2
2 sin x
2 sin x
2 sin x
dy
3cos x
cosy
dx 2 sin x 2
siny
Now
cosy 1 sin y
1+2sinx 2
12
2+sinx
183
2+sinx 2 1+2sinx 2

2
2+sinx
3 cos x
2 sin x
dy
3cos x
1
2
dx 2 sin x cos y
3cos x
2 sin x
2 sin x
3 cos x
3
2 sin x

1)
If y=xey then show that :
2
1 y
d2y
dy
2 y
2
dx
dx
2)
If y 1 x 2 2 sin 1 x, then show that :3)

1
d 2 y dy
2x y 0
dx 2 dx
H int : sub x sin . y=cos
1 x2
find
dy dy d
........
dx d dx
3)
If
y sin 1 x then show that:

2
d2y
dy
x 20
2
dx
dx
dy
1
H int : 2sin 1 x
dx
1 x2
1 x2
dy
1 x 4 y, differentiate again
dx
2
4)
If
y xe y ,
then show that:
d y
dy
2 y
2
dx
dx
H int : Take log
1 y
5)
If
my sin x y
show that y2 y 1 y1 , m is constant

3
6)
Find nth derivative of sin5 x cos3 x
184
10.5 PROBLEMS
Type (I) :
In this type of problem we have to chosen one function as u and the other
as v. If there is a polynomial in x then that is to be chosen as u and then
apply Leibnitz theorem.
Example 12: Find nth derivative of x 2e x cos x
Solution:
Let
y x 2 e x cos x
u x2 , v e x cos x.
Using standard result number
Here
n
n
yn 2 2 e x cos x
4
y u v
By Leibnitz theorem
yn uvn nc1u1vn1 nc2u2vn2 ........
n 1
n 1
rn
x 2 2n 2 e x cos x x n 2 x 2 2 e x cos x
4
4
n2
n 2
n(n 1)
2 2 2 e x cos x
2!
4
Example 12:If f(x)=tan x then show that

n
n
f n 0 n c2 f n2 0 n c4 f n4 0 ...... sin
Solution:
cos x f x sin x
Taking nth derivatives both sides to the left side we apply Leibnitz
theorem and to the right we use standard formula for nth derivative of
sinx, we get,
n
cos x. f n x n C1 sin x f n1 x n C2 cos x f n2 x ...... sin
2
putting x=0 on both sides, we get,
n
f n 0 nC2 f n2 x nC4 f n 4 0 ...... sin
2
log x
Example 14: If y
then show that :
x
185
yn
n!
1
1 1
log x 1 .....
x
n
2 3
n 1
Solution:
1 n 1 n
n 1
By standard results we have un
vn
xn
n!
n 1
We have y=u. v
By Leibnitz theorem
yn uvn n C1u1vn1 n C2u2vn2 ....... unv
1
log x
.n !
x n 1
1
log x
.n !
x n 1
yn
n 1
n 1
1 1 n 1 n n n 1
n
x
xn
2!
n 1
n
1
n
1 1 1
Example 15: If
1 1 n 1 n n n 1
n
x
xn
2!
.n !
1
1 1
logx- 1+ ....
x
n
2 3
n 1
dn n
I n n x log x then show that
dx
(i)
I n n 1n1 n 1! and
(ii)
1
1
In n ! log x 1 .....
2
n
Solution:
(i) We have
In
d n1
nx n 1 log x x n 1
n 1
dx
dn n
d n1 d n
log
x
x log x
n
n 1
dx
dx dx
d n1 n 1
d n1 n 1
log
x
dx n1 x
dx n1
In n1n1 n 1!
if n th derivative of x n is n! therefore n-1th derivative of x n 1is n-1!
ii dividing (1) on both sides by n!
In nI n1 n 1!
n!
n!
n!
186
i.e.
I
In
I
n1
n! n 1! n
Re placing n by n-1 n 2 ............3, 2,1 we get

1 n-1
n-1!
1 n-2
n-2 !
1n 2
1
n 2 ! n 1
1I n 3
1
n 3 ! n 2
12 11 1

2! 1 2
11 10
1
1! 0!
Adding all the results columnwise we get,
1
1
1n
1 1
n1 n2 ....... 2 1
n! n 1! n 2 !
2! 1!
1n1
1
1 1
n2 ....... 1 0
2! 0!
n 1! n 2 !
1
1
1
1

....... 1
2
n n 1 n 2
cancelling common terms on both sides and noting that
I0 0th derivative of x 0 log x

log x
and 0! 1 we get
1 1
1
In n ! log x 1 .......
2 3
n
Example 16: By forming in two different ways the nth derivative of x2n
show that :
2
2
2 !
n 2 n n 1 n n 1 n 2
1 2 2
.... n 2
2
2
2
2
1
1 2
1 , 2 ,3
n !
2
Solution:
Step 1: We have
y x2n
Standard formula
yn 2n 2n 1 ........ 2n n 1 x 2nn
2n 2n 1 ........ n 1 n n 1 ......3, 2,1 x n
n n 1 ......3, 2,1
187
2n ! x n
n!
Step 2: Again
y x2n x n .x n
We apply Leibtnitz theorem to find yn
u x n ,v x n
u n n!, v n n!
yn x n n! n C1 nx n1 n! x
x2
n2
n
n n 1 x n ! .......... x .n ! see note below
2
2
2
2
2
n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
n
yn x .n ! 1 2
....
2
2
1
2!
3

2
2
2
2
n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1 n 2
n
x .n ! 1 2 2 2
....
1
1 .2
12. 22. 32
From 1 and 2
2n
n!
2
2
n 2 n n 1
x x .n ! 1 2 2 2
....
1
1 .2
2
2
2 !
n 2 n n 1 n n 1 n 2
1 2 2 2
.... n 2
2 2 2
1
1 .2
1 .2 .3
n !
2
Note :
The nth derivative of xn is n! but (n-1)th derivative of xn is not (n-1)! but
n! .x.
To prove that this use the formula No.5 and put m = (n-1).
Type (II)
In this type of problems we (generally) proceed according to the following
flow-diagram:
First express y in terms of x
Differentiate both sides with respect to x and simplify
Again Differentiate both sides and simplify
188
Then apply Leibnitz theorem term by term and simplify to get the result.
1
ym y
Example 17: If
1
m
2 x Show that
1 ym2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 m2 yn 0
Solution:
y
2x
2x
2 xy m 1 0
is a quadratic equation in y
2 x 4 x2 4
2
neglecting negative sign
x x2 1
x2 1
y x
y1 m x
x x 1
y m x x 1
x 1
m 1
1
2
2
x 1
2x
m 1
x 1 y1 m x
2
m y
x 2 1 y 21 m2 y 2
Differentiating both the sides with respect to x, we get,

2 x 2 1 y1 y2 2 xy 21 2m2 yy1 0
x 2 1 y2 xy1 m2 y 0
Applying Leibnitz term by term to find n th derivative we get,

n n 1
2
2 yn xyn1 n 1 yn m2 yn 0
x 1 yn 2 n 2 x yn 1
2!
x 2 1 yn2 x 2n 1 yn1 n2 m2 yn 0
189
Note : If we consider negative sign, we shall get the same result.

n
y
x
Example 18: If we cos log then Show that
b
n
1
x2 yn2 2n 1 xyn1 2n2 yn 0

Solution:
We have
cos 1
y
n
n log log x log n
b
y b cos n log x n log n
n
y1 bsin n log x n log n
x
xy1 nbsin n log x n log n
differentiating both the sides with respect to x

n
xy2 +y1 nbcos n log x n log n
x
x 2 y2 xy1 n2 b cos n log x n log n
n 2 y
x 2 y2 xy1 n2 y 0
Applying Leibnitz theorem term by term to differentiate n times, we get,

n n 1
2
2 yn xyn1 n 1 yn n2 yn 0
x yn 2 n2 xyn 1
2!
x2 yn2 x 2n 1 yn1 2n2 yn 0

Example 19:
1 x y
2
If y
sin 1 x
1 x2
then show that
2n 3 xyn1 n 1 yn 0
2
n2
Solution:
We have
sin 1 x
1 x2
1 x y sin x
2
Differentiating with respect to both sides,
1 x 2 yy 2 xy
2
sin 1 x
1 x2
2y
190
1 x y xy 1
1 x y 2xy xy y 0
1 x y 3xy xy y 0
2
Applying Leibnitz term by term, we get

n n 1
2
2 yn
1 x yn 2 n 2 x yn 1
2!
3 xyn 1 n 1 yn yn 0
1 x y
2
x 2n 3 yn1 n 1 yn 0
2
n2
Example 20: If y sec1 x then show that
x x 2 1 yn2 2 3n x 2 n 1 yn 1 n 3n 1 xyn n2 n 1 yn 1 0
Solution:
y sec1 x

y1
1
x x2 1
x 2 x 2 1 y 21 1
i.e.
x 2 y 21 1
4x 2x y x x 2 y y
2x 1 y x x y 0
x x y 2x 1 y 0
3
i.e.
i.e.
2
1
1 2
Differentiating term by term n times using Leibnitz theorem, we get,

n n 1
3
2
6 x yn
x x yn 2 n 3x 1 yn 1
2!
n n 1 n 2
+3
6 yn1
3!
n n 1
2 x 2 1 yn 1 n 4 x yn
4 yn1 0
2!
191
i.e. x3 x yn2 n 3x 2 1 2 x 2 1 yn1 3n n 1 x 4nx yn
n n 1 n 2 2n n 1 yn1 0
i.e.x x 2 1 yn 2 2 3n x 2 n 1 yn1
n 3n 1 xyn n2 n 1 yn1 0
Example 21: If y = tan-1 x,then show that.
1 yn1 2nxyn n n 1 yn1 0 and also show that
yn 0 is 0, n-1! or 4r+3 respectively

Solution:
Step I :
y tan 1 x
y1
1
1 x2
1 y1 1
Applying Leibtnitz theorem to differentiate n times, we get,

n n 1
2
2 yn1 0
x 1 yn 1 n 2 x yn
2!
i.e.
1 yn1 2nxyn n n 1 yn1 0........................(1)
Step (II) :
Now,
y1 0 1
y2 0
And
Putting
2 x
1 x
2 2
y2 0 0
n 2,3,4,5,6 in 1
y3 2 2 !
y4 0
y5 4!
y6 0
y7 6!
:
y n 0 0n 2r
yn 0 n 1 f ifn=4r+1
and
yn 0 n 1! if n=4r+3
192
If y sin m sin 1 x then show that
1.
1-x y
2
n2
H int
1 x y
2
2.
2n 1 xyn1 n2 m2 yn 0
: Find y1 then
m2 1 y 2 and again differentiate and apply L. theorem
If y=easin
-1
1 x y
2
3.
n2
then show that

2n 1 xyn1 n2 a 2 yn 0
If y=acos logx b sin log x

then show that
x 2 yn 2 2n 1 xyn1 n2 1 yn 0
H int : x 2 y2 xy1 y 0 apply Leibnitz theorem
4.
If y= sin -1 x then show that :

2
1 x y 2n 1 xy
2
5.
n2
n 1
n2 yn 0
If x tan(log y) then show that:
1 x y
2
n2
2 n 1 x 1 yn1 n(n 1) yn 0
We have y=etan x .....
-1
6.
If y=sin log x 2 x 1 , prove that
x 1 y
2
H int
n2
2n 1 x 1 yn1 (n2 4) yn 0
: Find y1 , simplify, find y2 simplify and apply leibnitz theorem
10.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have learnt
nth order derivative formula
1 a n n !
1
yn
i) y
n 1
ax b
ax b
n
ii) y log ax b yn
a n 1
n 1!
n
ax b
n 1
193
iii) y a mx yn a mx log a .mn

n
iv) y sin ax b yn a n cos ax b
v) y eax sin bx c yn r neax cos bx c n

v) y eax sin bx c yn r neax cos bx c n
where r a 2 b2
and tan 1 b
Leibnatz's theorem
____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
1.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Find nth order derivative of the following functions:

(8x - 7)9
Sin( 9x+3) + cos(2x+5)
Cos62x
Sin4xsin3x
2sinxcosx
4.
x 20 5 x19 7
, find y20.
x5
3x35 7 x34 12
If y
, find y35.
x7
4 x
Find 5th order derivative of y x e .
5.
Find 4th order derivative of y x sin x .
6.
n
If y x log x , then show that yn 1
7.
If log y tan
(i)
(1 x 2 ) y1 y
(ii)
(1 x2 ) yn [1 2(n 1) x] yn1 (n 1)(n 2) yn2
2.
3.
If y
*****
n!
.
x
x, then show that
194
11
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
UNIT STRUCTURE
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Objective
Introduction
Partial Differential Coefficients
Total differentiation
Some additional results
TYPE - III Variable to be treated as constant
Let Us Sum Up
Unit End Exercise
11.1 OBJECTIVE
Find Partial Differentiation.
Total Partial derivative
Euler's theorem
Approximation and error

Maxima and Minima
11.2 INTRODUCTION
So far, we have been concerned with a functions of a variable, but in many
problems in science and mathematics we have to deal with functions of
two or more independent variables.
e.g. the lift L of an aeroplane wing is a function of three independent
variables : A, the area of the wing, V, the speed at which the wing is
moving; and P the density of the air. The law is L Akv 2 p
In the language of mathematics, if variable u has one definite value for any
given values of x,y,z then u is defined as a function of x,y,z.We represent
it
as
u= f(x,y,z)
Note that u is independent variable and x,y,z are indepedent variables.
This relation is written as - u x, y, z
195
11.3 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS

The partial derivative of u= f(x,y,z) with respect to x is the oridnary
derivative of u with respect to x when y and z are regarded as constant. It
u f
,
or f x .
is denoted by
x x
(To be pronounced as dabba u by dabba x)
Thus,
f x h, y, z f x, y, z
u f
,
or f x lim
x x
h
xo
Similarly when we differentiate u with respect to y we keep x and z

constant and so on
.
u u u
In general,
,
,
are also functions of x,y,z, so we can obtain higher
x y z
ordered partial derivatives of u=f(x,y,z)
e.g
u 2u
2f
xx
x y x 2
x2
u 2u
2f
yx
y x y x
y x
And
u 2u
2f
and so on.
xy
x y x y
x y
Note :
In general ,
2u
2u
x y y x
11.3.1 RULES OF PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION:

(1) Let,u v be functions of x,y,z Then
u v
u v
x
x x
(2)
v u
uv u +v
x
x x
v
kv k
x
x
u
v
u v x u x
x v
v2
196
k
k v
2
xv
v x
11.3.2 Chain Rules:
Chain- rules are to be developed by drawing flow- diagrams.
Study this point carefully.
(1)
Let u f ( x, y, z ) and x=1 t=2 t , z 3 t
[i.e. u is a function of x,y,z and x,y,z each is a function of only variable t]

u u dx u dy u dz
(1)
Thus ,
t x dt y dt z dt
u is a function of only variable t,
du
u
and not
dt
t
e.g. if u=x 2 +y2 z 2 , x t , y t 2 , z t 3
then
u x,y,z t
u
2x 1+ 2 y 2t + 2 z 3t 2
t
we wirte total derivative
If u f (t ) and t=1 x,y,z

u t x,y,z
u
du t
then
x
dt x
e.g.
u=t 3 , t x 2 y 2 z 2
u
then
3t 2 2 x 6 xt 2
x
(2)
i.e.
3)
If u f ( x, y, z ), x=1 r,s ,
y=2 r,s ,
z=3 r,s ,
then the flow diagram becomes,

i.e. u x,y,z r,s
u
then it is given by
s
u u x u y u z
s
x s y s z s
If we want
e.g.
u=x 2 y2 z2 , x r s t , y s 2 t 2 , z t 3
197
then
u
2x 1+2y 2s 2 z 0 6 x 4 ys
s
11.4 TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION

In Partial differentiation of a function of two or more variables , only one
variable varies. But in total differentiation, increments are given in all the
variables.
Let
z f ( x, y)
Let z be the increment in z corresponding to the increments x and y in

x and y respectively
Replace by only
Then
z z f x x, y y
z f x x, y y f ( x , y )
z f x x, y y f x, y y f x, y y f ( x, y)
f x x, y y f x, y y
or z
f x, y y f ( x , y )
x
Taking limits as x 0, y 0 we get z
f
f
d x
dy
x
y
d z is called as total differential of z
Let us see some Corollaries:

(1)
Let
u f ( x, y, z ) and x=1 (t), y 2 (t) ,z 3 (t )
[i.e. u is function of x,y,z and x,y,z each is a function of only one variable
t.]
Thus,
u x,y,z t
du
u dx
u dy u dz

dt
x dt
y dt z dt
u is a function of only one variable t,
We write total derivative
du
u
and not
dt
t
e.g. If u= x 2 + y2 + z2 , y=t 2 , z= t3
then u
x, y, z t
198
du
2x 1 + 2y 2t 2z 3t 2
dt
Let u= f(x, y) and (x, y) = 0
(2)
(x, y) = 0, y can be regarded as
a function of x and hence flow-diagram is

u x, y x
du
u
u dy
=
1+
dx
x
y dx
e.g. if
u= x 2 + y2
x3 + y3 + 3xy = 4
and
then to find
du
dx
x3 + y3 + 3xy = 4
Differentiate with respect to x,
dy
dy
3x 2 + 3y2
+ 3y + 3x
=0
dx
dx
x2 + y
dy
=
dx
x + y2
and
du
u u dy
=
+
= 2x +2y
dx
x y dx
2x x + y2 2y x 2 + y
x + y
2
x2 + y
x + y2
2
2
2 x - y xy 2 - x 2 y
3)
x+y2
dy
\
dx
This result is a special case of result (4) .
If f x,y = 0 then to find
Let u = f x, y and f x, y = 0
u x, y
and
then
u=0
or ,
f x, y = 0
y x
u x, y x
du
u u
=
+
dx
x y
du
=0
dx
u
dy
= x
u
dx
y
dy
f
=
dx
f
dy
dx
x
y
199
If
u = f x, y, z
where y and z are all functions of x, then we have

u x, y, z x
and
du
u u dy u dz
=
+
,
dx
x y dx z dx
Also note that if f x, y, z = 0
u u dy u dz
+
=0
x y dx z dx
then
d2 y
,
d x2
We use the following notations :
4) If f x, y = 0 then to find
f
f
2 f
2 f
2 f
p=
, q=
, r=
, s=
, t=
x
y
x2
x y
y2
f x, y = 0
and
p
d2 y
f x
==-
Result 5
2
dx
f y
q
dp
dq
q
-p
2
d y
dx
d x ..................(i)
=-
2
2
dx
q
p, q x, y x
dp
p p dy
=
+
=
dx
x y dx
f
f p
+
x x y x q
2 f
2 f p
p
rq -sp
=
= r-s =
2
x
x x q
q
q
dq q q dy
f f p

dx x y dx x y y y q
2 f
2 f p
2
x y y q
p
s t
q
sq pt
200
from (i),
sq - pt
d2 y
1 rp - sp
=
q
p
d x2
q2 q
q
1
- 3 q 2 r - 2pqs + p 2 t
q
11.5 SOME ADDITIONAL RESULTS

Partial Diffferentiation applied to :
n
n 1 f
f (x, y, z) = n f (x, y, z)
x
x
f
(2) Trignometric function :
sin f (x, y, z) = cos f (x, y, z)
x
x
f (x, y, z)
f
f (x, y, z)
(3) Expotential Function :
a
= a
log a
x
x
1
f
(4) Log - function :
log f (x, y, z) =
x
f x, y, z x
(1) Brackets :
(5) Inverse Trignometric function :
1
sin -1 f (x, y, z) =
2
x
1- f x, y, z
f
x
u
1
x
x
u
x = r cos
and y = r sin
Note : (1) In general,
e.g.
if
= cos
r
then
and since , x 2 + y2 = r 2
2r
r
= 2x
x
r
x
=
= cos
x
r
from (i) and (ii),
x
1
r
r
x
(2) When we write
u x, y, z
It means u depeds on x, y, z and x,y,z are independent among themselves.
EXAMPLES
201
TYPE I
NOTE :
Problem in this type are based on direct differentiation
(1) First find dependent and independent variables.
(2) Use the necessary formulae.
Examples 1 :
If z = x y + yx then show that
2 z
2 z
=
x y y x.
z = x y + yx
Solution:
z
= yx y-1 + y x log x
y
z
and
= x y log x + x y x-1
y
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to y,
z x, y
.........(i)
..........(ii)
2 z
1
= y x y-1 log x + x y-1 y x + log y xy x-1
x y
y
= y x y-1 log x + x y-1 + yx-1 + xy x-1 log y..........(iii)
Differentiating (i) partially with respect to x,
2 z
1
= x y + yx y-1 log x + 1 y x-1 + xy x-1 log y........(iv)
x y
x
From (iii) and (iv)
2 z
2 z
=
x y y x
Examples 2: If u = log (x3 + y3 +z3 3xyz ) then show that
2

-9
+
+
u=
2
y z
x + y + z
x
Solution:
i.e.
Note that u is a function of x, y, z

u x, y, z
u = log (x3 + y3 +z3 3xyz )
u
1
= 3
(3x 2 3 yz )
3
x (x + y +z3 3xyz )
see the rule of partial Differentiating applied to log function

and similarly
u
1
= 3
(3y2 3xz )
3
x (x + y +z3 3xyz )
202
u
1
= 3
(3z2 3xy )
3
x (x + y +z3 3xyz )
u u u 3 (x 2 + y2 +z 2 xy -yz - zx)
+
+
=
x y z
x 3 + y3 +z3 3xyz
3 (x 2 + y2 +z 2 xy -yz - zx)
3
=
=
2
2
2
(x + y + z ) (x + y +z xy - yz - zx)
x+y+z
Note that :
2

+
+
u=
y z
x
u u u
+
+
+
+
y z x y z
x

3
=
+
+

y z x + y + z
x
=
=

3

3

3
x x + y + z y x + y + z z x + y + z
-3
x + y + z
If v= 1- 2xy + y2
+
1 2
Example 3:
v
v
(i) x
-y
= y 2 v3 and
x
y
(ii)
-3
x + y + z
-3
x + y + z
then show that

v
2 v
2
1 - x
+
y
=0
x
x y y
Solution: (i) v x, y
v2 = 1 - 2xy + y2
We write
Differentiate partially with respect to x and y,
see the rule of Partial Differentiation applied to Brackets .

v
= -2y
x
v
= v3 y
x
v
-2v3
= -2x + 2y
y
v
= v3 x - y
y
-2 v-3
and
......1
.......... 2
from 1 and 2
v
v
-y
= xy v3 - yv3 x-y = y2 v3
x
y
-9
x + y + z
203
(ii)
v
= 1 - x 2 yv3
from (1)
x

v

1 - x2
=y
1 - x2 v3
x
y
x
1 - x
2
y is constant, and v is a function of x, y
= y 2xv3 + 1 - x 2 3v2
x
= y 2xv3 + 3 1 - x 2 v2 y v3 from (1)

= yv3 2x + 3 1 - x 2 yv2
Again,
2 v
y
=
y y y
= 3 v2
.........(3)
v3 x-y
v
x x y 2 - y 3 + v 3 (2xy -3y2 )
y
v x,y
= 3 v2 v3 x - y xy2 - y3 + v3 (2xy -3y2 )

= v3 y 3 v2 x - y xy - y2 + (2x -3y)
= v3 y 3 v2 x - y xy - y2 (2x -3y)
........(4)
2 v

v
1-x
+
y
x
y y y
= y v3 -2x + 3y 1 - x 2 v 2 + 3 v 2 y x- y 2 + (2x -3y) from (3), (4),

=y v3 3y 1 - x 2 x- y2 v2 - 3y
= y v3 3y 1 - x 2 + x 2 -2xy + y2 v2 - 3 y
= y v3 3y v-2 v2 - 3y
=0
v2 = 1 - 2 xy + y2
Example 4 : If u = log tan x + tan y + tan z
then show that
u
u
u
+ sin 2y
+ sin 2z
=2
x
y
z
Solution: Here u x, y, z
sin 2x
Using the rule of partial diff. applied to log function we have,
u
1
=
x
tan x + tan y + tan z
sec2 x
u
1
=
y
sec2 y
204
u
1
=
sec2 z
x tan x + tan y + tan z
u
u
u
sin 2x
+ sin 2y
+ sin 2z
x
y
z
=
=
sin 2x . sec2 x + sin2y . sec2 y + sin2z. sec2 z

tan x + tany + tan z
2 tan x + tan y + tan z

=2
sin 2x. sec2 x = 2 sin x . cos x .

Examples 5 : If = t n , e-r
2 4t
1
= 2 tan x
cos 2 x
then find the value of n show that
1 2
=
r
r2 r
r t
Solution: We have r, t
To simplify the expression, we take log .

We have,
log = n log t -
r2
rt
Diff. partially with respect to r,
1
-2 r
=
r
4t

r
= r
2

r2
= r
2t
Diff. partially with respect to r,
r2
2
1 2

3 r + r3
=
r
=
r
r
2
r
1 2
rr
3r 2 t
2 t
1
r2 r
...... from (1)
1
r2
2
r
=
3
r
2
2 t
Again diff. given relation with respect to t partially ,
1
n
r2
1
=
+
2
t
t
4
t
n

r2
= +
t
4 t 2
t
........ (2)
205
1 2

,
r
=
2
r r
r
t
From (2) and (3) we get,
n
r2
3
r2
+
=
+
t
4 t2
2 t
4 t2
Example 6 : If u (x, t ) = A e-gx sin
and if
n= -
3
2
nt-gx
u
2 u
=u
then show that g =
x
x2
n
2u
Solution: u x, t
u
We have,
= Ae-gx cos n t - g x n
t
-gx
= An e cos n t - g x x is to be kept constant ........(1)
Again diff. u partially with respect to x, we get,
u
= A -g e-gx sin (nt - gx ) - g e-gx . cos n t - g x
x
= -Ag e-gx sin (nt - gx ) + cos n t - g x
Rule of partial differentitation applied to product
2 u
= -Ag -g e-gx sin (nt - gx ) + cos n t - g x
2
x
e-gx -g cos (nt - gx ) + g sin n t - g x
= + Ag 2 e-gx 2 cos (nt - gx )
u
2 u
=
t
x2
From (1) and (2)
(A n .e-gx . cos (nt-gx) = . 2. Ag2 . egx . cos (nt-gx)

n= 2 g 2
g=
n
2
Example 7 : If u = x 2 tan -1
Solution: u x, y.
We have ,
u
= x2
y
y 2 -1 x
2 u
-y tan
, then find
.
x
y
x y
1
y2
1+ 2
x
1 x
x
1 2
2 -2y tan -1
-y
2
x
y
y
x
1+ 2
y
x3
xy 2
-1 x
-2y
tan
x2 y 2
y x2 y 2
206
x3 xy 2
x
2 y tan 1
2
2
x y
y
= x - 2y tan -1
x
y
2 u
u

x
=
2 - 2y tan -1
x y x y x
y
= 1 - 2y
1
x2
1+ 2
y
1
2y 2
x 2 - y2
=
1
=

x 2 + y2
x 2 + y2
y
1) If u, (x + y ) = x 2 + y2 then show that :

u u
=4
x y
u u
1
x y
x 2 + y2
u u
H
int
u
=
u x, y find
,
.......
x+y
x y
(2) Find the value of n so that u= r n (3 cos2 - 1) satisfy the equation
2 u
1
r
+
r
r sin
Hint
:
u
r,
,
Find
=0
sin

u u
,
....... Ans. n = 2, -3.
r
(3) If u = exyz then show that
u
= 1+ 3xyz + x 2 y2 z 2 e xyz
x y z
u
2u
3u
First
find
then
and
z
x z
x y z
v
2 v
c 4a 2t
= a2
(4) If v =
e
, then prove that
t
x2
t
x2
1
x2
H int : Take log, log v = log c - 2 log t - 4a 2
v x, t
v
2v
and
, apply the rule of P.D. applied to log function)
t
x2
2u
4 yz
(5) Find
where u = log (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
Ans. 2
y z
(x + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
2u
2u
Where (i) u = log (y sin x + x sin y )
(6) Verify
=
x y
y
(Find
207
(7) If u = x m yn then show that
3u
3u
=
x y z y x2
(8) If u=log y sin x+ x sin x then show that
2u
2u
x y y y
(9) If u=log x 2 y 2 z 2 then show that
2u 2u 2u
y2 z2
1
2
2
z2
x y
H int :
e2u x 2 y 2 z 2
2e2u
10) If u =r m ,
u x,y,z
u
2x
x
u
x e-2u
x
2u
u -2u
e-2u x 2e2u
e 2xe2e x e-2e
2
x
x
-2u
2 -4u
= e 2x e
r=
x2 y2 z2
2u 2u 2u
then find the value of
x 2 y2 z 2
2
2
2 m2
Hint : u= x y z
Ans : m m+1 r m
u x,y,z find
u 2u
,
.......
2
x x
TYPE II
Note :- Here we deal with the the problems of the type u = f (x, y, z )
where x, y functions of x, y, z
u X, Y, Z
x, y, z.
i.e.
We shall be frequently using the Chain- Rules can be develop drawing the
flow- diagram.
Example 8 : If u=f x-y, y-z, z-x then show that

Solution: Let
X=x-y, Y=y-z, Z=z-x
so that u=f X,Y,Z
u X,Y,Z x,y,z
u u u
+
+
=0
x y z
208
u u X u Y u Z
=
x X x Y x Z x
u
u
u
u u
=
1 +
0 +
-1=
X
Y
Z
X Z
u u X u Y u Z
and
Y X y Y y Z y
u u
u
u
1
1 +
0
Y X
Y
Z
u u
=
Y X
u u X u Y u Z
Similarly
Z X z Y z Z z
u
u
u
u u
=
0
1 +
1
+
............. 3
X
Y
Z
Y Z
From (1), (2), (3)
u u u
+
0
X Y Z
x2
Example 9 : If u=f then prove that
y
(i) x
2
2
u
u
u
2 u
u
2
2
+ 2y
=0
(ii)
x
+
3xy
+2y
=0
2
x
x
x y
y2
y
Solution:
Let
t=
x2
y2
so that u=f t
x2
Note
that
u
is
a
function
of
only
one
variable
=t, which in turn is a
function of x and y
and ,
u t x,y
( see chain rule 2)
u d u t d u 2x
=
x dt x dt y
u d u t d u -x 2
=
y d t y d t y2
u
u 2 x 2 d u 2x 2 d u
+2y
0
x
y y dt
y dt
u
u
i.e.x
+2y
0.........................(1)
x
y
Diff (1) partially with repect to y we get,
209
2u
u
2u
+1
2
y
0................(2)
x2
x
x y
and x
2u
2u
u
+2 y
2
0................(3)
2
x x
y
y
Taking (2) x+ 3 x y, we get

2
2 2 u
2u
u
2u
u
u
2
x
+2xy
x
+xy
+2y
2
y
0
2
x y
x
x y
y
y2
x
u
u
x
+2y
=0
from (1)
y
y
x2
2
2u
2u
u
2
+3xy
2y
=0
2
x
x y
y2
Example 10: If
cos x
sin y then find

x
dy
dx
Solution:
Taking logs, we get,

y log cos x = x log sin y
Let
f (x,y) =y log cos x -xlog sin y=0
dy df dx
=dx df dy
f
1
=y
-sin x - log sin y
x
cos x
= -y tan x-log sin y
f
1
=log cos x- x
cos y=log cos x-x cot y
y
sin y
Now,
and
From (1)
dy y tan x log sin y
dx log cos x x cot y
Example 11: If y x +x y x y
x y
then find
dy
dx
Solution:
Let f x+y x y
and
yx xy o
dy
f x
..................(1)
dx
f y
Now,
x y
f
x+y
= x+y
1+log (x+y) -y x logy-y x y-1
x
f
x+y
= x+y
1+log (x+y) -xyx-1 x y logx
y
210
x+y
1+log (x+y) -y x logy-yx y-1

d y x+y
From (1),
=
x+y
dx
x+y 1+log (x+y) -xy x-1 - x y logx
Example 12: Pr ove that at a point of the surface x x y y z z =c
where x=y=z,
2z
1
x log ex
x y
Solution:
2z
it is clear that z x,y
From the expression
x y
Taking logs
x log x+y log y+z log z =log c

Different with respect to y partially, (i.e. keeping x constant)
1
1 z
log z+z
y
z y
1 log y
2 z
x
1 log z
0+log y+y
Diff . with respect to x partially, we get,
1
1 z
1 log y
2
x y
1 log z z x
1 log y z
=
2
z 1 log z x
Now, we can show (as in (1) that
At
1 log x 1 log y
z
dx dy
z 1 log z
From (2),
x=y=z,
1 log x
z
x
1 log z
1 log x
z
1
3
dx dy
x 1+log x
x 1 log x
1
1
=
x log e+log x
x log e x
= x log ex
(1) If z=f x,y,u,v where u,v are functions of x,y then prove that
211
z
=
x
z
.
y
f f u f v
+
and write corresponding formulae for

x u x v x
z
Hint : z x,y,u,v x, y x =.............
(2) If v=f x 2 y 2 z 2 then show that
2f 2v 2v
4 x2 y2 z2 f ' x2 y2 z2 6 f x2 y2 z2
x 2 y2 z 2
H int : Let x 2 y 2 z 2 u
v u x,y,z
v u u
and proceed
x v x
11.6 TYPE - III VARIABLE TO BE TREATED AS

CONSTANT
u
Notations :
means partial derivative of u with respect to x keeping
x
Y constant.
u
To find
we must have an equation in u, x and y only.
x y
Example 13: If x=r cos , y=r sin then show that
2
x
y
2
2
y
x y ,
x
r
r
Where surffixes denote variables kept constant
Solution:
x=r cos , y=r sin

x
cos ,
r
sin .
r
2
x
y
x
y
x cos y sin
r
r
r cos 2 r sin 2
r 2 = x 2 +y2
Example 14: If u=lx+my, v=mx-ly, then show that:
212
2
u x
(i)
and

2
2
x y u v m
2
y v
(ii)

2
2
v x y u m
Solution: We have
u=l x+my
v=mx-l y
(i)
u=l x+my
u
l
x y
....................(1)
x
(ii) To find
we must have relation between x,u and v
u v
Eliminating y from the given relations, we get,
lu+mv= l 2 m2 x
lu mv
l 2 m2
1
x
2
2
u v l m
From (1) and (2)
x=
............(2)
l2
u x
2
2
x y u v l m
(iii)
v= mx-ly
Diff with respect to v keeping x constant,
..............(3)
y
l =0-l
v x
y 1

y x l
v
(iv) To find
, we e lim inate x from given relations,
y u
i.e.
mu-lv l 2 m2 y
v
2
2
0-l
= l m 1
u
v
l 2 m2
=
l
y u
From (4), (5)
213
2
2
y v l m

l2
v x y u
1
z
Example 15: If f x,y,z 0 then show that
x
x y
z y
Solution:
Here we use the result that if f x,y 0
xy
then
f
x
f
y
(i) Here f x,y,z =0. When y is kept constant,
We have,
(ii) And
f x
z
= x y f z
f z
x
= z y f x
1
z
From (1) and (2)
x
x y
z y
cos
sin
, y=
, evaluate
u
u
x
u u u

u
x y x y x
Example 16: If x=
Solution
cos
u
x
=
u
(i)
x=
(ii)
y
y
=
u
=-
cos
................(1)
u2
sin 2
u2
sin 2
.....................(2)
u
u
(iii) To find
, we eliminate from given relations,
u
214
x2 y2
i.e.
u2
or
1
u2
1
............................( A)
x y2
2
u
2u

x y

x y
(iv) and again
u2
u
2u

y x
2 x
2
y2
u x2 y2
...................(3)
1
x y2
2
2 y
2
y2
u
y
......................(4)

2
y y
u x2 y2
From (1), (2), (3), (4) we get,
x
y
cos
sin
Required expression =
2
2
2
2
u u x2 y2 u
u x2 y2
x cos + y sin
=
2
u3 x 2 y 2
cos2 sin 2 1
but
x cos y sin
u
u
1
Re quired expression =
2
u4 x2 y2
1
u4 1
4
u
(from A)
Example 17: If x+y+z+u+v=a, x 2 +y2 +z 2 +u 2 +v2 =b2 ,
where a,b are constants, prove that

v y
u
x

x y,z u v , z y x , z v u , z
215
Solution:
u
To find
we have to eliminate v from the given equations and as this
x y,z
process will have to be repeated four times, we proceed in the following way.
Let x+y+z+u+v=a ..................(1)
x 2 +y2 +z2 +u 2 +v2 =b2 ..............(2)
differentiating with respect to x partially keeping y,z as constants, we get,

u
v
1+

0 .........(3)
x y,z
x y,z
and
u
v
2x+2u
2y
0 ..........(4)
x y,z
x y,z
u
Solving the equations (3), (4) for
by Cramer's Rule we get
x y,z
v-x
u
..........(5)

u-v
x y,z
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to y keeping x, z as

constants, we have
u
v
v
1+
0..............(7)

2v
y x,z
y x, z
y x,z
u
v
ey+ex
2v
0
y x,z
y x, z
v
Solving (6), (7) for
we get
y x,z
v
y-u
u-v
y x,z
.........(8)
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to u treating v,z as constant
we get,
x
u

1 0 ............(9)
u u,z
u v , z
x
y
and 2x
2y
2u 0 .............(10)
u v,z
u v , z
x
solving (9), (10) for
we get,
u v,z
y u
x

x y
u v,z
....................(11)
216
Similarly differentiating (1), (2) partially with respect to v where u,z, are kept
constants, we get,
x
y

1 0
v u , z
v u , z
2x
..... (12)
x
y
2y
2v 0.........(13)
v u , z
v u , z
y
Solving equations (12), (13) for
we get,
v u , z
v-x
y
x- y
v u , z
....................(14)
From (5), (11) and from (8), (14) we get,

v
v - x y -u
u
x
y
u -v x- y
x y , z u v , z
y x , z v u , z
Example 18: If u x 2 y 2 and x s 3t , y 2s - t. Find
u x2 y 2
Solution: We have
Now,
u
2 x,
x
u x, y s, t
u
u
s
x
(2x)
u
2y
y
x u y
s
y s
(1) (2 y) (2)
2x 4 y
u u
(2 x 4 y )
2
s
s s
s
x
y
=2
+4
s
s
=2 1+4 2=10
u u x u y
=
.............(i)
t x t y t
2
Now,
And
= 2x 3 +2y (-1)
= 6x-2y
u
u
=
=
(6 x 2 y )
2
t
t t t
x y
=6
x
t t 2
2
And
2u
.
t2
217
= 6(3)-2(-1)=20 ......................(ii)
Check Your Progress-
y y
(1) If x=r cos , y= r sin then show that

1
r r
z x y
(2) If x,y,z 0 then show that

1
y x z y x z
(3) If u=ax+by, v=bx-ay, show that
u x y v
1

x y u v v x y u
11.7 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter we have learn Application of Differential equation likePartial Derivative of 1st order and 2nd order
Total differentiation
Euler's Theorem
Approximation and error formula
Maxima and Minima of the function.

u
u
1. Find
and
if u er cos .cos(r sin ).
r
2. Find x
x
u u
y
+y
if u sin 1 tan 1 .
x y
x
y
3. If u (1 2 xy y 2 )
4. If u (1 2 xy y 2 )
then prove that x
u
u
y
y 2u 3.
x
y
then prove that
2 u 2 u
(1 x ) y
0.
x
x y y
y
2u x 2 y 2
2
1 x
5. If u x tan y tan then prove that
.
yx x 2 y 2
x
y
2

9
6. If u log( x y +z xyz ), then prove that u
.
2
z
(
x
z
)
218
x3 y 3
7. If u tan
, then show that
x y
(i) x
u
u
y
sin 2u.
x
y
2
2u
2 u
(ii) x
2 xy
y
2cos3u sin u.
xy
x 2
y 2
x4 y 4
u
u
8. If u log
, then show that x y
3.
x y
2u
*****
219
MEAN VALUE THEOREMS
12
Unit Structure
12.0
Objectives
12.1
Introduction
12.1.1 Rolles Theorem:
12.1.2 Lagranges Mean Value Theorem
12.1.3 Another Form of Lagranges Mean Value Theorem:
12.1.4 Geometrical Interpretation of Lagranges Mean Value Theorem:
12.1.5 Some Important Deductions from the Mean Value Theorem:
12.2
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
12.2.1 Another Form of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
12.2.2 Geometrical Application of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem
12.3
Summary
12.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this chapter you will be able to:
State and prove three mean value theorems (MVT): Rolles MVT,
Lagranges MVT and Cauchys MVT.
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theoretical tools in
Calculus. Let us consider the following real life event to understand the concept
of this theorem: If a train travels 120 km in one hour, then its average speed
during is 120 km/hr. The car definitely either has to go at a constant speed of 120
km/hr during that whole journey, or, if it goes slower
(at a speed less than 120 km/hr) at a moment, it has to
go faster (at a speed more than 120 km/hr) at another
moment, in order to end up with an average speed of
120 km/hr. Thus, the Mean Value Theorem tells us
that at some point during the journey, the train must
have been traveling at exactly 120 km/hr. This
theorem form one of the most important results in
Calculus. Geometrically we can say that MVT states
that given a continuous and differentiable curve in an
interval [a, b], there exists a point c [a, b] such that
the tangent at c is parallel to the secant joining (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
12.1.1 Rolles Theorem:
If f is a real valued function such that (i) f is continuous on [a, b], (ii) f is
differentiable in (a, b) and (iii)f(a) = f(b) then there exists a point c (a, b) such
that f c 0
220
Geometrical Interpretation of Rolles theorem:
Fig 12.1
We know that f (c) is the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at x = c. Thus the
theorem simply states that between two end points with equal ordinates on the
graph of f, there exists at least one point where the tangent is parallel to the X
axis, as shown in the
Fig 12.1. After the geometrical interpretation, we now give you the algebraic
interpretation of the theorem.
Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle's Theorem:
We have seen that the third condition of the hypothesis of Rolle's theorem is that
f(a) = f(b). If for a function f, both f(a) and f(b) are zero that is a and b are the
roots of the equation f(x) = 0, then by the theorem there is a point c of (a, b),
where f (c) = 0, which means that c is a root of the equation f (x ) = 0.
Thus Rolle's theorem implies that between two roots a and b of f(x) = 0 there
always exists at least one root c of f (x ) = 0 where a < c < b. This is the
algebraic interpretation of the theorem.
Example 1:
Verify Rolles Theorem for the following:
2
2
(1) x in [1,1]
(2) x in 1, 3
Solution: (1) Let f x x 2 , x [1,1]
As f x is a polynomial in x, it is continuous and differentiable everywhere on
its domain. Also f 1 f 1 1
The conditions of the Rolles theorem are satisfied.
We may have to find some c [1,1] such that f c 0

Now f x x
f c 0 2c 0
f x 2x .
f c 2c.
c 0 and lies in [1,1]
Rolles Theorem is verified.
Let f x x 2 ,
x 1, 3
f x is polynomial in x. f(x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere on
its domain. i.e. (i) f is continuous on [1, 3] and (ii) f is differentiable in (1, 3).
2)
But we have f 1 1 and f 3 9 which are not equal.
The values of f at the end points are not equal i.e. f 1 f 3
The function x 2 in (1, 3) do not satisfy all the conditions of Rolles Theorem.
221
Example 2: Verify Rolles Theorem for f x x x 3 e x /2 in 3, 0
Solution: Given f x x x 3 e x /2 in 3, 0
(i) f x is continuous in 3, 0 since it is a product of continuous functions.
1
x 2 3x
(ii) f x 2x 3 e x /2 x 2 3x e x /2 = e x /2 2x 3
2
2
2
x2 x
= e x /2
3 exists in (-3, 0)
2
2
(iii) f 3 f 0 0.
All conditions of Rolles Theorem are satisfied. There exists c 3, 0 such

c2 c
that f c 0 e c /2 3 0
2 2
c2
c = 3, -2
3, 0
0 c2 c 6 = 0
3,
3, 0
Hence Rolles theorem is verified and c = - 2 is the required value.

x 2 ab
Example 3:
Verify Rolles Theorem for f x = log
x a b
a, b > 0
Solution:
is
continuous
in
(a,
b)
and
f x
log x 2 ab log x log a b
f x
2x
x 2 ab
f x
1
x 2 ab
x x x 2 ab
in a, b ;

exists, since it is not indeterminate or
infinite.
Also f a f b 0 All conditions of Rolles Theorem are satisfied.
There exists c a, b such that f c 0
c 2 ab
c c ab
(i.e.) c2 ab 0 c ab , which lies in (a, b).
Verify Rolles Theorem for f x
Example 4:
= e x sin x cos x
in
[ / 4, 5 / 4].
x
Solution: Since e , sinx, cosx are continuous and differentiable functions, the
5
5
given functions is also continuous in ,
and differentiable in ,
4 4
4 4
Also, f / 4 e /4 sin / 4 cos / 4 0
222
f / 4 = f 5 / 4 = 0
f 5 / 4 e 5 /4 sin 5 / 4 cos 5 / 4 0
Hence, Rolles Theorem is applicable.
Now, f x e x sin x cos x e x cos x sin x = 2e x cos x
5
c / 2 , which lies in ,
f ' c 2e c cos c 0
Verify Rolles theorem for f(x) = sin2 x , 0 x .
Example 5:
Solution: We have f(x) = sin2 x , 0 x

Since sin x is continuous and differentiable on [0, ], sin2 x is also continuous
and differentiable in the given domain. Now f 0 = f = 0
all the conditions of Rolles Theorem are satisfied.

The derivative of f x should vanish for at least one point c 0, such
f ' c sin 2c.
that f ' c 0 Now, f x
c 0,
Since c =
2 sin x cos x
sin 2x .
f ' c 0 sin 2c 0
2c
0, , 2 , 3 ,...
, ,...
lies in 0, , it is the required value. Hence Rolles theorem is

2
verified.
Example 6:
If f x , x , x are differentiable in (a, b) , show that there
f (a )
exists a value c in (a, b) such that f (b)
f (c)
(a )
(b)
(c)
(a )
(b) = 0
(c)
f (a )
Solution: Consider the function F x defined by, F(x) = f (b)
f (x )
(a )
(b)
(x )
(a )
(b)
(x )
Since f x , x , x are differentiable in (a, b) , F x is also differentiable in
a, b . Further,
F a 0 and F b 0 since in each case, two rows of the
above determinant becomes identical.
F a F b
Hence by Rolles Theorem, there is a value c a, b such that F c
f (a )
i.e f (b)
f (c)
Example 7:
(a )
(b)
(c)
(a )
(b) = 0
(c)
If f x
three real roots in [ 3, 0].
= x x 1 x 2 x 3
then show that f x
has
223
Solution: We apply Rolles Theorem to f x
in three intervals 1, 0 ,
2, 1 , 3, 2
We observe that

(ii)
f x is differentiable in all the intervals polynomial in x.
(iii)
f 3 f 2 f 1 f (0) 0.
Hence Rolles Theorem is applicable in all each interval such that f c 0
f x has three real roots.
(i)
f x is continuous in all the intervals since it is a polynomial in x.
Example 8:
Prove that between any two real roots of the equation,
e sin x 1 there is at least one roots of ex cos x 1 0 .
Solution: Let a and b be two real roots of the equation ex sin x 1

x
(i.e.) of sin x e
(i.e.) of ex sin x 0
Also, f a f b 0 . Since a and b are roots of f x .
Let f x e x sin x , which is continuous and differentiable.
By Rolles Theorem there is at least one real value c between a and b such
Now, f x = e x cos x
f c e c cos c
f ' c 0 e c cos c 0
that f ' c 0
e c cos c 0
ec cos c 1 0
c is a root of ex cos x 1 0 lying between a and b.

Example 9: Us Rolles Theorem to prove that the equation ax 2 bx
a b
3 2
has a root between 0 and 1.

Solution: Let f x =
ax 3 bx 2 a b
x which is obtained by integrating

3
2
3 2
the given equation.
is
f 0 f 1 0
Here
f x
continuous in
0,1

and differentiable in (0, 1) and
By Rolles Theorem there is a value c 0,1 such that f c 0
a b
Now, f x ax 2 bx and this is zero at x = c which means the
3 2
a b
equation, ax 2 bx has a root between 0 and 1.
3 2
224
Example 10:
one real root.
Show that the equation x 3 x 1 0 where x
has exactly
Solution: Let f x x 3 x 1, x
Since f x is a polynomial, it is continuous.

f 0 1 0 and f 1 1 0
Thus, using Intermediate value theorem, we get, there is a number c between 0

and 1 such that f c 0
Thus the given equation has a root.

Now, let if possible f x have two roots, say a and b. Then f a = f b 0 .
Since f x represents a polynomial, it is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous

on a, b
Thus by Rolles Theorem there exists a member c between a and b such that
f c 0
But f x 3x 2 1, x
f x 1,
Hence f x 0 for any x, which is a contradiction.
Thus, the equation f x = 0 cannot have two real roots.
The equation x 3 x 1 0, x
has exactly one root.
Check Your Progress

1.
Verify the validity of the conditions and the conclusion of Rolles
Theorem for the function f defined on the intervals as given below:
a)
b)
x 2 3x 2 on 1, 2
x2 6
log
on 2, 3
5x
c)
e x sin x on [0, ]
d)
ex sin x cos x on / 4, 5 / 4
e)
x 2 1 x 2 on 0,1
f)
x 1x 3 e x
in 1, 3
2.
Prove that the equation 2x 3 3x 2 x 1 0 has at least one root
between 1 and 2.
3.
Test whether Rolles Theorem holds true for f x = x in 1,1
sin x
in 0,
ex
4.
Verify Rolls Theorem for the function f x =
5.
3
Show that x 4 x 1 0 has exactly one real solution.
225
Ans:(1) c 3 / 2 (2) c / 4 (3) c (4) c
1
(5) c 3 2 2
2
12.1.2 LAGRANGES MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Theorem 6.1 : If y f x is a real valued function defined on a, b , such that,
(i) f x is continuous on a closed interval a, b , (ii) f x is differentiable in

(a,
b)
f b
then
there
f a
exists
at
least
one
point
a,b
such that
f c
12.1.3 Another form of Lagranges Mean value Theorem:

If (i) f x is continuous in the closed interval a, a h , (ii) f x
is
differentiable in the open interval (a, a + h) then there exists at least one number
in (0, 1) such that, f a h
f a
hf a
h
12.1.4 Geometrical Interpretation of the Langranges Mean Value
Theorem:
Let A a, f a and B b, f b be two points on the
f b f a
curve y f x . The slope m of the line AB is given by, m

=
b a
Also, f c
c, f c .
is the slope of the tangent at the point C

Lagranges Mean Value Theorem says that
there exists at least one point C c, f c on the graph

where the slope of the tangent line is same as the slope of
line AB. (i.e.) C is a point on the graph where the tangent
is parallel to the chord joining the extremities of the curve.
Physical Significance:

f b f a
We note that f b f a is the change in the function f x as x changes from

a to b, so that
b a
is the change rate of change of the function f x
over a, b . Also f c is the actual rate of change of the function for x c .

Thus the theorem states that the average rate of change of a function over an
interval is also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of the
interval.
12.1.5 Some Important Deductions from the Mean Value Theorem:
Definitions:(i)
Monotonically increasing function:
226
be defined in a, b . Let x1, x 2
a,b
(ii)
Monotonically decreasing function:
Let f x be defined in a, b . Let x1, x 2
a,b
Let f x
such that x 1
x 2 . If
such that x 1
x 2 . If
f x 2 then f x is said to be a monotonically increasing function.
f x1
f x1
f x 2 then f x is said to be a monotonically decreasing function.
Note:
(i)
If f x is monotonically increasing in a, b then we can write

f a f x f b for all x a, b . f a is its minimum value and f b is
its maximum value.

(ii)
If f x is monotonically decreasing function in a, b then we can
write, f a f x f b for all x a, b . f a is its maximum value and
f b is its minimum value.
(iii)
Let f x be differentiable in an interval (a, b). Let x1, x 2 a, b and
x1 x2 then applying Lagranges Mean Value Theorem to x1, x 2 , we get

f x2
x2
or f x 2
(1)
f x1
x2
f x1
f c
x1
x1 f c
(*)
0 for every value of x in a, b then from equation (*)
Let f x

f x 2 f x1
f x 2 f x1 0 for
x 2 x1
and f c
both are positive i.e.
We have thus proved: A function whose derivative is positive for every value of
x in an interval is a monotonically increasing function of x in that interval.
(2)
Let f x
0 for every value of x in (a, b) from equation we have,
f x 2 f x1 0
f x 2 f x1
for x 2 x1 is positive and f c negative.
Hence f x is a decreasing function of x.

We have thus proved: A function whose derivative is negative for every value of
x in an interval is a monotonically decreasing function to x in that interval.
Example 11: Verify mean value theorem for f x
Solution: The given function is f x
We know that f x
log x on 1, e
log x on 1, e
log x is continuous on 1, e and differentiable on (1, e).
Thus all the conditions of Lagranges mean value theorem are satisfied.
f e f 1
c 1, e such that
f c
e 1
227
log e log 1
f c
e 1
1
1
1
we get
e 1 c
x
Since loge = 1, log1 = 0 and f x
c e 1 which lies in the interval (1, 2) and hence in (1, e), since 2 < e < 3.
Example
2x
12:
15x
Separate
the
interval
in
which
the
polynomial
36x
10 is increasing or decreasing.
Solution: We have, f x = 2x 3 15x 2 36x 10
f x
6x 2
30x
36
f x is an increasing function if f x
(i)
i.e. 6x 2
30x
36
0. i.e. x 2
5x
But x 5x 6 (x 3)(x 2)
x 2 0 ) or ( x
x 2 5x 6 0 if ( x 3 0 and
x 2 0)
i.e.
if ( x 3 and x 2 ) or ( x 3 and x 2 )
i.e.
if x 3 or x < 2
Hence f x is an increasing function if x lies in , 2 or 3,

(ii)
f x is a decreasing function if f x
0 and
0.
i.e. 6x 2 30x 36 0
i.e.if x 2 5x 6 0
But x 2 5x 6 (x 3)(x 2)
x 2 5x 6 0 if ( x 3 0 and x 2 0 ) or ( x 3 0 and x 2 0 )
i.e.
if ( x 3 and x 2 ) or ( x 3 and x 2 )
i.e.
if x 3 and x 2 since x 3 and x 2 is impossible.

Thus f x is increasing in , 2 and 3, and f x is decreasing in (2, 3).
i.e.
if 2 x 3 f x is decreasing in (2, 3)
Example 13:
Find the interval in which f x
1
is increasing or
x
decreasing.
We have f x
Solution:
f x
(i)
f x
x2 1
x2
f x is an increasing function if f x
x2 1
0.
x2
2
i.e. if x 1 0.
2
i.e. if x 1 x 1 or x 1
i.e. if
1
x
1
x2
228
Hence f x is increasing in the interval ,1 and 1,
f x is a decreasing function if f x
(ii)
x2 1
0
x2 1 0
2
x
i.e. if x 1 1 x 1
0.
i.e if x 2 < 1.
i.e.
Hence f x is decreasing in (-1, 1).
x2
2
Show that if x 0, x
Example 14:
log 1
x2
for
2 1 x
x 0.
Solution: Let us assume, f x
log 1
x2
2
1
x2
1x
.
1x
1x
f x 0 for all x 0 except at x 0. and f (0) 0.

f x is an increasing function in 0,
f x increasing from 0 and hence f x 0 .
f x
log(1 x ) x
x2
, for x 0
2
(i)
Consider,
f x x
x2
2 1x
log 1 x
2x x 2
f' x 1
2 1x
1
x2
1x 2 1x
f x 0 for x 0 except at x 0 when it is zero.

f x increasing from 0 and hence f x 0.
f x is an increasing function in 0,
x2
2 1x
log 1 x for x 0.
(ii)
From (i) and (ii), x
x2
x2
log 1 x x
2
2 1x
for x 0.
229
Example 15:
Show that tan1 x tan1 y x y
Solution:
Let f x tan1 x
By Lagranges Theorem,
f b f a
f ' c
ba
x y
But,
tan 1 x tan 1 y
1
1c
1
1c
for
x c y
( c 2 is positive)
tan 1 x tan 1 y
1
x y
tan1 x tan 1 y x y
Example 16:
0 1
Solution:
log10 x 1
Show that
x log10 e
1 x
where
x 0
and
Let f x = log10 x 1
By second form of Lagranges MVT

For 0, x we have,
f a
f a
hf a
putting, a = 0 and h = x.
f x f 0 xf x

= 0 xf x xf x
But,
f x
x 1 loge 10
f x
But,
f x
1 x loge 10
xf
f'
x
log e
x log10 e
1 x
x
Applying Lagranges M.V.T. to e , determine in terms of a
and h. Hence deduce that, 0

Solution:
1 x
x 1 10 x
log x 1
Example 17:
log10 e
f x
Let f x e x
ex x
1
1.
log
x
x
f x ex
230
Now, f a h f a hf ' a h
ea h ea he
a h
ea eh 1 hea .e h
eh 1
h
eh 1
h log
h
eh 1
1
log
h
h
e h
But, 0 1
eh 1
1
1
log
h
h
Now by substituting h = x in the above equation, we get,

ex 1
1
1
0 log
x
x
b a
b a
tan 1 b tan 1 a
Example 18: Show that,
1 b2
1 a2
4
3
1
tan 1
Hence show that
4
4 25
6
3
Solution:
Let f x tan1 x in a, b
1
f x
1 x2
By Lagranges M. V. T.
f b f a
where c a, b
f c
b a
1
1 c2

tan 1 b tan 1 a
Since a c b,
(1)
b a
a 2 c2 b2
1 a 2 1 c2 1 b2
1
1
1
2
2
1a
1c
1 b2
From (1) and (2)
(2)
tan 1 b tan 1 a
1
b a
1 b2
1 a2
ba
ba
tan 1 b tan 1 a
2
1 b
1 a2
1
(3)
For the second part;

Since tan 1
we put a = 1 and b
4
in (3)
3
231
4 1
1
1 4
1
3
tan
tan 1 3
3
11
16
1
9
3
1
tan 1 4 .
4
3 6
4
25
b a
b a
for 0 a b
log b
a
b
a
1
1
Hence deduce that log 4
3 3
4
Solution:
Let f x log x in a, b
Example 19:
Prove that,
Since f x is (i) continuous in a, b and (ii) differentiable in (a, b)

f b f a
by Lagranges M. V. T. c a, b such that
f c
b a
But f x log x
1
1
f c
x
c
log b log a 1
b a
c
f x
(1)
But a c b,
1 1 1

a c b
(2)
From (1) and (2) we get,
b a
1 log b log a 1
b
b a
a
b
b a
b a
log b
a
b
a
For the second part a = 3, b = 4.
1
1
log 4
3 3
4
log b
log a
a
a
Check Your Progress

1.
Examine the validity of the conditions and the conclusions of LMVT for
the functions given below:
(i)
(ii)
e x on 0,1
x 2 4 on 2, 3
1
in 1 , 3
2
x
(iii)
(iv)
1
on
x
1,1
Ans : c log(e 1)
Ans : c 5
Ans : c 3 2
Ans:Not applicable
232
Apply LMVT to the function Log x in a, a h and determine in
1
1
1.
terms of and h. Hence deduce that: 0
x
log 1 x
2.
3. Applying LMVT show that:
(i)
tan 1 x
1 for x 0
x
1x
for 0 x 1
1
1
x 1
,
(iii)
x log 1 x
x
4. Prove that,
b a
2
(ii)
sin 1 x
1
1 x2
x 0.
b a
sin1 b sin1 a
1a
Hence deduce that,
1 b
0 a b
3
1
(ii)
sin 1 3
b
5
b 8
15
1
1
sin1 1
4
b
b 2 3
15
5. Separate the intervals in which the following polynomials are increasing or
(i)
decreasing.
(i) x 3 3x 2 24x 31 (ii) x 3 6x 2 36x + 7
[ Ans : (i)Increasing
, 2 , 4,
; Decreasing 2, 4
(ii)Increasing
6. Show that,
, 2 and 6,
x 1 log x
; Decreasing
2, 6 ]
x 1
for 1 x.
x
7. If f x x sin x cos x cos2 x then show that, 2 f x
2
12.2
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:
If functions f and g are (i) continuous in a closed interval [a, b], (ii) differentiable
in the open interval (a, b) and (iii) f x
0 for any point of the open interval
(a, b) then for some c a, b , f c g b

i.e.
g c
g b
g a
f c
f b
f a
g a
g c f b
f a
a c b.
12.2.1 Another form of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:

If two function f x and g x are derivable in a closed interval [a, a + h] and
f x
such that,
0 for any x in (a, a + h) then there exists at least one number 0,1
g a
g a
g a
f a
f a
f a
0 1
The equivalence of the two statements can be shown as in case of Lagranges

mean value theorem.
Remark:
233
(i)
Taking f x x , we can derive Lagranges mean value theorem. In
other words, we may easily see that Lagranges theorem is only a particular case
of Cauchy mean value theorem.
(ii)
Usefulness of this theorem depends on the fact that f and g are
considered at the same point c. If we apply LMVT to f and g separately then
f (b) f (a) (b a)f (c1 ), g(b) g(a ) (b a )g c2 for some c1, c2 a, b
12.2.2 Geometrical Application of Cauchys Mean Value Theorem:

Geometrically, we consider a curve whose paramedic equations are x g t ,
y f t , a t b . Then, slope of the curve at any point is,
dy
dx
f t
g t
Also the slope of the chord joining the end points Ag a , f a and
f b f a
g b g a
Bg b, f b is given by,
Thus under the assumption of Cauchy mean value theorem. If x 0 (a, b) such
that the tangent to the curve at [g(x 0 ), f (x 0 )] is parallel to the chord AB.
Example 20:
2].
Verify Cauchys MVT for the function x 2and x3in the interval [1,
Solution:
Let f x x 2 and let g x x 3 .
As f x and g x are polynomials (i) they are continuous on [1, 2], (ii) they are
differentiable on (1, 2) and (iii) g x
0 for any value in (1, 2)
Cauchys mean value theorem can be applied. If c
2c 2
3c 2
f c
f 2
f 1
g c
g 2
g 1
22
23
12
13
4
8
9c 14
1
1
3
c
7
14
9
1,2 such that,
2
3
3c 7
1, 2
Cauchy mean value theorem is verified.

Example 21: Using CMVT show that
a 0, b 0
a c b,

f x and g x are continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and
Solution:
Here,
sin b sin a
cot c,
cos a cos b
Let f x sin x and g x cos x .
for any c in (a, b), thus CMVT can be applied.
c a, b such that,
f c
f b
f a
g c
g b
g a
234
cos c
sin b sin a
sin c
cos b cos a
sin b sin a
cos a cos b
cot c
If in CMVT we write f x e x and g x e x show that c is
Example 22:
the arithmetic mean between a and b.
f x
Solution: Now f x e x and g x e x

If can be proved that function
and g x
are continuous on any closed
interval [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Also g x 0 and x a, b
c a, b such that,
Then CMVT can be applied.
f c
Now
ec
g c
e 2c and
f c
f b
f a
g c
g b
g a
eb ea
g b g a e b e a
f b f a
ea b where
c a, b
e 2c e ab
2c
a b
a, b
2
Thus, c is the arithmetic mean between a and b.
Example 23: Using CMVT prove that there exists a number c such that
0 a c b and f b
cf c log b
f a
. By putting f x x n
deduce that
1
lim n b n 1 log b.
n
Solution: Let
f x
be a continuous and differentiable function and
differentiability
g x log x .
Then f x and g x satisfy the condition of continuity and

of CMVT. Hence c a, b such that,
f c
f b
f a
1c
log b
log a
If f x x
f c
f b
f a
g c
g b
g a
f b
b
log b
1
n
1
log1
cf c log b
and g x log x then by putting a = 1 we get in the interval (1,
b)
1
f (a )
(1 n )c n
1c
1
1
n b n 1 log b c n .
where 1 c b
235
1 log b [ c n 1 as n ]
If 1 a b , show that there exists c satisfying a c b such
lim n b
n
Example 24:
that
log b
b2 a 2
2c 2
Solution: We have to prove that,
log b log a
b a
1
2c 2
This suggests us to take f x log x and g x x 2 Now, f x and g x are

continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and g x
b).
CMVT can be applied.
c a, b such that,
f c
f b
f a
g c
g b
g a
1
log b log a
c
2c
b2 a 2
log b log a
log b
0 for any c in (a,
b2 a 2
a
2c 2
b2 a 2
2c 2
Check Your Progress
1.
Find c of Cauchys mean value theorem for:
(i)
f x x ,
g x
1
,
x
x [a, b],
cos x on [0, ]
2
(iii) f x 3x 2, g x x 2 1 on 1 x 4. (iv)
a 0 (ii)
f x
sin x,
g x
g x e x on [0, 1]
(v)
x2
, x [1,1]
x2 1
(ii) 4 (iii) 5 2 (iv) 1 2
f x e x ,
f x e x , g x
[Ans :- (i)
ab
12.3
(v) 0.]
Summary
In this chapter we have learnt about the mean value theorems. The
Rolles theorem which is the fundamental theorem in analysis has been proved.
The Lagranges MVT and the Cauchys MVT have also been proved. Problems
based on these theorems have been done in order to understand the Mean Value
theorems. In the next chapter we are going to learn about Taylors theorem and
its applications.
12.4 Unit End Exercise:
1. Verify Rolles theorem for each of the following:
i) f ( x) ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) in [-1,1]
ii) f ( x) x( x 3)2 in [0,3]

iii) f ( x) tan 2 x in [0, ]
iv) f ( x) 4 x 2 in [-2, 2]
236
2. Verify LMVT for the following functions.
i) f ( x) x 2 1 in [-1, 1]
ii) f ( x) ( x 1)( x 4)( x 3) in [0, 7]
iii) f ( x) x( x 1)2 in [0, 2]

3. Find c of CMVT for the following:
i) f ( x) x 2 , g ( x) x3 in [1,2]
ii) f ( x) x 2 2 x 4, g ( x) x 3 in [0,2]
iii) f ( x) ( x 1)2 4, g ( x) x 1 in [0,2]

***********
237
APPROXIMATION, ERRORS AND EXTREMA
13
Unit Structure
13.1
Introduction
13.2
Objectives
13.3
Approximation
13.4
Maxima and Minima
13.5
Let Us Sum Up
13.1
INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have seen how we can successively differentiate a
function, partial differentiation of a function and also various mean value
theorems. Differential Calculus has various applications. Some of the physical
and geometrical applications we have seen before. Derivatives can also be used
to find maximum and minimum values of a function in an interval. The
maximum and minimum values are called extreme values of a function. The
extreme values can be absolute or can be local. The first derivative test and the
second derivative tests are used to determine the points of local extrema. In this
chapter we are going to use the differential calculus concept to answer questions
like:
(1)
What is the approximate value of sin1 ?
(2)
What is the error in calculating the area of a square, if the error in
calculating the side length was 1%?
(3)
What are the maximum and minimum values of a function in a given
interval?
13.2
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
compute the approximate value of a function at a given point.
compute error, relative error and percentage error
compute maxima and minima for a function in a given interval.

13.3
ERRORS and APPROXIMATION

Let z f ( x, y) be a differentiable function. Let x denote the error in x
and y denote the error in y. Then the corresponding error in z denoted by z is
given by:
z
z
x y
x
y
The above formula can be extended to more than two variables also. For
example, if u = f(x, y, z) then continuing with the same notations,
u
u
u
x y z .
x
y
z
Relative error: If z is an error in z then the relative error in z is given by:
z
.
z
238
Percentage error: If z is an error in z then the percentage error in z is given by:
z
100 .
z
Approximate value: If z is the calculated error value and z is the error in z then
the approximate value is given by: z + z .
Let us understand this with the help of some examples:
Example 1: The radius of a sphere is calculated to be 12 cm with an error of 0.02
cm. Find the percentage error in calculating its volume.
Solution: Given r = 12 cm and r = 0.02 cm. To find percentage error in volume
of the sphere. Let V denote the volume of the sphere. To find
V
100 .
V
4 3
dV
4
r V
r = 3r 2 r .
3
dr
3
4
3r 2 r
V
r
0.02
100 = 3
100 = 3
100 = 0.5
100 = 3
Thus,
4 3
V
r
12
r
3
Now, V =
The percentage error in calculating the volume is 0.5.
13.4
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
In this section, we shall study how we can use the derivative to solve
problems of finding the maximum and minimum values of a function on
an interval. We begin by looking at the definition of the minimum and the
maximum values of a function on an interval.
Definition : Let f be defined on an interval I containing c
1. f (c) is the (absolute) minimum of f on I if f (c) f (x) for all x in I.
2. f (c) is the (absolute) maximum of f on I if f (c) f (x) for all x in I.
The minimum and maximum of a function on an interval are called the
extreme values or extreme, of the function on the interval.
Remark : A function need not have a minimum or maximum on an
interval. For example f (x) = x has neither a maximum nor a minimum on
open interval (0,1). Similarly, f (x) = x 3 has neither any maximum nor any
minimum value in . See figures 13.1 and 13.2.
239
Fig. 13.2 f(x) = x 3, x
Fig. 13.1: f(x) = x, x (0, 1)
If f is a continuous function defined on a closed and bounded interval

[a,b], then f has both a minimum and a maximum value on the interval
[a,b]. This is called the extreme value theorem and its proof is beyond the
scope of our course.
Look at the graph of some function f (x) in Fig. 13.3.
Fig. 13.3
Note that at x = x0 , the point A on graph is not an absolute maximum
because f(x2) > f(x0). But if we consider the interval (a,b), then f has a
maximum value at x = x0 in the interval (a,b). Point A is a point of local
maximum of f. Similarly f has a local minimum at point B.
Definition : Suppose f is a function defined on an intervals I. f is said to
have a local (relative) maximum at c I if there is a positive number h
such that for each x I for which c h < x < c + h, x c we have f(x) >
f(c).
Definition : Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I. f is said to
have a local (relative) minimum at c I if there is a positive number h
such that for each x I for which c h < x < c + h, x c we have f(x) <
f(c).
Again Fig. 13.4 suggest that at a relative extreme the derivative is either
zero or undefined. We call the xvalues at these special points as critical
numbers.
240
Fig 13.4
Definition :
If f is defined at c, then c is called a critical number if f if f ' (c) = 0 or f is
not defined at c. The following theorem which we state without proof tells
us that relative extreme can occur only at critical points.
Theorem: If f has a relative minimum or relative maximum at x= c, then c
is a critical number of f.
If f is a continuous function on interval [a,b], then the absolute extrema of
f occur either at a critical number or at the end points a and b. By
comparing the values of f at these points we can find the absolute
maximum or absolute minimum of f on [a, b].
Example 2 : Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the following
functions in the given interval. (i) f(x) = x2 on [3, 3] (ii) f(x) = 3x4 4x3
on [1, 2]
Solution : (i) f(x) = x2, x [3,3]
Differentiating w.r.t. x., we get f(x) = 2x
To obtain critical numbers we set f(x) = 0. This gives 2x = 0 or x = 0
which lies in the interval (3,3).
Since f ' is defined for all x, we conclude that this is the only critical
number of f.
Let us now evaluate f at the critical number and at the end of points of [
3,3].
f (3) = 9
f (0) = 0
f (3) = 9
This shows that the absolute maximum of f on [3,3] is f (3) = f(3) = 9
and the absolute minimum is f (0) = 0
(ii) f(x) = 3x4 4x3 x [1, 2] f(x) = 12x3 12 x
To obtain critical numbers, we set f (x) = 0 or 12x3 12 x = 0 which
implies x = 0 or x = 1.
Both these values lie in the interval (1, 2)
Let us now evaluate f at the critical number and at the end points of [1,2]
f (1) = 7
f (0) = 0
f (1) = 1
f (2) = 16
This shows that the absolute maximum 16 of f occurs at x = 2 and the
absolute minimum 1 occurs at x = 1.
241
First Derivative Test

How do we know whether f has a local maximum or a local minimum at a
critical point c ? we shall study two tests to decide whether a critical point
c is a point of local maxima or local minima. We begin with the following
result which is known as first derivative test. This result is stated without
any proof.
Theorem : Let c be a critical point for f, and suppose that f is continuous
at c and differentiable on some interval I containing c, except possibly at c
itself. Then
(i) if f changes from positive to negative at c, that is, if there exists some h
> 0 such that c h < x < c, implies f(x) > 0 and c < x < c + h implies f(x)
< 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
(ii) if f changes sign from negative to positive at c, that is, if there exists
some h > 0 such that c h < x < c implies f(x) < 0 and c < x < c + h
implies f(x) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.
(iii) if f(x) > 0 or if f(x) < 0 for every x in I except x = c then f (c) is not a
local extremum of f.
Fig 13.5
Fig 13.6
As an illustration of ideas involved, imagine a blind person riding in a car.
If that person could feel the car travelling uphill then downhill, he or she
would know that the car has passed through a high point of the highway.
Essentially, the sign of derivative f '(x) indicates whether the graph goes
uphill or downhill. Therefore, without actually seeing the picture we can
deduce the right conclusion in each case. We summarize the first
derivative test for local maxima and minima as following:
First Derivative Test for Local Maxima and Minima
Let c be a critical number of f i.e., f(c) = 0
If f(x) changes sign from positive to negative at c then f (c) is a local
maximum. See fig 13.7. If f(x) changes sign from negative to positive at c
then f(c) is a local minimum. See fig 13.8.
Note : f(x) does not change, sign at c, then f(c) is neither a local
maximum nor local minimum.
242
Fig 13.7
Fig 13.8
Example 3: Find the local (relative) extrema of the following functions :
1
(i) f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 12x +7
(ii) f (x) = 2
(iii) f (x) = x.e x
x 2
Solution
(i) f is continuous and differentiable on R, the set of real numbers.
Therefore, the only critical values of f will be the solutions of the equation
f(x) = 0.
Now, f(x) = 6 x2 6 x 12 = 6( x 2)( x 1)
Setting f(x) = 0 we obtain x = 2, 1
Thus, x = 2 and x = 1 are the only critical numbers of f. Figure 13.9
shows the sign of derivative f in three intervals. From Figure 13.9 it is
clear that if x < 2, f(x) > 0; if
2 < x < 1, f(x) < 0 and if x > 1, f(x) > 0.
Fig 13.9
Using the first derivative test we conclude that f (x) has a local maximum
at x = 2 and f (x) has local minimum at x = 1.
Now, f (2) 2 = 2( 2) 3 +3( 2) 2 12(2) + 7 = 16 + 12 + 24 + 7 = 27
is the value of local maximum at x = 2 and f (1) = 2 + 3 12+ 7 = 0 is
the value of local minimum at x = 1.
(ii) Since x 2 + 2 is a polynomial and x 2 + 2 0 is continuous and
differentiable on R, the set of real numbers. Therefore, the only critical
1
values of f (x) = 2
will be the solutions of the equation f '(x) = 0.
x 2
243
Setting f(x) = 0 we obtain x = 0. Thus, x = 0 is the only critical number of

f. Figure 13.10 shows the sign of derivative in two intervals.
2x
Now f ( x) 2
( x 2)2
Setting f(x) = 0 we obtain x = 0. Thus, x = 0 is the only critical number of
f. Figure 24 shows the sign of derivative in two intervals.
Fig. 13.10
From Figure 13.10 it is clear that f '(x) > 0 if x < 0 and f '(x) < 0 if x > 0.
Using the first derivative test, we conclude that f(x) has a local maximum
at x = 0.
1
1
the value of the local maximum at x = 0 is
Now since f (0) 2
0 2 2
1/2.
(iii) Since x and e x are continuous and differentiable on R, f ( x) xe x is
continuous and differentiable on R.
Therefore, the only critical values of f will be solutions of f (x) = 0.
Now, f ( x) xe x 1e x ( x 1)e x
Since e x 0, x , f(x) = 0 gives x = 1. Thus, x = 1 is the only
critical number of f.
The figure below shows the sign of derivative f in two intervals :
It is clear that f(x) < 0 if
x < 1 and f (x) > 0 if x > 1
Using the first derivative test
we conclude that f(x) has a
local minimum at x = 1 and
the value of local minimum
is
f (1) = 1/e.
244
Second Derivative Test

The first derivative test is very useful for finding the local maxima and
local minima of a function. But it is slightly cumbersome to apply as we
have to determine the sign of f ' around the point under consideration.
However, we can avoid determining the sign of derivative f ' around the
point under consideration, say c, if we know the sign of second derivative
f at point c. We shall call it as the second derivative test.
Theorem : (Second Derivative Test)
Let f(x) be a differentiable function on I and let c I. Let f (x) be
continuous at c. Then
1. c is a point of local maximum if both f '(c) = 0 and f (c) < 0.
2. c is a point of local minimum if both f '(c) = 0 and f (c) > 0.
Remark : If f(c) = 0 and f(c) = 0, then the second derivative test fails. In
this case, we use the first derivative test to determine whether c is a point
of local maximum or a point of a local minimum.
We summarize the second derivative test for local maxima and minima
in the following table.
Second Derivative Test for Local Maxima and Minima
f (c)
f (c)
f (c )
0
0
0
+
0
Local Minimum
Local Maximum
Test Fails
We shall adopt the following step to determine local maxima and minima.
Steps to find Local Maxima and Local Minima
The function f is assumed to posses the second derivative on the interval I.
Step 1 : Find f ' (x) and set it equal to 0.
Step 2 : Solve f ' (x) = 0 to obtain the critical numbers of f. Let the
solution of this equation be , . We shall consider only those
values of x which lie in I and which are not end points of I.
Step 3 : Evaluate f () If f () < 0, f (x) has a local maximum at x = and
its value if f () If f () > 0, f (x) has a local minimum at x = and its value
if f () If f () = 0, apply the first derivative test.
Step 4 : If the list of values in Step 2 is not exhausted, repeat step 3, with
that value.
Example 4: Find the points of local maxima and minima, if any, of each
of the following functions. Find also the local maximum values and local
minimum values.
(i) f (x) = x3 6 x2 9 x 1 , x
245
(ii) f(x) = x3 2ax2 a 2 x (a 0), x

Solution:
(i) f (x) = 3x2 12 x 9 = 3( x 1)( x 3)

To obtain critical number of f, we set f (x) = 0 this yields x = 1, 3.
Therefore, the critical number of f are x = 1, 3.
Now f (x) = 6x 12 = 6(x 2)
We have f (1) = 6(1 2) = 6 < 0 and f (3) = 6(3 2) = 6 > 0.
Using the second derivative test, we see that f (x) has a local maximum at
x = 1 and a local minimum at x = 3. The value of local maximum at x = 1 is f
(1) = 1 6+ 9 +1 = 5 and the value of local minimum at x = 3 is
f (3) = 33 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 1 = 27 54 + 27 + 1 = 1.
(ii) We have f(x) = x3 2ax2 a 2 x (a 0)
Thus, f ( x) 3x2 4ax a 2 (3x a)( x a)
As f '(x) is defined for each x R, to obtain critical number of f we set
f '(x) = 0.
This yields x = a/3 or x = a.
Therefore, the critical numbers of f and a/3 and a. Now, f (a) = 6x 4a.
We have f (a / 3) 6(a / 3) 4a 2a 0
and f (a) 6a 4a 2a 0
Using the second derivative test, we see that f(x) has a local maximum at x
= a/3 and a local minimum at x = a.
The value of local maximum at x a / 3 is f (a / 3)

of local minimum at x = a is f (a) 0 .
4 3
a and the value
27
Check Your Progress

1. Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the following functions in
the given intervals.
(i) f(x) = 4 7 x + 3 on [2, 3]
(ii) f(x) =
x3
on [1,1]
x2
2. Using first derivative test find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
x 2
(i) f ( x) x3 12 x (ii) f ( x) , x 0
2 x
3. Use second derivative test to find the local maxima and minima of the
following functions.
(i) f ( x) x3 2 x 2 x 1, x
(ii) f ( x) x 2 1 x , x 1
246
13.5
LET US SUM UP
The chapter is, as suggested by the title, on applications of differential

calculus. In section 13.4, methods for finding out (local) maxima and
minima, are discussed and explained with examples.

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1

Concept of adjoint of a matrix.

Rank of a matrix and methods finding these.

a11 a12 a13 a1j a1n

Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters.

11) Symmetric Matrix:

A = determinant of A i.e det A= A

Note : for non-singular matrix A-1 exists.

Minor of an element a ij is a determinant of order (nd) by deleting the

. Mij Where M ij is minor of a ij .

A1 = The cofactor of A1 =(-1)11

B1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)1 2

C1 = The cofactor of b1 =(-1)13

Thus in the notations used,

Adjoint of a matrix A is denoted as Adj.A

1.3 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1: Find the inverse of the matrix by finding its adjoint

We find co-factors of the elements of A1 (Row-wise)

C.F . 2 1, C.F . 3 3, C.F . 1 1

Example 2: Find the inverse of matrix A by Adjoint method, if

Co factor of the elements of A are as follows

Check Your Progress:

prove that A= B.C-1

1.4 RANK OF A MATRIX

Consider e.g. Let

Definition:- Equivalent Matrix:

1.5 CANONICAL FORM OR NORMAL FORM

Example 6: Determine the rank of matrix

R 2 2R1 , R 3 3R1 , R 4 6R1 ,

C4 - 5C1 3C2 2C2

1.6 NORMAL FORM PAQ

We observe that, the matrix A can be expressed as

Note that, the row operations can be performed simultaneously on L.H.S.

Examples 8: Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in

P and Q are non-singular matrices

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Definition of matrix & its types.

Rank of the matrix using row & column transformation

1.8 UNIT END EXERCISE

Under what condition the rank of the matrix will be 3!

Find the rank of matrix A =

and non-homogeneous both with different case. Using matrix we can

2.3 CACONICAL OR ECHOLON FORM OF MATRIX

The elements in the remaining rows are zero.

No. of non-zero rows

Check Your Progress:

2.4 LINEAR ALGEBRIC EQUATIONS

Now we join matrices A and D

It is called as Augment matrix

( AD) ( A) then the system is consistent and if

( AD) ( A) Number of unknowns then the system is

( AD) ( A) Number of unknowns and has infinitely many

x1 , x2 , x3 .......x4 0, which is called a trivial solution.

R3 R3 +9R2 & R1 R1 2R2

Hence infinite solution as deferred upon value of

Example 4: Discuss the consistency of

Consider an Agumental matrix

The system is inconsistent and it has no solution.

We reduce to Echelon form

system is consist and has unique solution.

The system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions.

Check Your Progress:

2.5 LET US SUM UP

Using row echelon from finding Rank of matrix.