CONCRETE REPAIR WITH REALKALISATION

AND THE MANAGEMENT THEREOF

by

WA MUZEMBA TSHIBANGU

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

FOR PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

MAGISTER INGENERIAE
in

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
at the

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: Mr J. PRETORIUS

JUNE 1998

DEDICATION

To my wife JoeIle,
my children Kenny, Dan and Sarah.
For all your support during my studies.
This thesis is dedicated to you for your
love and confidence in me.

Anselme WM Tshibangu

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis was made possible through the contributions and support of a
number of people.
The encouragement and initial orientation of Prof. Pieter van der Merwe,
Dean of the Faculty of Engineering at Rand Afrikaans University, is highly
acknowledged.
The advises, guidance, patience, support, encouragement of Mr Johann
Pretorius, my supervisor, are gratefully acknowledged and appreciated.
The academic support and background gained through lectures willingly given
by Prof. L. Pretorius, Head of Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering at Rand Afrikaans University, Dr. Wessels, Mr. D. Kruger,
Department of Civil Engineering, R.A.U., and occasional and visiting
lecturers, are gratefully appreciated.
The logistic support of MM Louison Kabamba and K.T. Khally is
acknowledged.
I am especially grateful to my wife, my mother, my brothers, my parents-inlaw and all my friends for their support and encouragement during my studies.
Many thanks to God for making everything possible.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
SYNOPSIS
PART I
CHAPTER 1 :

CHAPTER 2

ii
iii
xii

INTRODUCTION

1
1
2

1.1

General remarks

1.2

Purpose of the study

1.3

Scope of the study

CONCRETE AND PROTECTIVE COATINGS

MATERIALS USED AND CHARACTERISTICS

5
5
5

2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.2.5

Concrete
General remarks
Constituents of concrete, structure and
chemistry of concrete
The composite
Aggregate phase
Hydrated cement matrix
Pores and voids
The states of water in hydrated cement paste

6
6
7
9
11
12

2.1.3
2.1.3.1
2.1.3.2
2.1.3.3
2.1.3.4
2.1.3.5
2.1.3.6
2.1.3.7
2.1.3.8
2.1.3.9
2.1.3.10
2.1.3.11

Admixtures for concrete

Accelerators
Retarders
Air entraining agents
Plasticisers or workability aids
Superplasticisers
Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA)
Condensate Silica Fume (CSF)
Nonchloride admixtures
Corrosion inhibiting admixtures
Dampproofing and waterproofing admixtures
Bonding aids

14
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
18
18
19
20

2.2
2.2.1

Protective coatings
Research trends of concrete polymer composites

21
21

2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2

iii

2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.4.1
2.2.4.2
2..2.5
2.2.5.1
2.2.5.2
2.2.5.3
2.2.5.4
2.2.5.5
2.2.5.6
2.2.5.7
2.2.5.8
2.2.6
2.2.6.1
2.2.6.2.
2.2.7

Chemistry of polymeric building materials

Reactions producing polymers
Polymer structures
Linear polymers
Branched polymers
Polymers properties
Bonding and response to temperature
Actions of solvents
Crystallinity in polymers
Molecular weight of polymers
Polymer solubility and solutions
Glass transition
Mechanical properties of polymers
Application of polymers
Types of polymers
Thermoplastic polymers
Thermosetting polymers
Organic polymers

21
22
23
23
23
24
24
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
27
27
27
28

2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.2.1
2.3.2.2
2.3.2.3
2.3.2.4

Principal resins used as protective coatings

General considerations
Types of coatings
Epoxyde resins
Polyurethane resins
Polyesters
Acrylic resins

28
28
29
29
29
30
30

2.4

Polymerized concrete

31

CHAPTER 3

DETERIORATION PROCESSES OF CONCRETE

AND FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DETERIORATION
OF CONCRETE
33

3.1

General considerations

33

3.2
3.2.1
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.2
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.4

Durability of concrete
Factors affecting the durability
Construction practices
Design
Material characteristics
Exposure conditions

33
34
35
36
37
37

3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2

Permeability of concrete
Carbonation of concrete
Decisive parameters
Effects of carbonation

38
39
43
44

iv

3.5
3.5.1
3.5.1.1
3.5.1.2

Chemical aggression to concrete

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
Alkalis in cement and concrete
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions (AAR)

45
46
46
47

3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3

Corrosion of steel in concrete

General remarks
Corrosion process
Corrosion in cracks region

48
48
49
51

3.4

Physical aggression to concrete

53

CHAPTER 4: PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION OF CAUSES

AND EH.E,CTS OF CONCRETE DEGRADATION

55

4.1

General remarks

55

4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.4.1
4.2.4.2
4.2.4.3
4.2.4.4

Defects and causes in various types

Architectural concrete
Formed concrete
Surface defects in flatwork
Cracks in concrete
Crazing
D-cracking
Cracks caused by stress concentration
Random cracks

55
55
56
57
58
59
59
59
60

4.3

Condition survey

62

4.4.
4.4.1
4.4.1.1
4.4.1.2

Planning an investigation
Overall Plan
Initial General Phase
Detailed phase

62
63
63
64

CHAPTER 5: INVESTIGATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF DEFECTS

IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

5.1General
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5

66
66

Non-Destructive Testing
Visual inspection
Sounding test
Covermeter survey
Carbonation depth
Non-destructive methods for
reinforcement corrosion

67
68
69
69
70
71

5.2.5.1
5.2.5.2

Half-potential method
Procedures

CHAPTER 6: REPAIR PROGRAMME

71
72
74

6.1

General remarks

74

6.2
6.3

Selection of repair materials and methods

Preparation of project plans and specifications

75
77

6.4
6.4.1
6.4.1.1
6.4.1.2
6.4.1.3
6.4.1.4
6.4.1.5
6.4.2
6.4.2.1
6.4.2.2
6.4.2.3
6.4.3

Substrate preparation
Concrete removal
Blasting methods
Cutting methods
Impacting methods
Presplitting methods
Spalling methods
Surface preparation
Chemical cleaning
Mechanical cleaning
Blast cleaning
Reinforcement preparation

79
79
80
80
80
80
81
81
82
82
82
83

CHAPTER 7: ELECTROCHEMICAL REALKALISATION,

A REVOLUTIONARY CONCRETE
REHABILITATION TECHNIQUE

85

7.1

Background

85

7.2

Introduction

85

7.3

Definition

86

7.4

Purpose of the realkalisation

86

7.5

Principle and description

of the realkalisation treatment
Preparation prior to realkalisation
The realkalisation process, step by step
Rebar connections
Installation of the anode system
The electrolyte
Basic process
Monitoring and control of the process
Dismantling
Advantages

87
87
88
88
88
89
90
91
92
93

7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.2.1
7.5.2.2.
7.5.2.3
7.5.2.4
7.5.3
7.5.4
7.5.5

vi

7.5.6
7.5.6.1
7.5.6.2
7.5.6.3

Effects of realkalisation on leaching,

durability and carbonation
Leaching of alkalis
Durability of coatings
Penetration of realkalisation and
its effect on carbonation

CHAPTER 8: MANAGEMENT OF A RELKALISATION PROJECT,

Case study of the Rand Afrikaans University

93
94
94
95

96

8.1

General remarks

96

I
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.1.1
8.2.1.2
8.2.2
8.2..2.1
8.2.2.2
8.2.2.3
8.2.2.4
8.2.2.5
8.2.2.6
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.4.1
8.2.4.2
8.2.4.3
8.2.5
8.2.6
8.2.6.1
8.2.6.2
8.2.6.3

Backgroung in project management

Initiation phase of a project
Introduction
Definitions
Why project management
Project initiation Project selection
Criteria for project selection models
The nature of project selection models
Types of project selection models
Base for selection
Project proposal
Project manager
Project organization
Types of organizations
Chosing an organization form
Human factors and the project team
Project plan
Negotiation and conflict resolution
Partnering
Chartering
Conflict and the project life

96
96
96
96
96
98
98
98
98
99
100
100
101
102
102
102
103
103
104
104
104
105

8.3
8.3.1
8.3.1.1
8.3.1.2
8.3.1.3
8.3.1.4
8.3.1.5
8.3.2
8.3.2.1
8.3.2.2
8.3.2.3
8.3.2.4

Project implementation
Budgeting and cost estimation
Introduction
Estimating project budgets
Budget request
Activity budgeting vs Program budgeting
Improving the process of cost estimation
Scheduling
Introduction
Network tecniques PERT and CPM
Gantt chart
Extensions of PERT

106
106
106
106
108
108
109
110
110
110
112
113
vii

8.3.2.5
8.3.3
8.3.3.1
8.3.3.2
8.3.3.3
8.3.3.4
8.3.4
8.3.4.1
8.3.4.2
8.3.4.3
8.3.4.4
8.3.4.5
8.3.4.6
8.3.5
8.3.5.1
8.3.5.2
8.3.5.3
8.3.5.4
8.3.5.5
8.3.5.6
8.3.5.7

Other methods
Resource allocation
Introduction
The critical path method
The resource allocation problem
Multiproject scheduling and resource allocation
monitoring and information systems
Introduction
The planning-monitoring-controlling cycle
Information needs and the reprting process
The earned chart value
Cost/schedule control system criteria (C/SCSC)
Computerized PMTS
Project control
Introduction
The fundamental purposes of control
Tree types of control processes
Control as a function of mangement
Balance in control system
Control of creative activities
Control of change

113
114
114
114
115
118
120
120
120
121
121
122
122
123
123
123
124
126
126
126
126

8.4
8.4.1
8.4.1.1
8.4.1.2
8.4.1.3
8.4.1.4
8.4.1.5
8.4.1.6
8.4.2
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.4.2.3
8.4.2.4
8.4.2
8.4.3.1
8.4.3.2
8.4.3.3
8.4.3.4

Project termination
Project auditing
Introduction
Purposes of evaluation
The project audit
Constructions and use of the audit report
The project audit life cycle
Some essential of an audit/evaluation
Project termination
The varieties of project termination
When to terminate a project
The termination process
The final report, a project history
Multicultural, environmental and unsolved issues
Introduction
Problems of cultural differences
Impact of institutional environments
Multicultural, communication and managerial
Behaviour
Three critical, unsolved problems
Disputes

127
127
127
127
128
129
130
130
130
131
132
133
133
134
134
134
134
135
135
136

Realkalisation management: case study of

The Rand Afrikaans University

136

8.4.3.5
8.4.3.6
II

CHAPTER 9:
REFERENCES
ANNEXES

8.5

Historic of the university buildings

136

8.6
8.6.1
8.6.2

137
138

8.6.3
8.6.4
8.6.5

Project initiation
Field assessment to quantify damage
Considerations after site
inspection and testing
Alternative options
Choosing a repair strategy
Feasibilities issues

139
139
140
146

8.7

Cost of realkalisation

147

8.8
8.8.1
8.8.2
8.8.3
8.8.4

Definition of the project

Project specification
Implications of the project
Constraints on the project
Project proposal

149
149
150
150
151

8.9

Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality

Control (QC) during a realkalisation treatment

151

8.10
8.10.1
8.10.2
8.10.3

Tendering and Contract

Tendering
Contract documents
Planning scheduling

152
152
153
154

8.11
8.11.1
8.11.2
8.11.3
8.11.4
8.11.4.1
8.11.4.2
8.11.4.3

Reakalisation project implementation

Installation design
Survey
Preparation prior to installation
Installation and treatment
Installation
Treatment and monitoring
Contract supervision

154
154
155
156
156
156
157
158

8.12
8.12.1
8.12.2
8.12.3

Realkalisation project termination

Dismantling
Project auditing
Post-treatment analysis and maintenance

159
159
159
159

CONCLUSIONS

160
163
16 7

ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3

Polished section from a concrete specimen

7
Diagrammatic representation of the transition zone 8
Diagrammatic representation
of bleeding in concrete
9
Figure 2.4
Rate of hydration of the cement compounds
10
Figure 2.5
Simplified model of paste structure
12
Figure 2.6
Model of a well-hydrated cement paste
13
Figure 2.7
Types of water associated with Ca-Si hydrate
14
Figure 2.8
Influence of Aluminate/Sulfate on cement pastes
16
Figure 2.9
Flocculated cements particles in Portland cement
17
Figure 2.10 Role of the molecular structure in polymer science 22
Figure 2.11 Representation of different types of coatings
31
Figure 3.1
Typical cracking map for normal concrete
36
Figure 3.2
Schematic representation of carbonation process
39
Figure 3.3
Schematic representation of oven-dried partly
carbonated concrete
41
Figure 3.4
Schematic representation of water saturated
partly carbonated concrete
41
Figure 3.5
Schematic representation partly carbonated
concrete, dried at normal RH
41
Figure 3.6
Description of water permeability test
43
Figure 3.7
Evolution of the structure of cement pastes
Figure 3.8
Assessment of concrete quality
Figure 3.9
Progress of carbonation with time of exposure
Figure 3.10 Dependence of atmospheric corrosion rate
on moisture
Figure 3.11 Corrosion process on the surface of steel
Figure 3.12 Factors controlling rate of corrosion
of steel in concrete
Figure 3.13 Termination of corrosion process due to crack
Figure 3.14 Diagrammatic representation of
cracking-corrosion-cracking cycles in concrete
Figure 3.15 Expansion and cracking of concrete due to
Corrosion of the embedded steel
Figure 3.16 Description of the corrosion process in two
identical concretes
Figure 4.1
Chart showing causes of cracking in concrete
Figure 4.2
Schematic description of the corrosion process
Figure 4.3
Schematic presentation of damage to concrete
cover due to the formation of rust

44
45
46
49
50
51
52
52
53
53
59
60
61

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 7.1
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4

Schematic description of types of damages to

concrete cover due the formation of rust as the
61
function of the position of the reinforcing steel
Stages in investigation of a concrete reinforced
65
structure
67
Subsurface radar
Resistivity measurement using non-damaging
68
Four-probe technique
Schematic diagram of equipment for half-cell
72
potential tests
73
Half-cell potential measurement
RAU concrete repair pilot project,
77
disposition of test panels
Schematic description of steps in repair operation 79
Schematic description of the cross-section
80
of repaired section
87
Principle of the realkalisation
144
Schematic description of cathodic protection
Migration of ions in protection cathodically
144
protected reinforced concrete
Electrical circuit in impressed current
145
cathodic protection
148
Schematic description of the corrosion process

xi

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Table 5.1
Table 8.1

Bond energy
24
Carbonation rate vs relative humidity
42
Contributors to surface blemishes in
formated concrete
57
Indicators used for carbonation depth measurement 70
Principles of protection and repair of damage by
reinforcement corosion
141

xii

SYNOPSIS
Maintaining and repairing building stock, repair and replacement of the infrastructure,
has been a facet of the European building industry for more than 50 years.
Deterioration of structures to a level that renders them unusable is a more recent
occurrence in South Africa.
World-wide changes in the proportion of construction expenditure on new
construction and repair and refurbishing of existing structures has occurred only the
last two decades. Today, nearly 50 % of such expenditure is on repair and renovation
in comparison to proportions of 30 % of previous years. Projections indicate that this
trend will continue at least to the next coming century. 1171 Such a substantial
proportion of construction expenditure must be expected to influence the market for
repair materials, specialized techniques and services. Therefore, a good understanding
of the all range of modern concrete repair materials, associated techniques and
services as well as latest developments in concrete rehabilitation technology is a
prerequisite for designers and users of concrete structures.
The following pages attempt to present the basic background of modern concrete
repair approaches with regard to the intended use of building structures. They will
also deal with the management of a repair project with realkalisation as a remediation
strategy. The present condition of the Rand Afrikaans University main campus
buildings will serve as a case study model.

PART I
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL REMARKS
The important aspect in concrete repair is to establish the nature and severity of the
service environment, to properly asses how much degradation has occurred, and to
reasonably estimate the intended service life of a particular building structure. From
these factors, and knowing relationships of environmental influences on construction
materials and procedures, criteria for selection of materials and techniques can be
developed in order to give repair operations a reasonable probability of success.
Today's designers must make material selection from a perpetual increasing variety
of new building products and materials. Materials properties must be systematically
analyzed to arrive at the most appropriate use and application in repair and
refurbishment. The prospective user of these materials coming from a myriad of
products available, must have a good knowledge of which materials and associated
repair techniques are the most suitably qualified for an intended use. This can be
achieved on the basis of performance specifications and testing, from which he can
obtain information on physical criteria that are important and crucial in any particular
case. Eventually, an adequate selection of the best repair materials and techniques can
be carried out easily.
1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Previous works on the repair of concrete structures have been done by many
researchers. These studies provide a wide range of information on the concrete itself
as well as on the repair techniques appropriate for various specific cases and
circumstances.
The purpose of this study is to provide, specially for owners and users of concrete
building structures, a certain background on the concrete and its associated
degradation problems and mechanisms, and to give, in a further stage, an effective
approach for the selection of repair materials that can be used successfully in
association with suitable repair methods and strategies.
The classification of repair materials and methods is generally done on the basis of
various aspects commonly considered during engineering approaches. Amongst these
aspects are the ease of application, the cost, the durability, the available labour skills,
the equipment, and so on. Data on the service life of repair materials are essential for

effective selection, use and maintenance, and also for assessment of the performance
as a function of cost and thereby to enable the selection of the most economically
attractive option.
1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

In a first instance, the present study deals mainly with concrete, deterioration of
concrete structures, repair strategies, materials and methods. Practical information on
the management of a repair project is provided further. A particular attention is given
to problems arising in the use of concrete, the suitability of materials, the conditions
under which concrete may deteriorate, and the precautionary or remedial measures
that can be employed at a reasonable cost. The study consists of nine chapters.
An introductory approach of the main topic of the study is made in the first chapter.
This chapter includes a general remarks section, an outline of the purpose of the study
and short additional comments on the scope of the study.
Theory of the "concrete", its main constituents and the protective materials
commonly used to prevent its deterioration are the main subject of the second chapter.
Besides giving a brief summary on the composition and the workability of the
concrete, this part of the study prepares the reader for a better understanding of
diverse phenomena related to the concrete degradation process and the various means
that are used for its protection, specially polymer resins.
Factors that contribute to the degradation of concrete are examined in the third
chapter. In this chapter the author tries to outline the behaviour of concrete under
various environmental conditions. The factors controlling the deterioration process of
concrete structures are only considered for common concrete buildings and structures.
Other civil structures such as factories, dams, and marine constructions are not
considered here because being beyond the scope of this study.
Planning and investigation of causes and effects of concrete degradation are
addressed in the fourth chapter. A large description of evaluation methods used for
planning and investigation is given in this chapter. Besides that, the required
equipment and expertise are also outlined.
A short description of the ways of diagnosing defects in concrete structures is made in
the fifth chapter of this study. Provision is also made on how information derived
from investigation can be utilized to seleCt appropriate repair materials and methods.
Finally, different methods used for the investigation of concrete defects, specially
non-destructive methods, are shortly described
The basic principles of a repair program concerning concrete structures suffering
from surface damages due to the corrosion of the reinforcing steel are set out in
chapter 6. This chapter gives not only the principles of a repair operation but also
additional details on the most effective way to conduct the selection of a repair

strategy and its associated techniques. A description of the way to prepare a repair
project plan after selecting repair materials and techniques is also provided. The
preparation of the substrate before carrying out a repair operation is also part of this
chapter.
Electrochemical realkalisation of concrete as a means of rehabilitation of building
structures is largely discussed in the seventh chapter. Being a recent repair technique
in the building repair business, this method's economic and aesthetic aspects are
analyzed and compared to traditionally used methods, in order to determine whether
or not this technique adds value to those conventionally known before. Further in the
chapter, on the basis of experiments conducted in Finland, technical comments are
made on the monitoring of realkalised structures as well as on the effectiveness of the
realkalisation process itself.
Each concrete building owner should be familiar with repair projects related to
concrete. Evaluation of the condition of concrete structures should be done on a
regular basis. The maintenance of structures and the cost incurred by such activity are
discussed as a repair project management case in chapter 8. Life-cycle costs of a
building structure service are also analyzed in this chapter. To render things more
realistic, the present condition of the main campus buildings of the Rand Afrikaans
University has been taken as a live example.
At a last stage and as general conclusions to this study, recommendations are made to
the Rand Afrikaans University about repair strategies, materials and techniques that
are suitable for the presently under execution infrastructures rehabilitation around the
university and for any future repair project that will involve the existing building
structures.

CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE & PROTECTIVE COATINGS,
MATERIALS USED AND CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 CONCRETE
2.1. 1 General remarks

Concrete has the largest production of all man-made materials. It is estimated that a
ton of concrete is produced annually for every human being on earth. Concrete
possesses many advantages over other materials, including low cost, general
availability of raw materials for its production, adaptability, low energy requirement,
the ability to be utilized under different environmental conditions, and a capacity to
be incorporated into various waste materials and industrial by-products.
Concrete is the best of materials, it is the worst of materials. It is the material used
with beauty and flare in the Union Building, Pretoria. It is also the material used for
the construction of most of the Rand Afrikaans University buildings. It has mundane
and spectacular uses. Some examples of its use are still in existence after a thousand
years; some of its recent application have deteriorated rapidly and have had to be
demolished for many reasons including lack of maintenance, inappropriate
workmanship and materials used, severe environmental conditions etc. However it
becomes evident that in the foreseeable future, concrete will continue to be the
dominant material in construction.
Although good concrete should have excellent durability, the fact that billions of
money are spent annually over the world on repairs is evidence that there are still
many unresolved problems associated with its use, namely, design and detailing,
mismatch of materials used in repair, workmanship, and its ability to withstand undue
exposure to abnormally aggressive environments.
Concrete is one of the most versatile of construction materials. It presents many faces
to the public and is perceived in many ways in the modern world. Many of its
applications are in combination with steel reinforcement and in this sense any
examination of its performance is a tale of the two materials.
Steel and concrete are complementary in several areas of their properties. Steel is
strong in tension but, when used in the form of rod reinforcement, is not able to resist

large compressive loads because of buckling instability. Concrete is weak in tension

but strong in compression. Its mass provides stability against buckling failure of
contained reinforcement by preventing any lateral movement of these bars.
Unprotected steel is subject to corrosion under normal atmospheric exposure but, to a
certain extent, concrete is superficially and chemically stable under these conditions.
Concrete has an alkaline pH. This alkalinity of concrete provides a passive
environment where steel is less likely to corrode. Steel and concrete possess similar
coefficients of thermal expansion and so when they are combined they do not exert
undue strains on one another when subject to wide temperature extremes.
2.1.2 Constituents of concrete, structure ancichemistry of concrete

About concrete, G. Somerville said one day: "Both good and bad concrete are made
from the same materials ".
Concrete starts to exist as a fluid mixture of manufactured and natural ingredients,
some of which take part in a chemical reaction to produce the hardened stone-like
product. Therefore concrete is a synthetic stone produced when cement is mixed with
a fine aggregate (sand), a coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone), and water. In
South Africa, usually Portland cements used.
The intended use of concrete dictates the proportioning of the main ingredients and
the choice of the cement type and particle size gradations. Graded aggregates act as
filler whereas admixtures act to modify some of the properties of the concrete in the
fluid or hardened states.
The cement may be Portland cement or a mixture of Portland cement and other
hydraulic cements or pozzolanic materials such as fly ash, blast- furnace slag or
microsilica. The chemistry of concrete is primarily related to the chemical and
mineral reactions that progress during the hardening of concrete. This also includes
the interactions that chemical and mineral admixtures have on the plastic and
hardened states of the concrete.
The properties of concrete originate from its internal structure, and modifications of
these properties result from changes occurring within the structure. Therefore, an
understanding of the elements of concrete structure is essential for appreciation of the
structure and property relationships.
2.1.2.1 The composite

Macrostructure of the concrete is the gross structure of a material that is visible to the
naked human eye. In the macrostructure of concrete two phases are readily
distinguished: aggregates of varying shapes and size, and the binding medium, which
consists of an incoherent mass of the hydrated cement paste ( see Figure 2.1) [37] .

Figure 2.1 Polished section from a concrete specimen. [37]

Therefore concrete may be considered to be a two phase material consisting of

aggregate particles dispersed in a matrix of the hydrated cement paste. A third phase
exists in the vicinity of large aggregates particles. This phase is called the transition
zone. In this zone the hydrated cement paste is very different from the bulk paste or
mortar. It is usually weaker than other components of concrete, and therefore exerts a
significant influence on the mechanical behaviour of concrete. Figure 2.2 is a
diagrammatic representation of the transition zone and bulk cement paste in concrete.
The structure of concrete is heterogeneous and dynamic in nature. Heterogeneous
because of the multicharacter of the composite and dynamic because the structure of
the hydrated cement paste changes with time, environmental exposure (e.g. humidity,
salt ingress, etc.) and temperature.
2.1.2.2 Aggregate phase
Aggregates are used in concrete as inert fillers to bulk on the volume and they are not
intended to take part in the hydration reaction. However their properties, particularly
grading and particle shape, can have marked effects on the plastic behaviour of
concrete, which have consequences for its long term performance in the hardened
state.

C-A-S-H
C-S-H

CH

( E t ring it e )

O
(b)

)11(

AGGREGATE NI
Transition Zone

Bulk Cement Paste

Figure 2. 2 Diagrammatic representation of the transition zone

and bulk cement paste in concrete. (37)

Aggregates used in the production of concrete include both a fine and coarse fraction,
and the relative proportion of the two-aggregates are chosen to yield a minimum of
voids in the mixture. Minimum of voids is wanted to avoid a porous concrete that can
facilitate the ingress of damaging moisture, gases, chemicals and other aggressive
particles or products.
The porosity and friability of aggregates will have a direct influence on the strength
of concrete, whereas the shape and texture of the coarse aggregates particles also
affects strength indirectly through a phenomenon known as internal bleeding, which
occurs when water films accumulate next to the aggregate surface weakening the
cement paste -aggregate transition zone. This occurs generally for mixes containing a
high proportion of elongated and flat particles. A diagrammatic representation of
bleeding in freshly deposited concrete is shown in Figure 2.3.
The aggregate phase significantly influences the density, elastic modulus, and
dimensional stability of concrete. The properties of concrete depend on the physical
characteristics (e.g., volume and size) of the aggregates rather than their chemical or
mineralogical composition. However some mineral types present in certain
aggregates have been found to take part in a reaction with alkalis from cement,
resulting in disruptive expansive force which makes the chemical and mineralogical
characteristics of aggregates an important parameter to be considered.
Most concrete aggregates are stone, sand or gravel from naturally occurring deposits,
but some manufactured aggregates of clinker or slag are sometimes used. Special
lightweight aggregates are also manufactured from clay or pulverized fuel ash.

VISIBLE BLEED
WATER

INTERNAL
BLEED
WATER

Figure 2.3 Diagrammatic representation of bleeding in concrete. [371

Properties of aggregates for use in concrete are covered by some standards such as BS
(British Standards), SAGS (South African Bureau of Standards), etc.
A number of problems may arise because of the use of aggregates with imperfect
properties, which are mainly related to particle shape and grading. Poor grading may
lead to excessive bleeding and segregation. Bleeding is an upward movement of
water in the concrete mix which may lead to the formation of a much weaker layer on
the surface of the hardened concrete, which is susceptible to attack. The bleed
channels provide a passage way by which aggressive agencies can find their way into
the body of the hardened concrete. The upward bleeding of water may be
accompanied by downward movement of other ingredients of the mix, resulting in
cracking. Aggregate which contain an excess of fine materials have a high water
demand resulting in a less durable concrete.
2.1.2.3 Hydrated cement matrix

Anhydrous Portland cement clinker is formed from a heterogeneous mixture of

several minerals produced by high temperature reactions. The chemical composition
of the principal clinker mineral corresponds approximately to:
3 Ca 0. Si 02 , 2 Ca 0. Si02 , 3 CaO. Al e 03 and 4 CaO. Al2. Fe203.

(2.1)

In addition, gypsum (Ca SO4 . 21420) or anhydrite (Ca SO 4 ) are added during the
grinding of the clinker.t il
When water is added to cement, all four of the main anhydrous constituents react with
water. The reaction of these minerals is known as hydration.

FR

80

2 60
-o
_c

20

40

60

80

100

Time (days)

100

aR

80
Alite

Ferrite

60

Belite
40

rn
0

20

20

40

60

80

100

Time (days)

Figure 2. 4 Rate of hydration of the cement

compounds: (a) in pure compounds.
[39j
(b) in a Type I cement paste.

The initial hydration reactions that occur involve the solubilization of the 3 CaO .
A1203 and calcium sulphate, during which the liquid phase gets rapidly saturated with
various ionic species. combination between Ca 2+ , S042", Al' and OH- occur within a
few minutes of hydration producing needle-shaped crystals of calcium sulfoaluminate
hydrate (ettringite). (11 This is followed by the appearance of large prismatic crystals of
calcium hydroxide and the formation of very small fibrous crystals of calcium silicate
hydrate which begin to occupy the formerly held by water and the dissolving cement
particles. 141
Hydration of cement compound is exothermic. Rates of hydration reaction are shown
in the Figure 2.4. The most important solid in hydrated cement paste is calcium
silicate hydrate gel. ASTM Type I is the cement most commonly used in general
construction where no special properties are needed or specified.
(CaO . Si02 . H2O) a non stoichiometric material which makes up 50 % to 60 % of
the solids in a completely hydrated Portland cement paste.E 11
This gel determines the properties of the paste. Its strength is attributed chiefly to the
degree of polymerization and accompanying van der Waals forces which are
intramolecular forces.
Other components of the paste include unhydrated cement grains, calcium
sulfoaluminates, and the large hexagonal prism crystals of calcium hydroxide. Due to

10

the lower surface area, their contribution to strength is limited. The presence of a
considerable amount of calcium hydroxide in the hydrated paste has an adverse effect
on chemical durability to acidic solutions because calcium hydroxide is more readily
soluble than calcium silicate hydrate gel.
Depending on the degree of hydration, some unhydrated cement grains may be found
in the hydrated paste long after the initial rate of hydration has slowed down. With the
progress of hydration, the grains tend to dissolve and to be assimilated into paste
system. Figure 2.6 is a model of hydrated Portland cement paste which shows the
relationships between the various components of the hydrated paste.
2.1.2.4 Pores and voids
The hydrated paste, in addition to the solids described above, contains a variety of
voids or pores which exert an important influence on the properties of concrete. The
smallest pores are the interlayer spaces within the C-S-H structure. These pores are
said to occupy 28 % of the total volume of the hydrated paste.
The total volume of paste pores increases with the progress of the hydration. The void
size of the interlayer pores is too small to have an adverse effect on the strength and
permeability of the concrete paste. However, water in these pores can be held by
hydrogen bonding, and its removal under certain conditions may contribute to drying
shrinkage and creep.
Capillary pores represent the space originally occupied by water which subsequently
becomes filled by the solid hydration products. In well-hydrated, low w/c (
water/cement) ratio pastes, the size of the capillary pores may range from 10 nm to
50 nm . In high w/c ratio the size may be as large as 3m to 50 p.m at ages less than
28 days. Figure 2.5 shows a model of a well-hydrated Portland cement paste. A
represents aggregation of poorly crystalline C-S-H particles which have at least one
colloidal dimension (1 to 100 nm). H represents hexagonal crystalline products. C
represents capillary cavities or voids which exist when the spaces originally occupied
with water do not get completely filled with the hydration products of the cement. (371
Capillary pores form an interconnected system randomly distributed throughout the
cement paste and they are mainly responsible for the permeability of hardened cement
paste and its vulnerability to frost. The volume of capillary pores is therefore reduced
with the progress of hydration.

11

Figure 2. 5 Simplified model of paste structure. Solid dots represent gel particles;
interstitial spaces are gel pores, spaces such as those marked C are capillary pores.
Size of gel pores is exaggerated. [411

The total volume of capillary pores, known as the porosity, has often been used as a
measure of the quality concrete. However, more recent work has shown that the pore
size distribution is a better criterion for evaluating the characteristics of a concrete. 1111
Capillary pores larger than 50 nm are assumed to be detrimental to strength and
durability, while pores smaller than 50 nm are thought to influence drying shrinkage
and creep.

Air voids are of two types, entrapped and entrained. Entrained air voids are formed
when a chemical admixture is added to concrete to purposely entrain small air voids
in the cement paste. They are generally spherical and usually range in size from 50
p.m to 200 p.m Entrapped air voids in the cement paste are much larger than capillary
pores, they adversely affect strength and impermeability.
2.1.2.5 The states of water in hydrated cement paste

Water is usually the least troublesome of the ingredients of concrete in most of the
location where construction takes place. Potable water is perfectly suitable for
concrete production. Cement paste is hygroscopic owing to the hydrophilic character
of cement coupled with the presence of submicroscopic pores. The actual water
content of the paste depends on the ambient humidity and porosity of the paste. Water
exists in the cement paste in the following states:

Capillary water is present in voids larger than 50 A and constitutes the "bulk" water
which is free from the influence of the attractive forces exerted by the solid surface.
The water in the larger voids (greater than 50 nm) may be considered as "free" water
because its removal does not cause any volume change. The water in the small
capillaries (5 nm to 50 nm) is held by capillary tension and its removal may cause
shrinkage of the system. The water held by the surface forces of the paste particles is
called "absorbed" water. The loss of a major portion of the absorbed water is mainly
responsible for the shrinkage of the cement paste on drying. Part of the water that is
held between the surfaces of certain planes of the C-S-H structure is called interlayer
water. A representation of the probable C-S-H structure with the associated water is

12

shown Figure 2.6. [37] A represents aggregation of poorly crystalline C-S-H particles
which have at least one colloidal dimension (1 to 100 nm). Inter-particle spacing
within an aggregation is 0.5 to 3.0 nm (average 1.5 nm). H represents hexagonal
crystalline products such as CH, C4ASH18. C 4AH 1 9. They form large crystals,
typically 1 pm wide. C represents capillary cavities or voids which exist when the
spaces originally occupied with water do not get completely filled with the hydration
products of cement. [37] The size of capillary voids ranges from 10 nm to 1 pm, but in
well-hydrated, low water/cement ratio pastes, they are < 100 nm. [371

p,m

Figure 2. 6 Model of a well-hydrated Portland cement paste. 1371

For investigation purposes, it is convenient to classify water in the hydrated cement as

either evaporable or non evaporable. In general terms, the non-evaporable water
contains nearly all chemically combined water and also some water not held by
chemical bonds. The evaporable water includes free water (capillary) and some
absorbed water. In a well-hydrated cement, the non-evaporable water is about 18 %
by weight of the anhydrous material. This proportion rises to about 23 % in fully
hydrated cement. The classification of different forms of water in a cement paste is
useful in understanding the volume changes in cement paste that are associated with
the water held by small pores. Figure 2.7 shows the types of water associated in the
calcium silicate hydrate.
-

13

Interlayer
water

Capillary
water
Physically
adsorbed
water

Figure 2. 7 Types of water associated with the calcium silicate hydrate.

[37]

2.1.3 Admixtures for concrete

A simple definition of an admixture is that it is a chemical compound that is added to

concrete, mortar or grout at the time of mixing for the purpose of imparting some
additional and desirable characteristic(s) to the mix. Admixtures are sometimes
referred to as "additives", but we find that it is better to use the latter word for the
addition of chemical compounds to cement at the cement works, where they are
ground-in at the time of manufacture. Admixtures should only be used when they are
really required to produce a particular result that cannot be obtained by normal mix
design. Admixtures should not be used with any cement except ordinary and rapid
hardening Portland cement without the approval of the cement manufacturer. The
following are the main purposes for which admixtures are used:
To accelerate the setting of the cement and the hardening of the concrete, mortar or
grout. These compounds are known as accelerators.
To retard the setting of the cement and slow down the rate of hardening of the mix.
Admixtures acting in this way are known as retarders.
To entrain air in the mix. These compounds give an air-entrained mix, which
should not be confused with an aerated mix. The latter is obtained by quite
different compounds and is used for different compounds and for different
purposes. Compounds belonging to the former group are known as air entraining
agents.
As expanding agents in mortar and grout to neutralize the effect of drying
shrinkage.
-

2.1.3.1 Accelerators

Accelerators can be useful in cold weather and urgent repair work, such as work
between the tides and patching of floors. The great majority of accelerators used in
concrete are based on calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) as the active ingredient. The use of
this compound, apart from speeding up the chemical reaction of cement and water,
has certain other effects. The most important are:
Calcium chloride is very aggressive to ferrous metals.
It increases drying shrinkage of the mixture.
It reduces the sulphate resistance of sulphate-resisting Portland cement.

14

Because of the serious disadvantage of CaC1 2 mentioned above, considerable efforts

have been made to find a satisfactory substitute as the basis for accelerators. Only two
compound seem to have met a limited degree of success. These are calcium format
and sodium carbonate.
The use of heated concrete or the application of heat to concrete after casting is the
most effective and satisfactory method of speeding up the setting and hardening of
Portland cement.
2.1.3.2 Retarders

There are two main uses for retarders. One is as an integral part of a mortar or grout
or concrete mix when it is required to extend the setting time of the cement and
reduce the rate of hardening of the concrete. The other is when the retarder is used on
formwork to retard the setting or hardening of the surface when the formwork is
removed. Retarders are usually sugars and similar compounds, but borax is also used.
The reaction between retarders and Portland cement is a very complicated one. It is
affected by the chemical composition of the cement and the temperature of the
concrete as it is maturing. Therefore the period of retardation can only be estimated
approximately and accurate reproduction of results is difficult and requires
considerable experience. The influence of the aluminate/sulfate ratio in the solution
phase on the setting characteristics of Portland cement pastes is depicted in Figure
2.8.
2.1.3.3 Air-entraining agents

Air-Entrained concrete is used for roads and external pavings, to resist the
disintegrating effects of frost and de-icing salts. Air-Entraining agents, however, can
be useful for concrete repair work and for mortar used on repairs to structures on very
exposed sites as well as marine structures.
Beside providing concrete with resistance against frost action, these compounds
impart other beneficial characteristics to the mix. These are:
They help to reduce, and may, in favourable circumstances, eliminate plastic
cracking.
They help to reduce a tendency to water scour on the surface of fair-faced concrete
and reduce segregation.
They improve workability.

15

Reactivity of
C,A in Clinker

Availability of
sulfate in solution

Hydration Age
<10 min

1 0 - 45 min
workable

w orkable

CASE I

DO 00 W
it.4 w orkable

CASE a

less workable
.

High

High

workable
CASE

111

High

2 - 4 hours
normal set

(1.0)

Low

Low

1 - 2 hours
less workable

--

normal set

'

.3.
..
,
a

Ettringite
,

pores

quick set
.-1

de

Low
flash set
CASE 12
None or
very low

High

:19

J C.AHn, and
C.ASHi. in pores

rafse set
CASEY
Low

Crystallization
of gypsum needles in pores
High

Figure 2. 8 Influence of the aluminate/sulfate ratio on the setting

characteristics of Portland cement pastes. [371

The best air-entraining agents are resins. The dosage of these compounds must be
accurately controlled and the compound is uniformly distributed throughout each
batch. Their effect is to produce a large quantity of minute bubbles of air which alter
the pore structure of the concrete. The effect of this entrainment of air (about 4 1/2
1 1/2 %) is to reduce the compressive strength of the concrete but at the same time to
improve the workability. Air-Entraining agents should not be confused with such
compounds as aluminium powder that is used for the production of aerated
lightweight concrete.
2.1.3.4 Plasticisers or workability aids

These admixtures can be divided into two main types, namely:

Lignosulphonates(also known as lignins), and soaps or stearates
Finely divided powders
The lignosulphonates and stearates act very largely as lubricants and in this way the
amount of water required in the mix to obtain a predetermined workability can be
reduced. For a given water/cement ratio, the workability is increased.
The finely divided powders include pulverized fuel ash (PFA), powdered hydrated
lime, powdered limestone and bentonite. Portland cement itself is a good plasticiser
and an increase in cement content may help to overcome problems of segregation and
harshness.
Both types (lignins and stearates, powders) provided they are correctly used, help to
achieve a workable and cohesive mix that can be compacted under the action of poker
vibrators and vibrating beams.
2.1.3.5 Superplasticisers

These are synthetic chemicals (copolymers) which cause the cement particles to be
more evenly dispersed, releasing water that otherwise would be trapped within the
agglomerates of cement. The dual effect of this action is a marked reduction in the

16

water content required to achieve the desire workability, and more rapid hydration of
the cement particles. Superplasticisers are distinct from the normal workability aids.
They can be used for two purposes:
To produce concrete having a virtually collapse slump i.e. a flowable concrete
To produce a concrete with normal workability but with a very low
water/cement ratio, resulting in a high strength concrete.
Superplasticisers can be used to reduce water content by up to 30 %. Consequently, a
more dense and impermeable concrete, with a greatly reduced potential for shrinkage
and cracking than normal concrete, is obtained. These characteristics of
superplasticised concrete ensure that the ingress of damaging moisture, gases, and
chemicals is greatly retarded, and the protective alkaline environment endures for
longer periods. Figure 2.9 is a photomicrograph showing the effects of
superplasticizers in a cemen-water suspension.
The various types of superplasticisers in use are :
Group 1: Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde.
Group 2 : Naphthalene sulphonated formaldehyde condensate.
Group 3 : Modified ligno-sulphonates.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2. 9 Photomicrograph of flocculated cement particles in Portland cement-water

suspension. (a) with no admixture present; (b ) after it is dispersed with the addition of a
superplasticizing admixture. (371

2.1.3.6 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)

PFA is a very fine powder produced from coal burning power stations and having a
specific surface similar to that of ordinary Portland cement, namely about 340 m 2/kg.
The specific gravity of PFA is appreciably low : 1.9 - 2.3, while of cement is about

17

3.12. PFA are oxides of silicon, iron and aluminium, together with some carbon and
sulphur.
2.1.3.7 Condensate Silica Fume (CSF)

CSF is a waste of ferrosilicon industry in the form of an extremely greyish powder. It

consists of 88 % - 98 % silicon with very small percentages (usually a maximum of 2
% each) of carbon, ferric oxide, aluminium oxide (alumina) and oxides of sodium,
potassium and magnesium. Its specific surface is many times that of ordinary
Portland cement. It is normally used with a lingosulphonate plasticizer or
superplasticizer. It has been shown that the use of silicafume (8 % to 10 % by weight
of cement in the mix) in conjunction with a superplasticizer can accelerate strength
development to offset the retarding effect of low temperature.
2.1.3.8 Non chloride admixtures
-

The use of calcium chloride as an accelerator to offset the effects of cold weather has
been widely cited as one of the chief sources of reinforcement corrosion. The use of
accelerators that are not based on chlorides reduce the serious risk of reinforcement
corrosion by maintaining the chloride ion threshold above which corrosion does not
occur. A number of organic and inorganic salts, including formates, thiosulfates,
alkali sulfates, nitrites, nitrates, and thiocyanate are currently marketed. Although
these admixtures satisfy the requirement of being nonchlorides, some are reported to
produce corrosion.
2.1.3.9 Corrosion inhibiting admixtures

The protection offered to the reinforcement by the highly alkaline concrete may be
increased by the use of corrosion inhibiting admixtures. A corrosion inhibiting
admixture is a chemical compound which, when added in small concentrations to
concrete or mortar, effectively checks or retards corrosion.
These admixtures can be into three broad classes, namely anodic, cathodic or mixed,
depending on whether they interfere with the corrosion reaction preferentially at the
anodic or cathodic sites or whether both are involved.
Anodic inhibitors are materials which function as inhibitors due to their ability to
accept electrons. They exert their action by stifling the reaction at the anode. The
most widely used anodic inhibitors include calcium and sodium nitrite, sodium
benzoate, and sodium chromate. One of the serious drawbacks in the use of anodic
inhibitors is that the admixtures are effective in maintaining passivity only if present
in sufficiently high concentrations.
Cathodic inhibitors act either by slowing the cathodic reaction or by selectively
precipitating at cathodic sites. Materials in this group are strong proton acceptors and
their action, in contrast to anodic inhibitors, is usually indirect. Commonly used

18

cathodic inhibitor materials are bases such as Na2CO3 or NI-1 40H which increase the
pH of the medium and thereby also decrease the solubility of the ferrous ion.
Mixed inhibitors are materials that may simultaneously affect both anodic and
cathodic processes. A mixed inhibitor is usual more desirable because its effect is all
encompassing, covering corrosion resulting from chloride attack as well as that due to
microcells on the metal surface.
2.1.3.10 Dampproofing and waterproofing admixtures
Water penetrates concrete under conditions of pressure or by absorption. In the
former, water under pressure and in contact with one surface of the concrete is forced
through channels which interconnect the two faces of concrete. In the latter, the
passage of moisture through concrete occurs merely by capillary action. Evaporation
from faces exposed to unsaturated air, and the constant replenishment of moisture
from surfaces in contact with water, result in a flow of moisture through the concrete.
Integral waterproofing admixtures are often used to restrict or reduce the rate of
transport of moisture.
An integral waterproofing admixture is a powder, liquid, or suspension which, when
mixed with fresh concrete, results in the reduction in the permeability of cured
concrete, and/or imparts a water repellency or hydrophobic property to the hardened
concrete. Admixtures that reduce the permeability of concrete termed
"waterproofing", are effective in reducing the transport of moisture under pressure;
whereas materials that impart water repellency termed "dampproofing", may reduce
moisture migration by capillary action. Most dampproofing admixtures are ineffective
in reducing water passage under a positive hydrostatic head.
More recently, a waterproofing admixture called Hydrophobic Blocking Ingredient
(HBI) based on two principal components - reactive aliphahtic fatty acids and an
aqueous emulsion of polymers and aromatic globules has been introduced to USA.
During mixing, reaction of the fatty acids with the initial hydration products creates a
water and moisture repelling lining on the capillaries and concrete surfaces. This
component increases the contact angle to well above 90, and resulting force at the
entrance of the. capillary pores and microcracks act to keep water out.
The formulators of HBI claim that this admixture was designed to deal with the
problem of water penetration, on the belief that water transport mechanisms and
chemical reactions were fundamental to concrete durability. The claim that it is not
permeability, but sorptivity, or capillary suction, that is the primary mechanism of
water and salt penetration under conditions of wetting and drying, or partial
immersion.

19

Both dampproofing and waterproofing admixtures increase resistance to water

penetration, either by acting as pore fillers or by creating a hydrophobic coating
within the pores, or by combining both effects.
Normally concrete "wets" because the pressure needed for wetting is low due the
surface tension forces which pull the water into the pores. When waterproofing
admixtures such as stereates are used, insoluble calcium stearate produced by the
reaction of the soap with Ca(OH)2 coats the surface of the pore. Similarly, wax or
bituminous emulsions on contact with cement pores and capillaries form an
hydrophobic coating. The end result is that the hydrophobic coating causes a reversed
angle of contact so that the surface tension force now push the water out of the pore.
Ca(OH)2 + RCOOH
Stearate
admixture

--=Ca-COOK" + H2O
Insoluble
calcium
stearate

(2.2)

The principle of the HBI system is to exclude water and moisture along with any
dissolved salts or other aggressive solutes. Each component of the admixtures has a
distinct action.
2.1.3.11 Bonding aids
More than 50 years ago, certain polymers, either on their own or mixed with cement,
have been increasingly used to improve bonding between hardened concrete and
newly placed cement-based materials such as concrete and mortar. In general one
uses polyvinyl acetate (PVA), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and acrylics.
It is essential to obtain the best possible bond at the interface between existing
concrete and mortar or concrete used for repair, and prior to the introduction of
polymer bonding aids. It must be appreciated that the bond at the interface between
the concrete and the repair material is likely to be subjected to considerable stress
arising from changes in moisture content, freeze-thaw, a wide temperature range, as
well as the force of gravity and some times vibration.
Two tests for the effectiveness of the bond are the Slant Shear Test (BS 6319, Part 4
and ASTM C 882-78) and the pull-off test for which there is no UK standard. The
former can only be applied in laboratory whereas the latter can be applied both in the
laboratory and on site.
The effect of weathering on the bond is obviously of great importance, and until
laboratory specimens prepared for the Slant Shear Test have been exposed to the
weather for long periods, the effect of weathering can only be tested by pull-off tests
on site.

20

Philip H. Perkins says that when properly used, SBR/cement slurry helps to mitigate
the inevitable effects of variation in workmanship and site conditions, and thus
improve the bond. 111
The vast majority of concrete repairs involve the placing of new concrete or mortar
around cleaned reinforcement. A trend in repair techniques is the use of concretepolymer composites. For instance, the high pH of SBR/cement slurry (about 12.0)
helps considerably to ensure passivation of rebars. However, before any repair action
to be undertaken, the all history of the concrete must be known accurately.
2.2 PROTECTIVE COATINGS
2.2.1 Research trends of concrete-polymer composites

Concrete-polymer composites have been developed lately and are used in place of
conventional cement and concretes, including mortar by virtue of their excellent
characteristics.
Early deterioration of cement concrete structures have created many problems, and
plant-precast productions of concrete members are becoming popular in stead of field
casting. Actually, field casting of concrete structure in many countries becomes
difficult and more difficult due to not only its poor durability, but also high labour
and transportation cost. Therefore, the emerging need is to develop new materials in
place of conventional concretes 1161 . That is the reason why polymer composite
products have been developed in 1 970s and continue to be developed over the world
and. in South Africa.
The mechanical properties of polymers can greatly enhanced by incorporating fillers
and/or fibres into the resin formulations. Therefore, for structural application, such
composite materials should: (181
consist of two or more phases, each with their own physical and mechanical
characteristics.
be manufactured by combining the separate phases such that the dispersion of
material in the other achieves optimum properties of the resulting material;
have enhanced properties compared with those of the individual components.
2.2.2 Chemistry of polymeric building materials

The word "polymer" comes from the Greek words" many membered". It could be
applied to any large molecule which is formed from a relatively large number of
smaller units. However, it is commonly restricted to materials in which the units are
held together by covalent bonding, i.e., shared electrons. This class of materials

21

possess many interesting and useful properties which are completely different from
those of the more traditional engineering materials.
The molecule structure of polymers the key to an understanding of the science and
technology of polymers. The key role of molecular structure in polymer science and
technology is shown the diagrammatic representation below.

Molecular structure

Processing

prolerties
Material roperties

Production

Applications
Figure 2.10 Diagrammatic representation of the role of the molecular structure in polymer
science.

There are 5 major areas of application of polymers:

Rubbers and elastomers
Fibres
Surfaces finishes and protective coating
Plastics
Adhesives and sealants
Materials of category 3 are the main subject of the present study.
2.2.3 Reactions producing polymers

Polymers can be produced by two types of chemical reactions called condensation

and addition reactions. Polymers formed from a typical condensation reaction, in
which a small molecule, most often water, is produced as a by-product, are known as
condensation polymers. The second reaction polymer reaction, known as addition
reaction, produces addition polymers. In contrast to the condensation reaction, the
addition reaction does not produce by-products (water for example), and involves the
opening of carbon-carbon double bonds:
nCH2=CH2

I (CH2--CH2 )n

(2.3)

22

2.2.4 Polymer structure

Polymerization of monomeric units produces homopolymers that are either linear,

branched, or cross-linked, depending on the number of functionalities of the
monomers and the method of polymerization.
Most linear homopolymers are obtained by addition polymerization or
polycondensation of difunctional monomers (A and B). Branched polymers result
when a small quantity of trifunctional monomers is mixed with difunctional
monomers or when branches made from B monomers are grafted onto a linear
backbone obtained from A monomer units, thus generating a graft copolymer.i l l
2.2.4.1 Linear polymers

Homopolymers
Homopolymers are formed when a pure monomer polymerizes by an addition
reaction. The repeating unit in the polymer chain is the pure monomer.

Random Copolymers
Random copolymers are synthesized when a mixture of two difunctional monomer, A
and B, are made to react.

Block Copolymers
Under certain conditions two or more monomers can be polymerized in such a
manner that long blocks of each monomer are combined in a single chain.
2.2.4.2 Branched polymers

If trifunctional or higher units are introduced either intentionally or through side

reactions at random points along linear chains, branched molecules result. Branching
has a significant influence on the properties of polymers such as modulus and
chemical resistance. Two subgroups are recognised: - graft
- cross-linked polymers.

a) Graft Polymers
Under specialized conditions, branches of monomer B may be grafted to a backbone
of linear A polymer. This structure is known as a graft copolymer.

23

b) Cross-linked polymers
The chain of linear and most branched polymers have finite length and molecular
weight. In contrast, cross-linked polymers possess interconnected chains, which result
in a three dimensional network of essentially infinite molecular weight.
2.2.5 Polymer properties

The cohesion of polymeric materials varies according to the types of chemical bonds
holding the polymer atoms together and the strength of the various secondary forces
acting on the chains and monomeric units. The primary chemical bonds can be either
covalent or ionic and the secondary forces can be a hydrogen bond, a dipole-dipole
interaction, or a van der Waals interaction. All these bonds are not necessarily present
in all polymers. The energy required to break the bonds and separate the atoms
completely is known as the dissociation energy. The table 2.1 lists the approximate
bonds strengths encountered in polymeric materials.
TABLE 2. 1 Bond Energy.

Bond type

Dissociation energy
kcallmole

Primary covalent
Hydrogen bond
Dipole interaction
van der Waals
Ionic

50-200
3-7
1.5-3
0.2-2
10-20

2.2.5.1 Bonding and Response to Temperature

As the material's temperature is raised its thermal energy is increased until the
available thermal energy exceeds the dissociation energy. The bonds than rupture and
the atoms separate. The primary covalent bonds will be the last to dissociate. When
the thermal energy exceeds the dissociation energy of the primary covalent bonds,
both main chain and cross-linked bonds fail randomly, and the polymer degrades.
Hence, cross-linked polymers are thermosets.
2.2.5.2 Action of Solvents

The action of solvents on polymers is in many ways similar to that of heat.

Appropriate solvents - can penetrate and replace the interchain secondary bond;
thereby dissolving linear and branched polymers. The polymer-solvent secondary
bonds cannot overcome primary valence cross-links. Such cross-linked polymers are
therefore not soluble, although they may swell extensively. The amount of swelling is
a measure of the extent of cross-linking. A lightly cross-linked polymer will swell
tremendously, whereas one with extensive will not swell noticeably at all.

24

2.2.5.3 Crystallinity in polymers

It has been shown by X-rays studies that the bulk polymers have regions where the
polymer chains pack into a regular crystal lattice due to an ordered, regular chain
structure, and other areas where the irregular chain structure interferes with the
arrangement of the main chains in a regular lattice. The presence of crystalline
material in polymers strongly influences their properties, particularly the mechanical
properties. Crystallinity can significantly increase the strength and rigidity of a
polymer.
2.2.5.4 Molecular Weight of Polymers

All polymers consist of molecules with a distribution of chain lengths. It is therefore

necessary to characterize the entire distribution quantitatively or at least to define and
measure average chain lengths or molecular weights for these materials as many
important properties of the polymer depend on these quantities.
2.2.5.5 Polymer Solubility and Solutions

Two factors relating to polymer solubility are of general interest to materials

scientists and engineers:
Which solvents will attack which polymers
How does the polymer-solvent interaction influence the solution properties
Some rules for polymer solubility are as follows :
Polar solvents will tend to dissolve polar polymers. Non-polar solvents will do the
same with non-polar polymers.
In a given solvent, at a particular temperature, the solubility of a polymer will
decrease with increasing molecular weight.
Crosslinking eliminates solubility.
The rate of polymer solubility increases with short branches, which have looser
main chain structure, allowing the solvent molecules to penetrate more easily, and
decreases with longer branches, because the entanglement of these branches
makes it harder for individual molecules to separate.
Crystallinity : the solvent cannot penetrate crystalline regions and therefore
solubilization will take a considerably longer time.
2.2.5.6 Glass Transition Temperature

Polymers exhibit two different types of mechanical behaviour. Some are hard, rigid,
and plastic at room temperature, while others are soft, flexible, rubbery materials.
There is some temperature or narrow range of temperature below which a polymer is
in a glassy state and above which it is rubbery. This temperature is known as the glass

25

transition temperature Tg. The Tg is a characteristic of a particular polymer, and

varies with microstructure, type of side groups, and molecular mass.

2.2.5.7 Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Polymers like natural and synthetic rubbers possess some interesting, unique, and
useful mechanical properties. For example, no other materials are capable of
reversible extensions to strains of 600 % to 700 %. The mechanical properties
commonly used are:
Modulus of Elasticity.
Visco-elasticity.
2.2.5.8 Applications of Polymers

In building construction the application of polymers can be classified in various ways:

Non-structural polymers.
Structural and semi-structural polymers.
Auxiliaries to other materials.
The first group constitutes, by far, the greatest volume and number of different uses.
Auxiliaries include adhesive, sealants, and decorative and protective coatings
a) Adhesives

Many of the polymers used for adhesives are the same as those used in other
applications. An adhesive is a substance capable of holding materials together by
surface attachment.

Adhesion results from:

mechanical bonding between the adhesive and adherend.
chemical forces, either primary, covalent bonds or polar forces between the two.
In general, the properties of the adhesive polymer determine the properties of the
adhesive joint, i.e., the bond can be no stronger than the glue line. There are three
general categories of adhesives used in construction applications: solvent based, latex,
and reactive.
b) Sealants

Sealants are synthetic, elastomeric polymers that are used to plug or close an opening
in a structure (joint) in order to keep out water and cold air, as well as to retain

26

warmth. They provide material continuity between building elements while the joint
changes in dimension as it opens in winter and closes in summer.
c) Coatings

A coating may be described as a material which forms a continuous membrane when

applied to a substrate. Coatings are used for a variety of protection and refurbishment
applications such as protection against chemical attack, wear, and damage by
freeze/thaw action.
2.2.6 Types of polymers

The distinction between types of polymers is based on their reaction to heating and
cooling.
2.2.6.1 Thermoplastic polymers

In a thermoplastic polymer the log-chain molecules are held together by relatively

weak van der Waals forces, but the chemical bond along the chain is extremely
strong.r 181 Thermoplastic polymers soften upon heating, and can be made to flow
when a stress is applied. When cooled again, they reversibly regain their solid or
rubbery nature. Continued heating of thermoplastics will lead ultimately to
degradation, but they will generally soften at temperatures below their degradation
point.
Thermoplastic materials have a semi-crystalline ordered structure or an amorphous
random structure. Polypropylene, Nylon 66 and polycarbonate are examples of
amorphous thermoplastic polymers. (181
2.2.6.2 Thermosetting polymers

Thermosetting polymers are formed in a two-stage chemical reaction. Firstly, a

substance consisting of a series of long-chain polymerized molecules, similar to those
in thermoplastics, is produced; then the chains become cross-linked. As the crosslinking is by strong chemical bonds, thermosetting polymers are rigid materials and
their mechanical properties are affected by heat.I 181
Thermosetting polymers are materials which can be heated to the point where they
would soften and made to flow under stress. However, they do not revert to the
original solid state as the heating causes the material to undergo a curing reaction.
Further heating ultimately leads only to degradation without softening and flow. The
principal thermosetting polymers which are used in composites in construction are
polyesters, epoxies and phenolics.

27

2.2.7 Organic polymers

Organic polymers are complex chemical compounds derived mainly from the petrochemical industry. These materials are often referred to as "resins", and the principal
resins used in the construction industry are epoxide, polyurethane, polyester, acrylic,
polyvinyl acetate, and styrene-butadiene.
Under the particular condition of curing, which in some cases requires hardeners or
accelerators, the resins form long molecular chains in three dimensions, which can
result in an extremely strong and stable material.
It is convenient to divide these materials into 2 main categories, namely:

coatings in which the formulated compound is used alone.

mortars and concretes in which the resin is mixed with aggregates and sometimes
cement.
It is quite common to find that several types of polymer are used in combination in
order to obtain the optimum results.
For coating used for the protection of concrete and to reduce permeability, epoxies,
polyurethanes and acrylics are mostly used. For use in mortars and concretes, acrylics
and styrene-butadiene compounds are used successfully. Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is
used as a bonding agent for floors screeds and topping to increase adhesion with the
base concrete. It is also used in cement mortar mixes to improve certain
characteristics of the mortar and bond with the substrate. Polyester resins are used in
cement-based proprietary floor toppings.
2.3 PRINCIPAL RESINS USED AS PROTECTIVE COATINGS
2.3.1 General considerations
The principal resins used in the construction industry are epoxyde, polyurethane,
polyester, acrylic, polyvinyl acetate, and styrene-butadiene. When considering a
coating for concrete, the specifier or buyer must take into account the properties of
the concrete and location of the area to be coated in the structure. The properties of
concrete which affect the successful application and performance of a coating are:
Porosity.
Moisture content .
Presence of contaminants on the surface.
The factors due to location of the concrete in the structure that need to be considered
include:
Continuous or intermittent exposure of the coating to moisture.

28

The degree of wear encountered in service.

The temperature fluctuations to which it will be subjected.
Each coating possesses unique application characteristics which influence the quality
of the film formed. Thus it is important that the items given below should be checked
with the manufacturer prior to use.
Climatic conditions.
Concrete temperature.
Moisture content of surface.
The thickness and number of required coats.
Coverage rate.
2.3.2 Types of coatings

Many different wall and floor coatings are available and exhibit varying degrees of
chemical resistance, physical durability, and ease of application. Some of the major
characteristics of these product are discussed below.
2.3.2.1 Epoxy resins

Proprietary products are generally two-package systems composed of epoxy resin

(which may contain plasticizers, reactive diluents, extender resins, and fillers), and a
curing agent. Some formulations are 100 % solids and others are solvent based
systems. Common curing agents suitable for room temperature curing are amine
adducts, polyamides, polysulfides, and tertiary amines. The coating properties depend
on the amount of curing agent used.
Epoxy coatings have excellent chemical resistance to most chemicals. They have a
some what better alkali resistance than acid resistance and bond well to concrete. The
coatings are resilient and abrasion resistant. Disadvantage associated with certain
epoxies is that they age to brittle materials which cannot accommodate substrate
movement. Intercoat adhesion is difficult once previously applied coats are cured,
curing agents may cause dermatitis and they will chalk badly when exposed to
sunlight (UV rays). Fibre-reinforced epoxy coatings may be used on concrete that
may undergo thermal movement
2.3.2.2 Polyurethanes

Polyurethanes, like epoxide resins, are also products of the petrochemical. They are
very durable in external conditions and retain their gloss well. Polyurethanes can be
specially formulated to meet specific site requirements. One characteristic of
particular importance is that they will cure in temperatures appreciably below 0 C,
whereas epoxide cannot be relied upon to continue to gain in strength cure when the
temperature falls to 5 C and below. They can combined with epoxies and will

29

withstand relatively high temperatures as well as sudden changes in temperature, i.e.

thermal shock.
2.3.2.3 Polyester resins

Unsaturated polyester resins are formed by the polycondensation of polyhydric

alcohols with unsaturated dicarboxylic acids and anhydrides. They are usually solid at
ambient temperatures and can be supplied in powdered or granulated form, or, more
commonly, as liquid solutions in monomers, i.e.: styrene monomer. To prevent
uncontrolled or premature polymerization, inhibitors are usually added, at parts per
million level. The most common types of inhibitor are substituted hydroquinone
derivatives.
The curing of polyester resin solutions in monomers is effected by the use of
catalysts (i.e. organic peroxides), the reaction being initiated by accelerators (various
amines and organo-metal) or by heat, UV radiation or combinations of these.
A polyester resin system is either a solid resin, which may in addition contain
catalyts or a resin solution, possibly including accelerators, fillers, pigments,
plasticisers, thixotropes and other additives. Fillers and pigments are generally inert,
with little effect on hazards.
The combination of polyester resin and glass -fibre mat produces an incredibly
versatile material - strong, durable weatherproof, waterproof, non-rusting, easily
moulded to virtually any shape, highly adhesive to a wide range of materials, and
capable of making structures of almost size. There are numerous instances where
GRP (Glassfibre Reinforced Plastic) can be used as viable alternative to traditional
materials such as steel or wood, and in many cases GRP is more appropriate choice.
Polyester resin can also be used alone, or with fillers, to make castings which
accurately reproduce the finest detail of the mould. It can be mixed with metal
powders to create realistic imitation metal castings. The finished item, can be sawn,
drilled or polished and used as viable alternative
2.3.2.4 Acrylic resins

Acrylic resin systems form high strength materials. In general acrylic resins are based
on monomers of very low viscosity or blends of monomers with methyl metacrylate
monomer, the most commonly used. Because of the very low viscosity of the uncured
acrylic resins, very high filler loadings are possible, so that the mortars tend to exhibit
less shrinkage than mortars based on unsaturated polyester resins. [42 Acrylic based on
monomers such as 2-ethyhexacrylate produce mortars with significantly lower
modulus which are, therefore, able to absorb the stresses due to their inherent
shrinkage without causing bond failure with the concrete subtrate. [421 Figure 2.11 is a
schematic description of different types of coatings.

30

Corrosion Control

.0
Continuous---f
film

Idealized pore
structure in
concrete

0
.

. . o
(a)

.
0 0

c,

Hydrophobic layer
lining pores and
surfaces

Reaction
product (
blocking
pores

Figure 2.11 Schematic representation of

different types of coatings. [39]

2.4. POLYMERIZED CONCRETE

This is rather loosely referred to as polymer concrete. In the present study,
polymerized concrete means. Portland cement concrete containing a monomer and
which is polymerized after it has hardened. On the other hand polymer concrete is
concrete in which the cement is replaced either entirely or principally by an organic
polymer such as epoxide or polyester resin or normal concrete which contains
polymer as an admixture. Polymerized concrete can be divided into two types:
The complete unit of hardened concrete is impregnated, usually by dipping, with a
monomer and then polymerized either by heat or gamma rays.
The monomer is mixed with the gauging water and then after the concrete unit has
hardened, it is polymerized by heat.

31

Claims made for polymerized concrete include the following :

A considerable increase, up to 4 times, in the compressive and tensile strength.
The resistance to chemical attack and the effects of freeze-thaw are greatly
increased.
Absorption and permeability are greatly reduced.
The process of producing polymerized concrete is complicated and expensive and so
far it appears to have been used only on a small scale in selected locations for long
term test purposes.

32

CHAPTER 3
DETERIORATION PROCESSES OF CONCRETE AND
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DETERIORATION
OF CONCRETE
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
This chapter intends to consider the most important factors that can cause deterioration of
concrete and reinforced concrete structures. Only two basic types of materials will be
considered, namely the concrete itself and the metal which is usually used in conjunction
with it.
Basically, deterioration can be due to chemical attack on or between the various materials
of which the structure is built, or physical deterioration arising from climatic changes,
abrasion, damage from high velocity water, fire, impact, explosion, foundation failure or
overloading. In rsum, degradation can result from either the environment to which the
concrete is exposed, for example frost damage, or from internal causes within the
concrete, as in alkali-aggregate reaction. It is necessary to distinguish between
degradation of the concrete itself and loss of protection and subsequent corrosion of the
reinforcing or pre-stressing steel contained within it."' It is also essential to understand
how these various causes are likely to reveal themselves, so that a realistic assessment of
the overall cause(s) can be made and a proper diagnosis be given. In essence we will
make a review of the following:
Durability, permeability and carbonation of concrete.
Chemical aggression to concrete.
Corrosion of metals in concrete.
Physical aggression to concrete.
Nathan Johnson said: " There is nothing which more truly leads to a knowledge of how
to make enduring concrete than a proper study of disintegration."
3.2 DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Durability is defined as the capability of maintaining the serviceability of a product,
component, assembly, or construction over a period time which must be at least the
required lifetime. Serviceability refers to the capability of the structure to perform the
functions for which it was designed and constructed while exposed to a specific
environment. The structure should, therefore, be able to resist or withstand for its service
life all the intended loads and environment conditions without excessive deterioration,
wear, or failure. Thus, durability in a broadest sense will depend on the nature of the
concrete and the aggressiveness of the in-service environment. However, many structures
do not have a well-defined lifetime, and in such cases the durability should be such that
the structure remains serviceable more or less indefinitely, given reasonable
maintenance. 1181
33

The rate of most degradation processes is controlled by the rate at which moisture, air or
other aggressive agents can penetrate the concrete
Larry Masters said: "No material is itself durable or non-durable; it is the interaction
of the material with its in-service environment that determines its
durability."
The requirement of good quality concrete and the provision of adequate reinforcement
cover is of fundamental importance to the specification of durable concrete. Low
permeability is identified as being the key to durable concrete and is governed by
water/cement ratio, cement content, curing, and the degree of compaction obtained.
Cover to reinforcement is usually specified in relation to condition of exposure.
The importance of exposure conditions in the design of durable concrete and durable
structures is reflected in the manner in which it dictates requirements in the codes of
practice. The provision of durability consists mainly of a prescription of maintaining the
required margins and factors with time. In practice, the engineer will attempt to assess the
aggressiveness of a given environment towards the concrete, or to design protection for
it, so that the rate of change of concrete properties is negligible.
Concrete will not deteriorate if the specifications covering its production are correct and
followed. Therefore, when a concrete does deteriorate, either the specifications were
improper or they were violated. An improper specification often results when the
specifier makes an imperfect choice in matching concrete selected for use in a given
environment and how these control the needed levels of properties of concrete. When
these levels are known, specifications may be prepared to produce a concrete that will
interact with the effects of the environment and will not deteriorate.
The four main methods that ensure adequate durability of concrete in service are as
follows:
Compliance with current standards of good practice during construction.
The use of new and improved materials and innovative construction systems designed
for increased durability at competitive cost.
Provision of protection to existing undamaged structures against adverse environments.
Use of materials and procedures that incorporate the best, available standards of good
practice in repair, replacement, and subsequent protection of already damaged
structures.
3.2.1 Factors affecting the durability

No single parameter controls the durability of concrete. Rather, there are a number of
contributing factors which affect its durability. These factors can be grouped under four
main categories, namely, construction practices, design, material characteristics, and
exposure conditions. The distress and defects that result from the effects of these factors
are often the initiation point of deterioration.

34

3.2.1.1 Construction practices

Improper procedures or carelessness during any phase of the construction operation

results in concrete of inferior quality. Poor transportation, placing, finishing techniques,
and inadequate curing conditions are included in this group. Subgrade settlement due to
insufficient compaction of the base, movement of poorly constructed formwork, and
inadequate vibration of placed concrete, results in cracks in the hardened concrete.
Cracking due to localised settlement of the subgrade occurs if there are soft pockets in the
subgrade on which the concrete is placed or if there are pockets under the building paper.
Proper compaction of the subgrade, elimination of air pockets in the building paper and a
delay in the final finishing are preventive measures that could be taken to reduce the
occurrence of this problem.
Cracking results from the movement of formwork during the period when the concrete
begins to stiffen to the time it has fully set. The cracks are usually internal and are not
visible by surface inspection. Consequently, they are potential localisations where
deterioration can originate. Water pockets can form in the crack promoting corrosion of
reinforcement and spalling of the surface due to freeze-thaw action. Preventive measures
include the use of robust forms with much reduced absorption and swelling capacity, and
the monitoring of the permissible rate of rise of the concrete level in the forms.
Poorly vibrated concrete in subsequent pours of a vertical member often produces cold
joints and honeycombed concrete due to the lack of consolidation and marriage of the
two concretes. Cracking of concrete due to vibrations, which take place during the setting
process, is a common occurrence. The source of vibration may be delayed vibration,
transmission of vibration along the reinforcement, or accidental impact of equipment.
After initial placement, vibration, and finishing, concrete has a tendency to continue to
consolidate or settle. Since the surface hardens first, if such settlement is locally
restrained by reinforcing steel, or formwork, voids or cracking adjacent to restraining
element will occur. Where the reinforcement consists of a heavy mat of closely spaced
bars instead of surface cracks, a face of separation could occur and is potentially
dangerous as it could lead to damage resulting from freeze-thaw cycles or corrosion of
reinforcement. Use of a reasonably plastic mix, proper vibratory compaction, delayed
finishing, and commencing curing operation as soon as concrete placement is completed,
are beneficial measures.
The use of excessively wet mixes of high slump concrete or retempering with water on
the job results in the production of a weak concrete surface that is prone to dusting.
Dusting refers to a phenomenon where a soft, powdery concrete surface, which is easily
marred or dusted away, is produced under adverse conditions. It is caused by excessive
bleeding of the mix, troweling too soon, allowing the surface to dry too rapidly without
curing, and the reaction of carbon dioxide with the freshly placed concrete. High w/c
ratio produces bleeding and segregation of the mix, increasing the overall porosity of the
concrete. Consequently, the concrete is rendered more vulnerable to the ingress of
moisture and aggressive chemicals.

Poor finishing practice is responsible for dusting, cracking, and formation of blisters. In
35

addition, concrete flatwork is particularly prone to the effects of inadequate curing.

Increased cracking, due to drying shrinkage and poor surface wear characteristics can be
attributed to the lack of proper curing. A dusting floor caused by excessive wet concrete
that is improperly finished may be treated with a chemical hardener with some success.
However, dusting caused by carbon dioxide will not respond to such treatment, and
therefore, requires mechanical abrading to remove the unsound material and subsequent
surface coating or some other covering.
Due to the push for speed and economy in construction, there is a great tendency for the
premature removal of shores and forms before the concrete has attained adequate
strength. When this is done, severe cracking of the concrete occurs since the load induced
during construction can be far more severe than those experienced in service. These
conditions can occur when the concrete is most susceptible to damage and often results in
permanent cracks. A typical cracking map representing different situations is shown in
the Figure 3.1
1, 44 .
1? 07 14
1,74

(a)

(b)

J1'
12::11, A

41bAlk

A-

(c)

Figure 3.1 A typical cracking map for normal (medium strength) concrete: [37]
After drying shrinkage.
After short time loading.
For sustained loading for 60 days at 65 %of the 28-day compressive strength.
3.2.1.2 Design

A survey of structures usually indicates that deterioration occurs repeatedly in connection

with certain effects, or that certain effects occur which were not anticipated in design.
Inadequate design, which fails to allow creep of structural elements of a building (e.g.,
deflection of floors), may result in the load being transferred to non-structural elements
(such as partition walls or cladding panels), and cracking and damage often result.
Errors in design and detailing that may result in cracking include the use of poorly
detailed re-entrant corners in walls, precast members, and slabs; improper selection or
detailing of reinforcement; and the restraint of members subjected to volume change. An
inadequate number of expansion joints and poor joint layout will induce midpaned
cracking at T- intersections of joints.

36

Design should include the provision of desired concrete quality to resist the adverse
effects produced by in-service exposure conditions. Thus, the designer or specifier needs
to be better informed on the particular characteristics of the given environment so that a
proper choice in matching the concrete selected with the characteristics of the
environment can be made.
3.2.1.3 Material characteristics

The quality of concrete with respect to durability is measured in terms of permeability.

This property of hardened concrete is governed by the pore system and is basic to its
ability to resist chemical attacks by external sources (e.g., acids, carbon dioxide, and
sulphates), from within the concrete e.g., alkali-aggregate reactivity (AAR) and unsound
cement), and other environmentally induced distress related to moisture ingress (e.g.,
freeze-thaw cycling, leaching). Permeability is affected by the following :
Quality of cement and aggregate.
water/cement ratio and degree of hydration.
Effectiveness of compaction.
Extent of curing.
Presence or absence of cracks.
The reactions which affect the durability of concrete can be broadly grouped into two
types of reactions: - surface reactions
- reactions occurring in the body of the concrete
The attack of the surface which destroys the external microstructure of concrete and
mortar is usually due to the detrimental effects of aggressive solutions. The attack from
the interior can be caused by freeze-thaw cycles, and aggregates which undergo a severe
expansion reaction with cement. An internal attack can also occur if the cement is of
inferior quality or contains an excess of calcium oxide or magnesium oxide.
Physical phenomena affecting durability include wear of the concrete surface due to
abrasion, erosion, cavitation, and impact stresses due to shock waves. The ability of the
concrete to resist such forces depends on the quality of the concrete. High density, high
strength concrete with low porosity and permeability values will resist these physical
phenomena and show little distress for many years. Such concrete, however, must be
well-designed, properly mixed and placed, adequately compacted, and well-cured if it is
to be embodied with desired characteristics that are suitable for the in-service conditions.
3.2.1.4 Exposure conditions

Exposure conditions can range from the sheltered office building to the hot, arid, salt
laden environment in the Middle East, or the rapid freeze-thaw cycling of temperature
climates. Whatever the in-service conditions are, the designer and specifier must acquaint
themselves with factors influencing the given environment; and only then design a
concrete to meet those demands or take measures to protect the concrete from the
aggressive conditions.

37

Having designed the concrete, the specifier should then institute proper quality control
procedures to ensure that the placed concrete will represent the specified features.
3.3 PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE
Permeability refers to the capability of a material to transmit liquids or vapours. For
durability, it is accepted that concrete should possess low permeability. Unfortunately it
has been found impossible so far to set limits for permeability which can be subjected to
practical tests.E 41 Permeability should not be confused with absorption.
Hardened cement paste and concrete contain pores of varying types and size. Therefore
the transport of materials through concrete can be considered as a particular case of the
more general phenomenon of flow through a porous medium. The rate of flow will not
depend simply on the porosity, but on the degree of continuity of the pores. [181 The term
permeability is often loosely used to describe this general property. Therefore, as said
before, the permeability of a concrete is not a simple function of its porosity but depends
on the size, distribution and continuity of the pores . The flow processes depend on the
degree of saturation of the cement paste or concrete as illustrated through the process
described below and which represents the various stages of flow through an idealized
single pore with a neck at each end: 1181
Stage a: At very low humidities, the moisture is in the vapour state and is adsorbed on
to the dry surfaces of the paste.
Stage b: As the humidity increases, the adsorption becomes complete, and flow then
takes place as direct vapour movement through the pore due to a pressure or
concentration gradient, in the manner of inert gas.
Stage c: The humidity is sufficient for water to condense in the restricted part of the
pore. The path for vapour transfer is shortened and thus the rate of movement
increased.
Stage d: The condensed water zones extend with rising humidity and the flow is
augmented by transfer in the adsorbed layers.
Stage e: Straightforward liquid flow under a pressure gradient eventually occurs,
initially in the incompletely saturated state.
Stage f: In addition, movement of ions or dissolved gases will occur through saturated
pores under a concentration gradient.
The size of capillary pores in concrete is about 1.3 Rm, and the gel pores are very much
smaller. The volume of pores space in concrete, as distinct from its permeability, is
measured by absorption, and the two quantities are not necessarily related. Permeability
tests measure the rate at which a gas or liquid passes right through the test specimen
under an applied head. Concrete possesses a pore structure and in this respect is different
to metals. The capillary pore structure allows water under pressure to pass slowly through
the concrete, but the rate of flow through dense, good quality concrete is extremely slow.
38

According to Neville's Properties of Concrete, cement gel has a porosity of 28 %, but its
permeability is about 7 x 10 -6 m/s. The permeability of the cement paste as a whole is 20
to 100 times greater than that of the gel itself.
Although the subject is complex, most of concrete engineers agree that the following are
the main factors involved in permeability:
The quality of the cement and aggregate.
The quality and quantity of the cement paste; the quality of depends on the amount of
cement in the mix, the water/cement ratio, and the degree of hydration of the cement.
The bond developed between the paste and the aggregate.
The degree of compaction of the concrete.
The presence or absence of cracking.
The standard of curing.
The characteristic of any admixtures used in the mix.
3.4 CARBONATION OF CONCRETE

The term "carbonation" refers to the reaction between the carbon dioxide (CO 2) of the
ambient atmosphere and the constituents of the hardened cement paste, mainly calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in the presence of moisture. The Ca(OH) 2 is converted to calcium
carbonate CaCO3 by absorption of carbon dioxide according to the following reaction:
Ca (OH)2 + CO2

(3.1)

+ H2O

A schematic representation of the carbonation process is shown in the Figure 3.2

Diffusion of CO2 in
air - filled pores

I 0 c>x)
bo o

MODEL
co,

Chemical reaction with free

lime
SIMPLIFIED :

PORES

Cat OH12 CO2

CaCO3 H20.

OIFFUSION
I Carbonisation
( Neutralisation
1
/7 depth
.
Chemical
/ reaction

pH drops from
pH =12.5 to pH .e 9

Figure 3. 2 Schematic representation of carbonation process. [31

The calcium carbonate (calcite) CaCO3 is only slightly soluble in water. It will tend to
seal the surface pores of the concrete provided the concrete is dense and impermeable.

39

Other cement compounds are carbonated to hemi-carboaluminate (4CaO.A1203 .1/2

CO2. 81{20).
The reaction may occur in three phases. In the first phase, CO2 diffuses inwards. In the
second phase, CO2 reacts with H 2O molecules, and in the third phase, the resultant
carbonic acids react with the alkaline components of the concrete. Carbonation penetrates
beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly as moisture released by the above
reaction diffuses out to preserve hygral equilibrium between the atmosphere and the
interior of the concrete.I II
The rate of carbonation is defined by the formula:
c = k ff

(3.2)

where c = depth of carbonation in inches

k = constant
T = time in years
The importance of carbonation lies in its effects on the properties of the concrete and on
the protection afforded by the concrete against corrosion of reinforcements. The pH of
the pore water is generally between 12.5 and 13.5 but if due to carbonation, it is lowered
to 9.0 and below, corrosion of the reinforcement may occur because the alkalinity is no
longer capable of maintaining the passivating oxide film. The subsequent access of the
electrolyte causes electrochemical processes in the steel to begin. Concrete which has a
pH value below 9 is usually categorized as carbonated concrete.t 11 Therefore the depth of
carbonation is an important factor in the protection of reinforcement. The deeper the
carbonation, the greater the risk of corrosion of the steel.
It was assumed before that as only the calcium hydroxide produced by the hydration of
alite and belite reacted with the carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. Consequently
it was thought that hardened cement pastes containing blast-furnace slag were more
resistant to carbonation. 131
However it has been shown that substantially all the constituents of the cement are
subject to ultimate carbonation and the complete conversion of the hydrated cement is
chemically possible even at the low carbon dioxide concentrations present in normal
outdoor atmospheres.t 31 In recent years therefore, it has become the practice also to
include in the term "carbonation " the reaction between oxides of sulphur (SO 2 and SO3 )
and the calcium dioxide.
It is important to notice that there is a large difference between rate of diffusion of CO2 in
air and diffusion of CO2 in water (in water = t 10 4 times lower). [61 The penetration of
CO2 in concrete will be determined by the form of the pore structure i.e. whether the
pores of concrete are waterfilled or not. If the pores are dry (Figure 3.3) CO2 diffuses
inwardly but carbonation does not occur because of lack of water or moisture (case of
oven-dried concrete). [31

40

Figure 3. 3 Schematic representation of oven-dried partly carbonated concrete. i31

If the pores are filled with water (Figure 3.4) there is hardly any carbonation because of
the low rate of diffusion of CO2 in water. [31

Figure 3. 4 Schematic representation of water saturated partly carbonated concrete. PI

If the pores are only partly filled with water (Figure 3.5), which is normally the case close
to the concrete surface, carbonation can proceed to the depth at which the concrete pores
have dried out. [31

Figure 3. 5 Schematic representation of partly carbonated concrete dried at normal R.H. [31

The rate at which carbonation develops is dependent on the moisture content and relative
humidity in the vicinity of the concrete structure. Rapid carbonation penetration occurs at
a relative humidity ranging between 40 % to 75 %, while it is less at lower and very high
humidities as shown in the following: [11
41

Table 3.1 Carbonation rate vs relative humidity

Relative humidity (%)

Rate of carbonation

below 30
40 to 70
above 75

low
high
low

The corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete is considerably different to the corrosion of

the steel exposed to the atmosphere, since the concrete cover around the reinforcing steel
changes its chemical environment significantly. The primary function of the cover with
respect to corrosion is to serve as a protective coating. Its effectiveness is a function of
both its chemical composition and its physical structure. Figure 3.6 describes
schematically the evolution of the structure of cement from the unhydrated phase to the
hydrated phase. As known already, the cement paste structure develops as a result of
chemical reaction between the Portland cement grain and the mix water. Concrete sets at
a relatively early stage of hydration, after which the ex5ernal boundaries of the mass are
more or less fixed. However, the volume of the hydrated products that continue to form
as a result of the reactions is considerably greater than the volume of the cement grains
from which they are derived. [391 In consequence, the continued hydration tends to have a
space filling effect, as shown in Figure 3.7.
This effect is rather different for pastes of low and high water/cement ratios, respectively.
In both cases the porosity of the cement continues to decrease as hydration proceeds. But
after analyse of pores, it has been noticed that in low water/cement ratio concretes, after
hydration has continued for some reasonable time, the total porosity will be relatively
small. [391 Therefore, low water/cement ratio concrete is intrinsically less permeable than
high water/cement ratio concrete and, incidentally, is considerably stronger as well. This
is the reason why many specifications place an upper limit on the water/cement ratio to
be used for reinforced concrete that is to be exposed to aggressive environmental
conditions which could lead to the corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Figure 3.8 shows
how sometimes the quality of concrete may be assessed by determining the permeability
to the flow of water under pressure. The coefficient of permeability, K, is calculated from
D'Arcy's Law under test circumstances schematised in the Figure 3.6:
dq/dt = K A H/h

(3.3)

where dq/dt is the rate of water flow,

A is the cross-sectional area,
K is the coefficient of permeability in units of m/s,
H is the water pressure head in metres,
and h is the thickness of the concrete in metres.

42

Water, under pressure head, H

it
Concrete O

CD (1'1-

,&)

0(Th

Concrete
thickness

C/D
0 0
rN.c
0 U c,00

Permeating water

Cross section, A

Figure 3. 6 Schematic description of water permeability test. [39]

3.4.1 Decisive parameters

The total amount of acid necessary to neutralise the concrete to a certain depth is related
to the amount of alkaline hydration products per unit of volume (binding capacity). (61
This means in practice:
The composition of the cement (cement type).
The amount of cement per m 3 .
The progress of carbonation with time exposure under different conditions in Germany is
depicted in the Figure 3.9.
The amount of carbon dioxide that will diffuse per unit of time into the concrete depends
on the permeability of the concrete to CO2) (61 This means in practice :
The composition of the concrete.
The compaction of the concrete.
The curing conditions of the concrete.
The environmental conditions of the concrete.
The total alkalinity available to react with carbon dioxide changes with cement and
cement type. The general composition of OPC is about 64 % CaO and 0.5 - 1.5 Na20 and
K20. i31 After hydration these alkalis are present in the form of NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2,
calcium silicate hydrate and calcium aluminate hydrate. The conversion of the alkaline
componets is likey to be: 131
CO2 + 2 NaOH
Na2CO3 + Ca (OH)2

H2 0

-91

H 0
2

Na2 CO3

(3.4)

--11.-CaCO3 + 2 NaOH

(3.5)

3 Na2 CO3 + 3 CaO.2 Si02.3H20 -- 1:129-1-3CaCO 3 + 6 Si02 + 6 NaOH + 6 H2 O

(3.6)

Na2CO3 + CaO.A1203.H20 -- 112-9-4-CaCO3 + 2 Al (OH) 3 + 2 NaOH + 4 H2 O

(3.7)

43

The binding capacity for CO 2 (ceterum paribus) will be proportionate to the amount of
alkaline components in the cement.E31

Un hydrated

Cement
grains
Water

Hydrated
Hydation
products
Capillary
pores
Cement
grains
High w/c ratio (a 0.70)

Low w/c ratio (a 0.40)

Figure 3.7 Schematic description of the evolution of the structure

of cement pastes of low and high water/cement ratio. [39]

3.4.2 Effects of carbonation

The principal effects of carbonation of concrete are:
A large increase in irreversible shrinkage when the concrete is exposed to intermediate
relative humidities. Under normal conditions carbonation is slow, but over a long period
may cause shrinkage, additional to drying shrinkage which can have serious effects.
Warping of components and crazing of concrete surfaces have been attributed to this
cause.
Improved volume stability, except in cases where the concrete is cured by steam at
high pressure.
In the case of concretes made with ordinary or rapid-hardening Portland cement, a
considerably increased compressive strength.
A drastic reduction in the protection provided against corrosion of steel
reinforcement
In regard to (iv) it has been reported that steel in a highly alkaline environment, i.e. in the
presence of a sufficiently high concentration of hydroxyl ions, does not corrode. It is
believed that this passivity is due to the formation of a protective film of gamma ferric
oxide on the surface of the steel. As long as this protective film is maintained by a
sufficiently high pH and is not disrupted by aggressive substances, complete protection of

44

the steel against corrosion is assured. A reduction in pH may occur through carbonation,
the rate of carbonation being largely dependent on the permeability of the concrete.
Carbonation can be prevented or greatly reduced by producing concrete with a denser
microstructure. Good quality dense concrete carbonates very slowly. Even after a long
period (e.g. 50 years) carbonation is unlikely to penetrate to a greater depth than 5 mm 10 mm. On the other hand, a low strength, permeable concrete may carbonate to a depth
of 25 mm in less tan 10 years. 141 It has been estimated that in normal quality concrete of
water/cement ratio 0.50 by mass the depth of carbonation if the concrete is made with
OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) will be about 10 - 15 mm over a period of 10 years and
will have doubled in 50 years.
gq,-.6.'-giq,:.0' II , i egq.-<", ojzcs
-....-o
0 y1
g-0,4s)L
b--.
4(3:' a?
lad
.; f
opp,.,
101069,,
00 :Ai
1cl
ft) c= , 4 at) I/ V. s
moo.
,,,,,,l)
eapf,'"c7 a a'-,ST,- Oiqqo
c4
''=/.
gi-1-p ,?' IV' 8
- ,,g)60c,
opop p,..1=20
f i7 ' 4/A(7

Q 011D 2.):070 ,011

8fic,=-,,,,p,,,,.
,4 f,d2,g
0 oa.e..:,A A
0 c1=Ac'c,-,,c-,
= OP.,a
'---s-PA.0
_...
,,,,,--, ,_' =,,,---'
High w/c ratio (L-- 0.70)

Low w/c ratio (:---: 0.40)

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. 8 Assessment of concrete quality by the determination of

the permeability to the flow of water under pressure. [39)

Carbonation does not adversely affect the durability of the concrete itself. It is the
indirect effect it has on steel rebars that makes it undesirable in a reinforced concrete
structure. The rate of corrosion increases rapidly with reduction in pH below 11.5 in
solutions where air has limited access, and below 12.0 in aerated solutions.
The principal factors affecting the rate of carbonation are:
The impermeability of the concrete, which in turn depends on
The degree of compaction, water, cement ratio, efficiency of curing, aggregate
porosity,etc.,
The period of atmosphere exposure,
The concentration of carbon dioxide in and the relative humidity of the ambient
atmosphere.
A minor fact is the type of cement.
3.5 CHEMICAL AGGRESSION TO CONCRETE
Chemical attack on the concrete might be originated by one or more of the following
causes: tai
45

Aggressive compounds in solution in the sub-soil and/or ground water

Aggressive chemicals in the air surrounding the structure
Aggressive chemicals or liquid stored in, or in contact with, the structure
Chemical reaction between the constituents of the concrete, i.e., alkali-aggregate
reaction (AAR).

Dep th ofCa rbon at io n - m m

15

10

1 2 3 4

8
Age- years

Figure 3. 9 Progress of carbonation with time of exposure under different conditions. 1391
A : 20 C and 65 % of relative humidity (RH).
B : outdoors, protected by a roof
C : horizontal surface outdoors in Germany
The values are averages for concretes water/cement ratios of 0.45, 0.60 and 0.80,
wet-cured for 7 days.
3.5.1 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
3.5.1.1 Alkalis in cement and concrete

The chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb) and
Caesium (Cs), are called the alkali metals. The oxides of these alkali metals react with
water to form soluble hydroxides which are known as alkalis. Beside the following
elements and their average concentration CaO (64%), Si0 2 (21%), A1203 (6%), Fe203
(3%), cements contain also Na20 and K 20 as alkali metals oxides .This can be globally
expressed as the "alkali content" of the cement. But an easy way to quantify the alkali
content the concept of Na20 equivalent is used. Na20 equivalent is calculated using the
expression:

46

Na20 equivalent(%) = Na20 (%) + (62.0/94.2) x K20 (%)

= Na20 (%) + 0.658 x K20(%)

(3.8)

When water is added to cement, the sodium and potassium oxides react with the water,
releasing the alkalis sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide into the cement paste.
The "alkali content" of concrete can be expressed in the same way as that of cement by
using the Na20 equivalent, but the contribution of alkali from any cement replacement
materials or additives, as well as alkali from the cement, must be taken into account
(Concrete Society, 1987). 151
There is one further difference: while the alkali content of cement is expressed as a
percentage by mass, the alkali content of concrete is conventionally expressed as a mass
per unit volume (kg/m3). The cement content of concrete is also expressed as mass per
unit volume (kg/m3). Therefore the alkali content of the concrete can be readily
calculated from the expression: [51
Na20 equivalent of concrete (kg/m 3) = Na20 equivalent of cement (%) x 1/100
x cement content of concrete (kg/m 3)

(3.9)

3.5.1.2 Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR)

The reaction called Alkali-aggregate reaction occurs in concrete when alkalis from the
cement, or from an external source, react with certain aggregates to form products that
are deteriorous in some way to the concrete. Four forms of alkali-aggregate reaction have
been recognized .They are: 151
alkali-silca reaction,
alkali-silicate reaction,
alkali-carbonate reaction and
other alkali-aggregate reactions.
Alkali-silica reaction
Alkali-silica reaction occurs in concrete when alkalis from the cement, or from an
external source, react with free silica present in certain aggregates to form alkali-silica
gel. The alkali-silica gel has the property of attacking in water and expanding. [51 This
expansion can cause the aggregate particles and the concrete to crack, and ultimately can
damage the concrete.
When concrete has become damaged by the alkali-silica reaction, the characteristic
feature it display is a network of cracks, which on the surface of the concrete produce a
crazed pattern referred to as "map-cracking". [5] Sometimes, but not always, white alkalisilica gel can be seen emanating from the cracks, but in dry weather this often dries to a
white powder.

47

Alkali-silicate reaction
The alkali-silicate reaction is the same as the alkali-silica reaction except that in this case
the reactive constituent in the aggregate is not free silica but silica present in the
combined form of phyllosilicates(e.g. chlorite, vermiculite, mica.E 51
Alkali carbonate reaction
-

The alkali-carbonate reaction occurs in concrete when alkalis from the cement, or from
an external source, react with certain dolomitic limestones containing clay. The alkalis
react with the mineral dolomite [CaMg(CO 3 )2], causing it to break down into brucite
[Mg(OH)2] and calcite (CaCO 3), in a reaction that is called "dedolomitization" and which
is represented by the following equation: [5]
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2NaOH
Alkali

Dolomite

Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 + Na2CO3

Brucite

(3.10)

Calcite

N.B. This chemical equation can also be written with potassium in place of sodium.
Other alkali aggregate reactions
-

Beside the three reactions described above, other alkali-aggregate reactions can also
occur in concrete when the cement is wetted, because of the high reactivity of the alkalis
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. In Trinidad recently a concrete wall had to
be demolished because of unacceptable blemishes caused by alkalis from the cement
reacting with a brown organic-iron complex present as a coating on the aggregate. The
reaction product formed an oily brown deposit on the surface of the wal1. 151 This could
not happened if a locally low-alkali cement had been used instead of the imported highalkali cement.
3.6 CORROSION OF STEEL IN CONCRETE
3.6.1 General remarks
The corrosion of steel in concrete proceeds by means of an electrochemical mechanism
which involves both microcell and macrocell corrosion. The corrosion reaction is
therefore electrochemical and creates measurable electrical potentials. A microcell is
developed when anodic and cathodic regions are formed alternately along the surface of
the same reinforcement bar in very close proximity to each other. Only the mixed
corrosion potentials of the innumerable anodes and cathodes can be measured in this
case. In a macrocell, separate anodic and cathodic regions are formed some distance
apart, and both the anodic and cathodic potentials can be measured.E 101 Macrocell
corrosion is likely to play an important role in reinforcement corrosion. The large
dimensions of concrete structures and local differences in exposure conditions will
undoubtedly promote differential electrochemical behaviour in the embedded steel. This
is accompanied by potential differences along the reinforcement which in turn result in
galvanic interaction on large scale. The overall result is that part of the steel
reinforcement will suffer an accelerated corrosion attack, which often leads to premature
failure. [ 101
48

Galvanic macrocell interaction generally arises from differences in aeration(oxygen),

alkalinity (carbonation) or salt concentration (chlorides). A well-compacted concrete also
provides a physical barrier, reducing the penetration of atmospheric oxygen and moisture
which are necessary to initiate and sustain the corrosion reaction. When steel is directly
exposed to the atmosphere, the thickness of the electrolyte layer determines the
conditions for the development of the anodic and cathodic processes.E 401 This is depicted
in the Figure 3.10, where the corrosion rate of the steel is plotted against the thickness of
the water film on the metal surface.
ELECTROLYTE
THICKNESS

1 mm
I

100

CORROSION RATE

Figure 3. 10 Dependence of atmospheric corrosion rate on

moisture film thickness on the metal surface. 1401

The high alkalinity of the pore solution in concrete fundamentally provides durable
protection for steel .in concrete. 1121 It is thought that a thin layer of oxide forms on the
surface of the reinforcement. This passive layer of ferrous oxides formed on the steel
surface virtually excludes any possibility of iron dissolution. 1121 The steel is unlikely to
corrode whilst passivating conditions remain. This protection can be removed only
through carbonation of the concrete or if a critical chloride content at the steel surface is
exceeded (depassivation), allowing the reinforcement to corrode where a sufficient
supply of moisture and oxygen at the steel surface are available. 1121
3.6.2 Corrosion process

For steel in the alkaline environment of concrete the corrosion condition depends on both
pH and potential. It has been noticed that reinforcement is in a passive condition at the
high pH likely to be found in freshly cast concrete, but could start to corrode if the pH
were lowered. [111 We have seen that CO2 gradually penetrates through pores and cracks in
concrete causing a reduction in alkalinity. This process destroys the passive environment
and leaves the reinforcement in a condition where it is susceptible to corrosion. The
passivation can also be destroyed by the presence of salts (commonly chlorides). [111
The resulting corrosion is an electrochemical process, taking place in two substeps, as in
a battery (Figure 3.11).
49

Corrosion process:
I.

Concrete

000
Anode
Steel

Corrosion Electrical
products
current e,
/
/ (OH)-/-)2
/H0

ihJli h

--

Concrete
cover

''Ca2thode

--Electrons

Electrons

(a)

FNO 0
OQ
Ionic current
----

Anode

- Fe2*(0 F1)-- (OH)1;

0G

oo

Concrete
cover

, Cathode

(b)

Figure 3. 11 Corrosion processes on the surface of steel: 1391

Reactions at anodic and cathodic sites and electric current loop.
Flow of electrical charge in the electric current loop during the
corrosion process.

Reactions

anode : Fe ---,-Fe + 2ecathode : 1/2 02 + H2O +2eFe(OH)2 + X.02 + Y.H20

2 (OH) - rust

(3.11)
(3.12)
(3.13)

The anodic subreaction occurs at the actual corroding pits, where iron ions enter into
solution, releasing two electrons per ion.
The cathodic subreaction is not harmful to the steel. It usually occurs alongside the
anodically-acting regions of the surface, where the free electrons react with water and
oxygen, forming the corrosion products, which are generally deposited near the anode. (121
In reinforced steel structures, anode and cathode may be microscopically adjacent, or,
especially in cases of chloride-induced corrosion, up to a few meters apart. [12]
The existence of potentially anodic and potentially cathodic areas on the same steel does
not necessarily imply that the corrosion process will be of practical significance. One
important factor controlling the rate of corrosion is the availability of dissolved oxygen
surrounding the cathodic areas. Oxygen is consumed in the cathodic areas of the metal
(equation 3.12) and, if its supply in the solution surrounding the cathodic areas of the
50

metal is not continuously replenished, the corrosion reactions may be retarded. One way
that this can occur is if the surface of the steel surrounded by a protective layer (for
example, concrete cover) which slows down or prevents the diffusion of dissolved or
gaseous oxygen from the surrounding environment. This is diagrammatically shown in
the Figure 3.12.

1I

02

Concrete
cover

Figure 3.12 Schematic description of two factors which may slow down the rate of corrosion of steel
in concrete. [39]
(i) Diffusion of oxygen into cathodic site: in dense and water saturated concrete, the diffusibility of
oxygen is reduced. (ii) Electrical resistance to flow of ionic current: in dense and dry concrete the
resistance is high.

3.6.3 Corrosion in cracks region

Almost all international codes of reinforced concrete design relate permissible crack
widths to anticipated exposure conditions in order to avoid crack induced corrosion.
Narrow cracks can be obtained by reduction of the concrete cover. 161
Two different corrosion mechanisms are theoretically possible for steel corrosion in the
region of cracks: 1121
Mechanism 1

The anodic and cathodic sub-processes take place in the crack zone. Anodes and cathodes
are extremely small and locally not separable (microcell corrosion). Oxygen supply to the
cathodically-acting surfaces is mainly through the crack.
Mechanism 2

The reinforcement in the crack zone acts mainly as an anode, the passive steel surface
between the cracks forming the cathode. In this case, oxygen transport to the cathode is
chiefly done via the uncracked area of the concrete (macrocell corrosion). Much higher
corrosion rates are to be expected than in Mechanism 1, since the steel surface involved
in the cathodic sub-process is much larger. A description of the termination of corrosion
process due to crack sealing is represented in the Figure 3.13.

51

Termination
due to .
crack sealing

Initiation
(depassivation)

. Cl)

0
a)
rn
a)
a

Propagation
(corrosion)

Time

Figure 3. 13 Schematic description of the termination of

corrosion process due to crack sealing. (39]

In the Figure 3.14 a diagram illustrates the cracking corrosion-cracking cycles in

concrete.
CONCRETE CONTAINS
MICROCRACKS

I. HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE

GRADIENTS
IMPACT OF FLOATING OBJECTS
CHEMICAL ATTACKS,LEACHING OF
CEMENT PASTE
FREEZE-THAW ATTACK,OVERLOAOS,
AND OTHER FACTORS INCREASING
THE PERMEABILITY OF CONCRETE

HIGHLY PERMEABLE
CONCRETE

CRACK GROWTH

SEAWATER
AND AIR

CORROSION OF
EMBEDDED STEEL

Figure 3.14 Diagrammatic representation of

the cracking-corrosion-cracking cycles in concrete.

[39]

Illustration of the electrochemical process of steel corrosion in moist and permeable

concrete is made in the Figure 3.15.

52

lol.111100e rrOCeSS
02+ 2F120

02

+4e- - 40H -

unoae rrocess
Fe -0- Fe++ + 2e -

02

4 ,ep-++,:,.---,,,) ,t

--0....
9.05
Moist Concrete as
..
0
4L. -6
.:,..3. (2.o0
.. ., 03e .c.
-7,-,
-/.90.
an Electrolyte
-.9.L- \sy.:;0:--9*.

,7. c3 ..0 .c30 . :0

0 fc..1.c....o,;21:41**1...--Fe203 Surface Film

Cathode

Steel

111111 i H
e- ) )
Current Flow

Figure 3.15 Expansion and cracking of concrete due to corrosion

of the embedded steeL Illustration of the electrochemical process
of steel corrosion in moist and permeable concrete. [39]

The crack width of a concrete may influence the degree of corrosion of the reinforcing
steel. An illustration of this is schematically depicted in the Figure 3.16 for two identical
reinforced concretes. The width of the crack in concrete A is greater than that in B. ti is
time to depassivation of concrete A, t 2 is time to depassivation of concrete B.

Deg ree of co rros ion

Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Figure 3.16 Schematic description of the corrosion process in two identical concrete.

[39]

3.7 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION TO CONCRETE

Concrete can be damaged by a physical aggression (wear and damage). The principal
causes of this attack are: (11
Freezing and thawing on the outside of structures located in very exposed
environments (cold regions).
Thermal shock caused by a sudden and severe drop in the temperature of the concrete,
such as spillage of liquefied gases.

Abrasion to concrete, such as that caused to floors industrial buildings by steel

wheeled trolleys or in the silos, bins and hoppers containing coarse granular material.
Damage from high velocity water (cavitation, abrasion from water containing grit,
impact from high velocity jet).

53

5. Abrasion in marines structures caused by sand and shingle thrown against the
structure by heavy seas and gale force winds.
The above phenomena will not be examined in detail because these aspect of concrete
destruction are beyond the scope of the present notes. Rather, this study will attempt to
know how concrete degrades and what are the effects of this.

54

CHAPTER 4
PLANNING AND INVESTIGATION OF CAUSES
AND EFFECTS OF CONCRETE DEGRADATION

4.1 GENERAL REMARKS

The repair program is the step that comes after assessment of the causes of concrete
deterioration. Factors which greatly influence the type of repair technique and material to
be used are the type of deterioration, extent of damage, and the cause of deterioration.
Thus, it is important to identify the kind of deterioration before deciding on how best to
conduct the repair program.
However, the most difficult and important step of the repair process is the determination
of the cause of degradation. It is not possible to evaluate the need for repair or to select a
repair procedure and materials with assurance of satisfactory results unless the cause is
understood. With concrete, often the specific cause cannot be identified, either because
there is insufficient data to determine the origin of the trouble or because there are several
factors involved simultaneously.
4.2 DEFECTS AND CAUSES OF DEFECTS
IN VARIOUS TYPES OF CONCRETE
This paragraph discusses about some common concrete problems that can be identified
visually. It will also suggest some plausible explanation for the occurrence of these
defects. The various defects can be grouped into two categories :
Defects observed in different concretes.
Defects occurring in various concrete structures.
4.2.1 Architectural concrete
Architectural concrete may be defined as concrete which will be permanently exposed to
view and which therefore requires special care in the selection of the concrete materials,
forming, placing, and finishing to obtain to the desired architectural appearance.' ?1
The primary general factors which can singly, or in combination, cause blemishes are:i l l
General work conditions ( poor access, restricted openings, etc.).
The concrete mix ( too dry or wet mixes).
Placement techniques ( segregation of mix).
Compaction effect ( mismatch of vibrator and mix consistence).
Forms ( robustness, absorbency ).
The Table 4.1 summarizes the primary and secondary causes of surface blemishes and
lists a variety of factors influencing the origin of blemishes. Typical blemishes which
55

produce an aesthetically poor surface appearance include the following: hydration,

discoloration, efflorescence, weathering, honeycombing, blowholes, grout loss, scouring,
crazing, form scabbing, and scaling.
Colour variation in the matrix is due to differences in the colours of the different brands
of cement, differences in aggregates, or improper finishing and curing techniques. Drying
discoloration is the variation in the shade of concrete occurring after removal of the
forms. Weathering of architectural concrete is usually observed as an irregular
discoloration by disposition of foreign matter or due to an external chemical reaction.
Blow holes are small regular or irregular individual cavities normally not exceeding 15
mm diameter. Sand textured areas devoid of cement form when there is grout loss from
the mix. In the same way scouring produces washed out channels in the surface with
exposed sand or stone particles. 111
4.2.2 Formed Concrete

The actual trend in construction structures, is to leave concrete as the finish surface.
Therefore appearance becomes a very important aspect, particularly for vertical surfaces
which are usually formed and unfortunately prone to defects. Many kinds of defects
occur in formed concrete such as :
-

honeycombing : is a surface condition of irregular voids that results when the mortar
does not effectively fill the spaces in between the aggregate during vibration. It occurs
because the concrete mix is undersanded and/or placing conditions and techniques are
poor. [il
discoloration: is the variation of colour over the surface because of differences in the
brand of cement, excessive application of release agent, change in type of release agent,
non uniform absorbency of unsealed form board, incomplete mixing, etc. E' 8
'

91

subsidence cracking: occurs when concrete settles after or near initial set and concrete
is not able to accommodate the stress due to the high degree of cohesion in the mix.t 11
sand streaking or scouring: irregular eroded areas and channels with exposed stone and
sand particles. It is the result of using an excessively wet, lean concrete mix, placing at
too low temperature could also produce this effect.

aggregate transparency: consists of a generally mottled appearance of dark areas of

similar size and shape to the coarse aggregate. It is usually caused when the formwork is
not rigid enough, when gap graded mixes with low sand content is used, or excessive
external vibration has been used during placing. 111
efflorescence: consists of white deposits and stains found on concrete. The deposits
result from the migration of salts ( derived from the cements or alkalis in the ground) in
solution from the interior of the concrete or brick to the surface where they crystallize. 111

56

Table 4. 1 Contributors to surface blemishes in formed concrete. 111

Construction
conditions

Mixture

Placement

Compaction

Forms

Other
influences

Restricted form
openings

Sticky

Bucket

Vibrating
equipment

material
characteristics

Curing
discoloration

Thin section

Excessive sand

Small mouth

Low frequency

Wrong
absorptivity

By environment

Shape

Low sand fineness

modulus
Excessive minus
mesh sand

Poor configuration

Low amplitude

Too rough

Metal stain

Poor discharge
control

Weak power
source

Adhesion

Supervision

High cement
content
High air content

Concrete pump

Too small

Reaction with the

mix

Understaffed

Required fluid mix

Leakage at:

Excessive
pozzolana

Breakdown

Too powerful for

top
Not enough

Concrete
construction

Improper planning

Internal
interference

Particle
degradation

Slow delivery

Wrong type

joints

Inspection

Blockouts
Conduits

Harsh

Belt conveyor

Excessive course
aggregates
High sand
fineness modulus
Poor grading

Segregation

Voltage drop
Poor maintenance

Form comer joints

Form butt joints

Understaffed
Unqualified

Slump loss

Techniques

Tie holes

Workmen

Mortar loss

Release agent

Unskilled

Weather

Poor particle shape

Hopper/drop
chute

Vibration too
brief
Poor manipulation

Unsuitable type

Insufficient
numbers

High temperature
Low temperature
Precipitation

Consistency

Early stiffening

Spacing too brief

Not deep enough
Head partially
immersed
Placed too close to
form joint
Continuity

Chemistry of agent
Friction with mix
Applied too thick

Wind

Omitted
Too small
Insufficient
number
Unsuitable
material

Specifications

Too high
Too low

Construction
Interfering
construction
Projedory rebars
Interference to
access
Composite
structural steel
concrete

Plumbing
Excessive
reinforcing steel

Temperature

Deposit

Flash set

Spacing

Too cold

Excessive mixing

Too hot

Admixture

Distant from
comer
High volume

Improper use

High Lift

Wrong type

Excessive time
interval
Equipment
breakdown
Excessive free fall
Rebars interfere

Inadequate
Inappropriate

Not cured

False set

Wrong dosage

. Unqualified

Vibrating
equipment
Low frequency

4.2.3 Surface defects in flatwork

Initiations of discontinuities or microcracks may occur in concrete slabs and other

flatwork before being in service. These initial cracks and other surface defects are due to
non-uniform volume changes resulting from shrinkage of the cement paste. The
subsequent interaction of the structure with in-service and ambient environmental
conditions cause the build-up of corrosion products around reinforcement, abrasion of the
surface etc. 111
57

The surface defects in flatwork are beyond the scope of this study. This is the reason why
we will just mention the typical surface defects likely to be found in flatwork such as
floors, pavement, and other fat slab without describing them in detail. These are:
Blistering.
Bleeding.
Dusting.
Popouts.
Bucling.
Curling.
Scaling and spalling.
4.2.4 Cracks in concrete

It is important to notice that cracks as such are not necessarily defects needing repair.
They are usually a symptom rather than a fault. In the majority of cases, cracks do not
result in structural failure, but they can result in definite loss of performance of the
structure by causing accelerated deterioration potentially rendering the structure
unserviceable. [1]
It is also important to determine the cause of the cracks. The most determinant factors
that will help in deciding what actions should be taken are cracks width, position and
direction, and the degree of exposure.
Cracks can be classified by direction, width and depth, namely longitudinal, transverse,
vertical, diagonal, and random. with regard to direction at the surface. There are two main
kinds :
map cracks or pattern cracks. These are rather uniformly distributed short cracks
running in all directions roughly in hexagonal patterns. They indicate restraint of the
surface by the inner concrete or backing. 111
single continuous cracks. These run in rather definite directions, often in parallel at
definite intervals. They indicate restraint in the direction perpendicular to them.E l i
Cracks that appear and continue to develop after the concrete has hardened are
considered active. Cracking is called dormant when it is caused by a factor that is not
expected to occur again (e.g. plastic cracks and cracks resulting from temporary
overloading).
There are three width ranges of cracks that are referred to: 111
Fine : generally less than 1 mm in width
Medium : between 1 and 2 mm
Wide : over 2 mm

58

those that occur before hardening and those observed after hardening. Figure 4.2
illustrates a typical family tree of crack types.
4.2.4.1 Crazing

Crazing is the cracking of the surface into small irregularly shaped areas. It is the result
of surface tensile stresses caused by the shrinkage of the surface relative to the mass.
Cracking can also occur when the surface carbonates, the concrete is inadequately cured,
or is excessively floated drawing water and fines to the surface resulting in a weak
concrete.

TYPES AND CAUSES OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE-7

AFTER HARDENING

BEFORE HARDENING

THERMAL

PHYSICAL

CONSTRUCTIONAL
SETTING
MOVEMENT
SHRINKAGE
SETTLEMENT
SHRINKAGE.

STRUCTURAL
DESIGN
ACCIDENTS

CHEMICAL
STRESS
CONCENTRATIONS

1
SUBGRADE
MOVEMENT

FORMWORK
MOVEMENT

PLASTIC
SHRINKAGE

DRYING

DRYING
SHRINKAGE

SHRINKAGE

MOISTURE
MOVEMENTS

INTERNAL
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES

FROST
THERMAL
EXTERNAL
PROPERTIES VIBRATIONS AND
ICE

OF

ACTION

AGGREGATE'.

REINFORCEMENT
OR SIMILAR
CONSTRUCTIONS

AGGREGATE

RAPID

I
SLOWER
STAGE

REACTIVE
CEMENT
COMPOSI
AGGRE
TION AND
GATES
CARBONATION

FOREIGN
BODIES
AND RUST

REINFORCE
MENT

I
STRUCTURAL
FORM

Figure 4. 1 Chart showing causes of cracking in concrete ill

4.2.4.2 D-cracking

This is the progressive formation of series of fine cracks on the surface of concrete. The
cracks form at close intervals often of random patterns.
4.2.4.3 Cracks caused by stress concentration

Beside stress cracks that occur at corners of doors, windows and similar openings,
another instance of stress concentration cracking is where the corrosion products of steel
reinforcement cause an increase in volume which exerts a pressure on the concrete
immediately above the reinforcement. Consequently cracks develop in the concrete, and a
typical wedged area spalls off at an advanced stage of corrosion. Figure 4.2 shows a
schematic description of the corrosion process taking place at the tip of a pit or a crack in
a stressed metal leading to its embrittlement.

59

CREEP

Metal surface

Metal surface
//

1-1+
\
CY-

Stressed tip
(a)

Stressed tip
(b)

Figure 4. 2 Schematic description of the corrosion process. [39]

Stress corrosion cracking.
Hydrogen embrittlement

4.2.4.4 Random cracks

Cracks, deep or wide occurring solely or in group can be induced by any of the several
factors that cause cracking including improper jointing or unstable subgrade. the rapid
drop in temperature ( e.g. a hot day followed by a cold night) is also a way of producing
such cracks.
The pattern of the cracking, its location, the depth and width of cracks, the presence of
foreign material on the cracked surfaces, and differences in elevation of two contiguous
cracked concrete masses are factors that help to determine what cause the cracks to form.
In general, the volume of rust produced in a corrosion reaction is at least twice the
volume of the steel that is dissolved. 1391 Thus, rust formation involves a substantial
volume increase. Since most of the rust is confined within the concrete immediately
surrounding the reinforcing steel, its formation generates expansive stresses within the
concrete which can lead to cracking of the cover. Longitudinal cracks, spalling and
delamination often take place. The damage to the concrete cover due to the formation of
rust is schematically represented in the Figures 4.3 and 4.4.

60

Ardir
Cross-section
I Corrosion crack

3 Lamination

Figure 4. 3 Schematic presentation of the damage

[39]
to the concrete cover due to the formation of rust.
Flat slab

Corner

/c. .
' ---r---//i / - - Max. stress may
occur at A depending
on bar spacing

V7 '

Max. stress at A
for single bar

:.,;',',!--=---- ---4,

C _C 0.5

Max. stress at A
for single bar

"/7..A

'' 77' 1

0 . /./0
Max. stress may
occur at ()depending
on bar spacing

: /i -..,-/

'-.':;.W 6
- -
Max. stress at 0
for single bar

C=0.51.50

Max. stress at 0
for single bar

it.
'
Ey/

"--

Max. stress may

occur at 0 depending
on bar spacing

,, ,:tz , '",-,...
i1
1
Uniform stress
around bar
for single bar

,...- .:,;.1t.%-%-t.,

C> 1.5

Uniform stress
around bar
for single bar
Preferred
failure planes

Figure 4. 4 Schematic description of the types if damage to the

concrete cover due to the formation of rust, as a function of the
position of the corroding steel bars and the ratio between depth
of cover and steel diameter. [391

In summary, a list of some factors causing cracking are as follows:

Poor quality of concrete - too high water content and use of excessively high cement
contents.
Poor structural design.
The development of differential thermal stresses due to high heat of hydration.
61

The tensile stresses developed due to restrained thermal expansion and contraction
from temperature changes, and ensuing dimensional changes as a result of diurnal
and seasonal temperature cycle.
Dimensional expansion and contraction caused by cycles of wetting and drying
Errors, negligence, or bad workmanship.
Corrosion of steel by chloride ions.
Rapid evaporation of moisture due to dry, hot, and windy conditions prevailing at the
time of placing.
Structural adjustment due to foundation movement by settlement or due to expansive
soils.
Chemical attack of concrete both internally (alkali-aggregate) and externally
(sulphate attack).
Improper use or altered use of structure.
Ageing and weathering.
Plastic settlement and heavy loading.
4.3 CONDITION SURVEY
From remarks formulated in the general, section 4.1, it appears that before undertaking
any repair work, an evaluation of the existing condition of the structure is often
necessary.E l l The aim of this evaluation is to collect information on the extent of
deterioration , and to determine the cause and significance of this deterioration.
This information can only be obtained through a systematic review of service records
and the original design and construction details of the structure. A detailed field
investigation should be planned. Sometimes, it takes a chemist and concrete petrographer
to carry out a detailed investigation to identify the type of deterioration. If records are not
available, visual survey, observations, non destructive testing and sound judgement
should be included in planning a field investigation program.
The results of the field investigation and laboratory tests will be very determinant in the
selection of materials and methods for the repair program.
A condition survey is generally necessary to evaluate the performance of relatively old
structures or structures in advanced stage of distress. It may also be required for other
reasons such as routine maintenance, rehabilitation, modification of the service
conditions, investigation of structural stability, and study of the performance of a material
under specific exposure conditions.
4.4 PLANNING AN INVESTIGATION
As stated previously, before undertaking renovation or repair work, it is important and
essential to make an investigation on the concrete and building structure. In the case of
renovation or change of use, it is usually necessary to determine the details of the design
and the current strength of the concrete and the state of reinforcement, to assist in
assessing the load carrying capacity.E i n Renovation methods and techniques are beyond
the scope of this study.

62

In the present study we focus mainly on repair aspect, i.e. the case of structures where
some form of deterioration has taken place and which demand restoration. For all these
cases, the causes of deterioration must be established so that appropriate remedial and
protective work can be designed and specified.
The most common reasons for carrying out appraisals or assessment of structures are the
following: [13,14]
Some form of deterioration is apparent, e.g. cracking, spalling, staining, loss of
surface
There is apparent structural weakness or distress. Evidence of this would be shown
by large deflections, cracking or spalling.
A change of use of the structure is being considered.
The structure has been generally or locally damaged by an accidental loading such as
impact, explosion, fire, earthquake or settlement.
The structure is changing ownership.
A defect is suspected in the structure.
The appraisal forms part of the routine maintenance programme.
In the following sections, comments will be made on some condition survey methods.
Although there are several existing methods, the comments will be limited only to those
that have been used for the R.A.0 Concrete Pilot Project.
4.4.1 Overall Plan

The appraisal or assessment of a concrete structure involves some form of survey. The
aim of this is to provide sufficient information to allow a realistic assessment of the
structure to be carried out. The individual activities and techniques used in the survey
will be different depending on the type of assessment required but, in most cases, the
overall plan will be the same. There will be an initial phase when general dimensions and
global properties are determined, and a later phase when particular locations are
examined in greater detail. These principal stages in the investigation of a concrete
structure are illustrated for condition assessment in Figure 4.5. 111
4.4.1.1 Initial General Phase

The first objective in most investigations is to gather readily available information on the
structure through an initial walk inspection which provides the opportunity to make initial
assessments of the structural form and to take general note of the locations of any
deterioration. 1111 All potential problems related to access to critical locations and other
specific aspects should be noted at this stage in order to take relevant dispositions for
later stages of the survey.
In a second stage of the survey, the attempt will consist in finding existing records of the
structure such as drawings or any other valuable information. Other possible sources of
information are given in an appendix to a report by the Institution of Structural
Engineers. [11, 15] Recorded details must be subject to checks at site, because there may be
discrepancies between what is shown on drawings and what was actually constructed.
63

4.4.1.2 Detailed Phase

This phase comes after the preliminary walk-over survey and the search for existing
records. During this phase, individual activities will differ depending on whether an
assessment of structural capacity or condition is being undertaken.
The provision of access requires consideration early in the planning phase. The form of
access should be such that it provides a suitable and safe platform for the planned
activities and equipment, and permits the surveyors/inspectors to obtain a close view of
critical areas of the structure.i' l l Most of the time ladders and lightweight scaffold towers
will be found to be suitable and helpful. Other means such as scissor lifts, satellite towers
and cherry-pickers may also be used but sometimes they can be expensive although they
may worth it for difficult locations. At R.A.U., the use of scaffolds was the most
common.
Samples can be taken from a structure and further tested in order to be able to estimate
the overall mean value of some properties such as strength, cover to reinforcement,
carbonation depth, chloride content, etc.. The number of samples to be taken must be
assessed at the planning stage. Statistical methods may be useful for that.
Several factors make the investigation of reinforced concrete structures particularly
challenging. Among these are: 1111
A reinforced member derives its strength from both the reinforcement and the
concrete. Workmanship during the construction phase as well as the maintenance
history of a member may influence the strength developed by this latter.
Concrete as a material has a wide strength range.
The strength properties of concrete are time-related.
Attack by external agencies or internal chemical process may result in substantial
strength reductions.

64

Walk over survey of

whole structure

Research
existing
records

Undertake
Dimensional
Survey

decide on high risk

zones from
structural
and local
environmental
considerations

Examine those
areas in detail.
Take samples.
Undertake in situ
tests

Determine structural
form and action

fi
Choose critical
Locations

Laboratory testing

Undertake
Investigation
to determine
reinforcement
content and
concrete strength

Assess present
condition of
structure and
future
performance

Capacity of structure

Load
test

Assess
structural
capacity
Condition of survey

Figure 4. 5 Stages in investigation of a reinforced concrete structure.

65

CHAPTER 5
INVESTIGATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF
DEFECTS IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

5.1 GENERAL
Investigation of defects in reinforced concrete structures is a very important stage in the
process preceding concrete rehabilitation. In general this job must be done by a qualified
engineer. The essential object during such an investigation is the ability to recognise at an
early stage the likely causes of the defects. From that, the investigation will be directed
accordingly. Possibility of structural weakness must draw a particular attention.
In practice, inspection of reinforced concrete structures should be carried out regularly
and an adequate decision should be taken on what remedial work, if any, should be
carried out.
The course which has to be followed when dealing with inspection of reinforced
structures is the following :
Investigation (preliminary and detailed).
Diagnosis (based on the results of the investigation).
Preparation of report, and when required, preparation of specification and contract
documents for remedial. [41
This can be taken as a general guide to good practice. The form that the investigation
takes will clearly depend on the type of structure and its conditions.
Failures and defects in concrete structures can be placed in five categories: [41
Structural deficiency resulting from such causes as error in design, errors in
construction, impact, explosions, and change of use resulting in higher loading than
was allowed for in the original design.
Fire damage. This can result in some weakening of parts of the structure, as well as
physical damage to columns, beams, slabs, etc.
Deterioration due to poor quality concrete, inadequate cover to reinforcement, the
presence of chlorides and/or sulphates in the concrete.
External chemical attack on the concrete and/or reinforcement.
Physical damage caused by the use to which the structure or part has been put or
subjected to, such as abrasion of a floor slab in a factory, or abrasion of marine
structures by sand and shingle.
Investigation activities usually involve testing of the existing structures. There are,
essentially, two types of testing:

66

Testing involving the taking of samples from the concrete and/or mortar.
What is known as "non-destructive" testing in which samples are not taken.
The samples are normally taken in order to establish certain characteristics, usually by
means of cores, e.g. compressive strength, grading of aggregates, type of cement, mix
proportions, percentage of chlorides, sulphates, etc.
The range of "non-destructive" tests has increased considerably in recent years, and now
includes covermeter surveys, ultrasonic pulse velocity tests, Schmidt hammer tests,
loading tests, gamma radiography, half-cell surveys. During the investigation phase for
the R.A.U. Concrete Rehabilitation Pilot Project, we have used essentially nondestructive testing to gather information concerning the concrete condition. Figures 5.1
and 5.2 exhibit the schematic principles of some non-destructive methods commonly
used.
Power
supply

Radar pulse
generator and
control unit

Data
storage and
display

Receiver

Transmitter

Air

Scan
/77,-/- zrz/z/-/-7z/z77777,
Material 1

/ Reflection

-refraction \

Anomaly

kr

Figure 5. 1 Subsurface radar.

[381

Material 2

5.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Non-destructive testing in all forms may be considered as being indicative only and
should not be considered as giving absolute information. Valuable information about a
concrete structure can be obtained from non-destructive testing and vigilant observation.
The major areas of non-destructive testing involve determining the extent of cracking and
discontinuities, areas of poor consolidation, presence of voids and honeycombs, location
and size of reinforcing steels, level of moisture, and extent of deterioration that may have
occurred due to service or damage from unusual loading conditions. 111
A classification of regions with corrosion risk can also be made from information derived
from non-destructive testing for reinforcement corrosion. This approach addresses the
risk of corrosion activity, and if supplemented by measurements of concrete resistivity
can be used to assess the potential severity of corrosion in high-risk areas. Resistivity
67

measurement may be based on a two-probe or non damaging four-probe technique shown

,A'Ammeter
in Figure 5.2 ctiat`C--
0. c.
\s4

sPC

Electrodes
with couplant

Currcnt flow lines

Figure 5.2 Resistivity measurement

Equipotential surfaces
USIng

non-namaging Tour-prone technique . [381

The following non-destructive testing methods have been used for the R.A.U. Concrete
Rehabilitation Pilot Project:
5.2.1 Visual inspection

A thorough visual inspection is the simplest form of non-destructive evaluation

technique. Its importance should not be underestimated. This evaluation technique is easy
to apply, quickly carried out, economic, requires no expensive equipment. As a major
requirement, the area of inspection must be adequately illuminated. With the good human
eye visual perception, normal size defects can be identified easily. Optical aids such as
mirrors, lenses, microscopes, etc., may be used as means to compensate for the limits of
the human eye by enlarging small discontinuities.
In order to avoid errors due to the decrease in visual reliability and the ability to
discriminate between various features, the period of time during which visual inspection
is carried out should be limited. Taking photographs is very useful for future comparison
and reference. Surface imperfections such as cracks, excessive deflection, signs of
leakage, evidence of movement, and peeling of finishes should be carefully observed and
recorded. This may indicate possible deficiencies of structural significance.
Many useful tools are used for field inspection. Among them are the following:I l l
Tamping hammer.
Pocket magnifier to measure dimensions of flaws.
Set of feeler gauges.
Pair of good quality binoculars.
Camera.
Measuring tape.
Steel ruler etc.
0

68

5.2.2 Sounding test

The sounding test is a sound based test that may help in assessing concrete strength and
investigating the likely presence of cracks voids in the concrete. It is carried out with the
Schmidt Rebound Hammer or simply the Impact Hammer. This device measures the
hardness of a concrete surface by rebound principle. The. test is based on the principle
that the extent of rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface
against which the mass strikes. The Impact Hammer is essentially made of a spring
controlled hammer mass that slides on a plunger. A cylindrical casing houses the system.
The test is sensitive to local variation in the concrete quality: for instance, the presence of
a large piece of aggregate under the plunger would result in an unusually high recording
number. Conversely, the presence of a void would show a very low result. For this
reason, in most structures, it has been suggested that at least 16 readings be taken in a
square foot area.
Even though the Impact hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of checking
relative quality of concrete, it has several limitations. the following is a list of the factors
which affect the results of Impact Hammer tests:
Smoothness of the concrete surface.
Age and type of concrete.
Surface and internal moisture condition of the concrete.
Type of coarse aggregate.
Carbonation of concrete surface.
However, the method is quite useful for determining the uniformity of the concrete
quality in a structure and comparing two areas with similar types of concrete.
5.2.3 Covermeter survey

Electromagnetic covermeter survey is a testing method enabling to assess the thickness of

concrete cover over the reinforcement. Electromagnetic covermeter surveys can under
favourable conditions be considered as accurate on an average site, within 5 mm.
Inadequate cover to reinforcing steel is one of the primary causes of- corrosion of
reinforcing and subsequent deterioration of the concrete. Therefore, measurement of
cover during a condition survey is essential to establish the adequacy of protection to
steel.
Devices used for cover measuring are known as pachometers or covermeters. Apart their
primary purpose of cover measuring, these devices can also be used to identify the
locations of embedded rebars to avoid cutting them during core drilling operation. Hand
held devices are the more in use, comparing to automated devices mounted on wheels
and used for rapid measurement on large areas. For the R.A.U. Concrete Rehabilitation
Pilot Project, we have used a Swiss made hand held covermeter.

69

5.2.4 Carbonation depth

From the standpoint of durability, the loss of an alkaline protective cover to reinforcing
steel due to carbonation is a concern. Significant carbonation of the protective cover can
result in rapid corrosion of reinforcing steel. The technique used to assess the level of
carbonation is known as the "carbonation depth method".
As seen before, carbonation of the concrete is the neutralisation of the normal basic
cementitious phases of material by acidic gases such as CO2 present in the atmosphere.
This can lead to corrosion of the steel reinforcement and a reduction in the serviceability
of the structure concerned.
Phenolphthalein indicator is normally used to measure the depth of carbonation in
concrete. The test can detect the carbonation front quite accurately because the pH of the
concrete at the front usually drops fairly sharply from over 13 to less than 9. Table 5.1
shows the main indicators used for carbonation depth measurement.
Table 5.1 Indicators used for carbonation depth measurement

Acid/base indicators used

for detecting changes of
pH in the mortars
Designation

Colour change

Approximate pH change

Phenolphthalein
8.2 - 9.8
Thymolphtalein
9.3 - 10.5
Titan Yellow
Indigo Carmine

Colourless/Pink

< 10

Colourless/Blue

11

Yellow/Brown
Blue/Green/Yellow

12.5
13

Before undertaking carbonation depth measurement, the following must be known:

The water/cement ratio of the concrete and cement content.
The age of the concrete.
The exposition time to CO2 at internal Relative Humidity.
The concentration of CO2.
Original carbonation depth of the concrete is depending on the degree of rainfall
exposure, the concrete quality, normal carbonation rate in the environment. Carbonation
coefficients are 2.0 to 4.1 mm/'year.
The threshold moisture content for the reinforcement corrosion in carbonated concrete is
usually considered to be 85 % of the relative humidity. Very near to the value found
critical for realkalisation by some researchers.

70

Petrography (optical microscopy) can be made as a complement to carbonation depth

determination by using the pH indicator phenolphthalein in order to confirm the
phenolphthalein results.
5.2.5 Non-destructive method for reinforcement corrosion

Assessment of the risk and extent of corrosion of embedded steel forms a major area of
concern, and is particularly important in relation to maintenance and repair programmes.
Corrosion of embedded reinforcement or prestressing steel is widely recognized as the
principal mechanism of deterioration of structural concrete.
Testing for corrosion risk and steel embedded in concrete may be considered under three
categories:
Tests to assess the protection provided by the surrounding concrete
Tests to assess the electrical or electrochemical characteristics of the steel and
concrete combination.
Tests to identify the extent to which corrosion has progressed, from the effects of the
corrosion products upon magnetic, ultrasonic, impact and similar responses.
Tests within the first category include measurement of cover thickness, surface zone
permeability, carbonation depth and chloride concentrations.
Tests within category 3 are at the laboratory development stage.
Tests within category 2 form the essential part of non-destructive survey for
reinforcement corrosion.
As seen before, steel corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the establishment
of corroding and passive sites on the metal surface, leading to the development of regions
of differing electrical potential and resulting in current flow within the concrete.
The location of existing corrosion sites can be made by measuring the magnitude of
corrosion currents. Predictions of future corrosion failure can be made, provided that the
prevailing ambient conditions remain constant.
Two principal electrical test methods are in use: Half potential and resistivity. We
describe below the half-cell potential only because used during R.A.U. Concrete
Rehabilitation Pilot Project and because the resistivity test (Figure 5.2) is just a
supplement method of measurement to half-cell potential measurements in regions shown
to be at risk from corrosion. It will provide information about its likely severity.
5.2.5.1 Half-cell potential method

The process of corrosion causes electrical potentials to be generated and the half cell
provide a method of detecting and categorizing these electrical potentials. The equipment
and method are described in some standards, namely in ASTM C 876.
It consists of measurement of the potential Ec of embedded reinforcing bars relative to a
reference half-cell placed on the concrete surface. Cu/SO4 or Ag/AgC1 cells are typically

71

used. A small hole may have to be drilled to enable electrical contact to be made with the
reinforcement.
The concrete functions as an electrolyte and the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement in
the immediate region of the test location may be related empirically to the measured
potential difference between the half-cell and the reinforcement. Half-cell potentials Ec
values are recorded as a function of the location of the measuring points. A map of the
structure surface can be drawn and the half-cell potential results written on it. 600 mV
indicates complete passivity of the steel.
Copper rod
High
impedance
voltmeter

Saturated
copper
sulphate

Connection
to bar

Porous plug

Reinforcing bar

Figure 5. 3 Schematic diagram of equipment for half-cell potential tests. 1381

5.2.5.2 Procedures

The Ec values at the locations of the measuring points are plotted on the map.
Equipotential contours are drawn, corresponding to the points having the same Ec.
Some critical Ec values are selected for drawing these equipotential curves. They
correspond to "corrosion risk" of the rebars, according to some recommendations,
such as precisely, the Ec values are divided into classes whose meanings are:
Class S: Ec -200 mVcsE : rebars are unlikely to be corroded (passivation).
Class M: - 350 Ec 5 -200 mVcsE : rusting is possible.
Class R: Ec < -350 mVcsE : rebars are likely to be corroded.
The machine showed in Figure 5.4 is used for half-cell potential measurements. This
machine reads and records the potentials and displays the values numerically and in
graphic format. 1421 The potential values indicate the level at which the reinforcement is
corroded. In the absence of any stray current, the half-cell potential usually ranges
between -500 and +100 mVcsE (Reference cell Cu/CuSO4).
The limitation of this method is that this technique cannot indicate the actual corrosion
rate. Interpretations are based on a combination of absolute potential and study of
localised potential gradients and differences.
72

INVESTIGATION AND DIAGNOSIS

Figure 5.4 Half-cell potential measurement. (421

In carbonated contaminated concrete, no significant rate of corrosion is noticed until a

certain moisture is present in the concrete pores. beyond this minimum the rate of
corrosion increases until it reaches a maximum at around 95 %, where the oxygen control
may start to limit the corrosion rate. Therefore, the rebar corrosion rate is a consequence
of the balance between electrical resistivity and oxygen availability.
Corrosion rate is the most significant parameter in determining the time to cracking of the
cover concrete. There is risk in taking an isolated single reading. Either several readings
taken during seasonal variations seem to be necessary to characterize a corroding
concrete element, or single measurements have to be statistically treated as is done for
concrete mechanical strength. Measured corrosion rates at a point in time cannot be
directly used for predicting the time to cracking. To simplify, an equivalent corrosion rate
(annual mean corrosion rate) is suggested for use in predicting the metal loss over the
time. Carrying out a potential survey of the steel reinforcement is a well established test
for determining the corrosion activity of the reinforcement in concrete. It is however open
to misinterpretation as it is likely that complete depolarisation of the steel, following such
large polarising currents (1-2 A/m 2), may require considerable periods of time.
73

CHAPTER 6
REPAIR PROGRAMME

6.1 GENERAL REMARKS

Repair actions correct existing deterioration or distress of a structural, serviceability, or
aesthetic nature, accomplishing restoration of structural integrity, serviceability, or
adjusting cosmetic defects. Structural repair restores concrete to a more pleasing lost
sectional or monolithic properties to damaged concrete members while serviceability
repairs restore concrete surfaces to a satisfactory operational standard.t 21
The selection of a repair method is the crucial step in the rehabilitation of a structure. It is
often a difficult process which involves consideration of a large number of factors, some
of which are technical, some economic, and others which are purely practical. Other
factors which need to be taken in account are:P i]
Cause of damage and the results of the preliminary assessments
Future life requirement of the structure.
The overall quantity of repairs and the size of individual repairs.
Access.
Requirement for continued use of the structure during repair and the time available
for repair.
Relative costs.
Client requirements including future maintenance and economic considerations.
Serviceable concrete repairs can result only from a correct choice of method and the
careful performance of techniques. A wrong or an ineffective repair, coupled with poor
workmanship, lead to inferior quality repair. Proper materials selection and surface
preparation are essential to high quality, durable, and functional repair. Materials selected
for use in concrete repair must meet specification requirements for the particular
application or intended use. Manufacturer's recommendations must be considered during
the preparation and the use of these materials. mixing, proportioning, and handling must
be in accordance with the highest standards of workmanship. Once the cause of
degradation in a structure has been diagnosed, the selection of appropriate materials and
removal and repair should be based on the following considerations: [2]
Adjustments or modifications required to remedy the cause of the damage prior the
repair.
Restriction of access to the structure, weight restrictions on equipment, weather, and
operational schedule on the structure.
Advantages and disadvantages of making permanent vs temporary repairs.
The availability of repair materials and methods, and the possibility of using them for
the particular repair.
The choice of the most economically viable materials and methods which will also
reproduce a satisfactory job.
Restrictions to noise, dust, vibration, and exhaust fumes.
74

7. Method of disposal of watery waste.

Common techniques used in repair and renovation include:
Sprayed concrete.
Breaking out and recasting of individual members or regions of structures.
Patch repair
Crack injection.
6.2 SELECTION OF REPAIR MATERIALS AND METHODS
The unlimited selection of repair products available on the market makes choosing the
right one for a specific repair work important. The service life of a repaired area will
depend on the exposure to which it will be subjected. Furthermore, the location of the
problem will determine, to a large degree, the product for best results. For instance, one
material used to repair a honeycombed area on a vertical surface may be a bad choice for
a scaled floor.
The choice of the repair material to be used will depend not only on the particular nature
of the problem but also on the function of the structure, the availability of equipment and
skilled manpower, the relative importance of appearance, and of course the funds
available for the repair. below is a list of the more frequently used repair materials:t 171
Acrylic-modified mortars.
Elastic sealants.
Epoxies.
Expanding mortars.
Flexible epoxy resins.
Latex-modified compounds.
Portland cement concrete, grout, or mortar.
Quick-setting materials.
For active cracks, for replacement of expansion joints, or for use between any two
surfaces that are subject to movement, elastic sealants are recommended.
Quick-setting materials, usually referred to as water plugs, wet plugs, or hydraulic
cements, are useful where water is coming from a hole under pressure. They set and
harden rapidly.
Latex-modified concrete possesses good adhesive properties and high compressive and
tensile strength. It is reasonably flexible, has a low water-absorption factor, and is
durable. It is recommended for the repair of concrete roads, bridges, and heavy-duty
floors.
Portland cement has several advantages as a repair material for deep repairs. It has the
same thermal qualities as the concrete to which it is being bonded. Other advantages are
that Portland cement is well known and understood. It is widely available and reasonably
low in cost.
75

Portland cement grout is generally used where the opening to be repaired is small, and
where shrinkage can be tolerated. It is usually pumped under pressure into these
openings, for best results. However an epoxy injection can be preferred if the repair is
important.
Portland cement mortar may be used for various repairs. It is not recommended for very
shallow problems because it will usually not stand up well. All mortar repairs should be
at least 40 mm deep and never feather-edged. The sides of the repair area should be
vertical to the full depth of the patch. 1171 The preparation of the repair area is similar to
the concrete repair area preparation, i.e., saturation with water in order to prevent
absorption of the water from the fresh patch, application of a bonding agent, and while
the bonding agent is still tacky, compaction of the stiff mortar into place. The patch must
be covered with a wet burlap and kept moist for at least 3 days. 1171 When the repair to be
made is an important part of the structure epoxies should be seriously considered.
Epoxies are generally a two-component system, producing a 100 percent solid, modified
epoxy resin which is injected into cracks. The product is self bonding. The process may
be more expensive than others not only because of the cost of the material but also
because of the method of application. A big advantage in the epoxy systems, as with
magnesium phosphate cements, is the ability of these repair products to be applied in
temperatures below freezing. 1171 Some epoxies can be applied on moist, wet, and dry
surfaces. They harden rapidly and have used successfully underwater in the repair of
dams. However, the use epoxy products may require the employment of skilled
manpower familiar with the various products, the proper preparation of the problem
surface, and the correct method of application. Caution must be taken during application
in order to avoid health danger subsequent to the use of epoxies.
Latex and acrylic-modified cement mortar are the more conventional patching materials.
They are less expensive than epoxy materials. When added with a synthetic latex, they
are excellent products that perform well and easy to apply. They are more flexible and
durable, and will resist freeze/thaw cycles better than the conventional patch. They are
not resistant to chemicals as epoxy-based' materials and are suitable when such
deteriorating forces are not involved.
The choice of a specific repair material or method will be finally done when the engineer
in charge of the matter will assess the amplitude of concrete deterioration and match it
with the availability and the cost of existing materials on the market. Other considerations
such as aesthetic aspect after repair may be taken into account.
Many repair materials do not match the colour of the surrounding existing concrete. If a
mortar or concrete patch is used, with the same cement as the original mix, there
probably will be a difference in colour, but the patched area will match the unpatched
area in time. Slight differences in colour may be of little concern for some repair
problems such as highways or bridges for instance. Therefore it will be more important in
some areas to select the most durable and suitable repair material needed than to be
concerned with the aesthetic aspect such as difference in colour.

76

For the R.A.U. Concrete Rehabilitation Pilot Project the following repair materials have
been chosen with a little concern about colour matching:
ABE DURAREP
FOSROC RENDERROCK
PROSTRUCT 524
Realkalisation as a concrete rehabilitation method, largely covered in the next chapter,
has also been chosen to form part of this pilot project. 48 panels of 9 m x 2 m located
between Blocks D2-LAB and D-3 LAB have been selected for the conduction of survey,
repair and post-repair monitoring. For each individual panel the specific repair materials
and method to be applied are specified as shown on the chart, Figure 6.1.
D2 - LAB
ABE

FOSROC

PROSTRUCT

PROSTRUCT

Control
D2/3/1

S/S
D2/3/2

AAC1+S/S
D2/3/3

AACI
D2/3/4

AACI+ Acr
D2/3/5

Acryl
D2/3/6

Control
1)2/3/7

Control
D2/3/8

Control
D2/2/1

S/S
D2/2/2

AACI+S/S
D2/2/3

AACI
D2/2/4

AACI+Acr
D2/2/4

Acryl
D2/2/6

Control
D2/2/7

Control
D2/2/8

Control
D2/1/1

S/S
D2/1/2

AACI+S/S
D2/1/3

AACI
D2/1/4

AACI+Acr
D2/1/5

Acryl
D2/1/6

Control
D3/1/1

S/S
D3/1/2

AACI+S/S
D3/1/3

AACI
D3/1/4

AAC I+ Acr
D3/1/5

Acryl
D3/1/6

Control
D3/2/1

S/S
D3/2/2

AACI+S/S
D3/2/3

AACI+Acr
D3/2/5

Acryl
D3/2/6

Acryl
133/2/6

Control
D3/2/7

Control
D3/2/8

Control
D3/3/1

S/S
D3/3/2

AACI+S/S
D3/3/3

AACI+Acr
D3/3/6

Acryl
D3/3/6

Acryl
D3/3/6

Control
D3/3/7

Control
1)3/3/8

Control
D2/1/8

LIFT

Control
D3/1/8

D3 - LAB
Figure 6. 1 Rand Afrikaans University Concrete Repair Pilot Project. Disposition of selected test
panels + repair materials and/or methods.

6.3 PREPARATION OF REPAIR PROJECT PLANS,

PRINCIPLES AND SPECIFICATIONS
Once the selection of the repair materials and methods is completed, the next step in the
repair process is the preparation of project plans and specifications. Normally there are
some existing guide specifications to which one may refer to before the preparation of the
project plan. However, if the materials and methods selected are not covered by existing
guide specifications, a detailed specification based upon experience gained from similar
projects and guidance obtained from allied documents should be prepared.t 21

77

A project plan contains the specifications of all relevant information surrounding the
repair program. A typical repair project plan includes the following:
The nature of the repair to be conducted.
The area and the prevailing environmental conditions.
The method of repair.
The selected repair materials.
The quantity of material to be used.
The skills of workers to allocate to the job.
The unexpected conditions.
The cost of the project.
The schedule of the repair work and the deadline.
Forecasted service life of the repaired infrastructure.
The full extent of the damage to concrete is often not fully known until concrete removal
is done. Therefore plans and specifications for repair should be prepared with as much
flexibility as possible with regard to materials quantities. This is the reason why it is
important to conduct the condition survey as close as possible to the time that repair work
is planned to be executed in order to minimize errors in estimated quantities.
The success of a repair project will depend upon the degree to which the work is executed
in compliance with plans and specifications. Therefore care must be taken during the
removal and preparation phases of a repair job because that can influence significantly
the longevity of the repair, regardless of the materials or techniques used.
In the present study the main concern is concrete surfaces suffering from corrosion of the
reinforcing steel. The repair of such structures consists of several steps (Figure 6.2), and
the repaired surface is composed of several elements as shown in Figure 6.3. The
following is a summary of principles of repair concrete surfaces damaged by corrosion of
the steel: 1391
4) Removal of cracked and delaminated concrete to expose all of the surface of the
damaged steel.
Application of repair mortar or concrete to replace the damaged concrete that was
removed. The repair mortar or concrete serves to protect the steel by both physical
means((i.e., preventing ingress of deleterious substances) and by chemical means
(i.e., providing repassivation). Repassivation can also be obtained by electrochemical
methods. Sometimes a primer layer is applied at the interface between the old, sound
concrete exposed around the steel, and the repair mortar or concrete.
To enhance the protection provided by the mortar, or concrete, external membranes
may be applied over the repaired section, or overall of the concrete surface.
4) The repair mortar or concrete may also be applied in combination with the
establishment of a cathodic protection system.

0 . 0
Placement of
additional bars
if the original ones
lost considerable
cross-section

Principles of Repair
(c)

`V

Concrete
removal and
exposure of
bars

(a)

Patching and

(d)
Cleaning of bars,
removal of rust
and
if necessary
surface coating
(epoxy. zinc)

Coating of the
concrete surface
if required

(b)
(e)

Figure 6. 2 Schematic description of the steps in repair operation of corroded steel in concrete. (391
Exposing of the corroded bar and removal of the damaged concrete around it.
Cleaning of the exposed bar to remove rust, and coating of the bar if necessary.
Replacement of the bar if necessary.
Priming of the concrete substrate (if necessary) and patching with repair material.
Application of external coating if necessary.

6.4 SUBSTRATE PREPARATION

A repair project usually involves the removal of deteriorated concrete, reinforcement

preparation if necessary, scarification, and cleaning of the surface of the concrete
remaining in place, prior to any repair activity. in the following sections we make an
overview of different stages of substrate preparation.
6.4.1

Concrete removal

There are many concrete removal techniques. Their categorization is based on the way in
which the process acts on the concrete. The categories are: blasting, cutting, impacting,
presplitting and spalling.
Concrete removal techniques should be selected on the basis of safety, economy, and
their effect on the remaining sound concrete.t li Depending on the fact that the structure is
a sound or deteriorated concrete, the effectiveness of the removal techniques may vary.
Some times a combination of different techniques may be required to limit damage to the
concrete. The same removal technique may not be suited for all the sections of a given
structure, and the most appropriate technique for each area of the structure should then
be selected.

79

Repair and Rehabilitation

Levelling mortar
.---- Anti-carbonation coat
Anti-corrosion primer
Bond coat
Rebar
Repair mortar

Substrate concrete

Figure 6. 3 Schematic description of the cross section of repaired section.

[39]

6.4.1.1 Blasting method

The blasting methods involve the use of a vigorously expanding gas confined inside a
series of boreholes to produce controlled fracture. Some of the methods are explosive
blasting, high pressure, carbon dioxide blasting, and acetylene-air rock breaker. 111 For
explosive blasting, selection of proper charge weight, borehole diameter, and borehole
spacing for a repair project depends on the location of the structure, acceptable degree of
vibration and damage, and the quantity and quality of concrete to be removed. (11
6.4.1.2 Cutting methods

Cutting methods generally employ mechanical diamond saw cutting, intense heat from
powder torch thermal lance, electric arc equipment, and high pressure water jets to cut
around the perimeter of concrete sections to allow their removal. [11 The method is slow
and costly. Its application is restricted for use with other methods to improve crack
control and over breakage. Advantages of the method include well-defined limits for
concrete removal, relatively small and easily handled concrete debris, and simplicity of
operation.
6.4.1.3 Impacting methods

Impacting methods use equipment including machines that produce a repeated striking of
the concrete surface causing fractionating and spalling of the concrete. Current used
equipment are hand-held and vehicle mounted concrete breakers or the widely known
jackhammer. This equipment is highly productive. However, the high cyclic impact
energy delivered to the structure by the breaker generates vibrations that may damage the
remaining concrete, and thus affect the integrity of the structure.P 1
6.4.1.4 Presplitting methods

Presplitting methods include splitters, water pulse devices and expansive agents. Wedge
devices, water pressure pulses, or expansive chemicals are placed in boreholes made at
intervals along a predetermined line to induce a crack plane to allow for concrete
removal. [t]

80

6.4.1.5 Spalling methods

Spalling methods are chiefly used as secondary means of removal of concrete. The
method employs mechanical devices that generates tensile stresses large enough to
remove small pieces of concrete, and are more applicable to shallow removal of small
volumes of concrete. 111
6.4.2 Surface preparation

Surface preparation is among the critical factors in the performance of a repair material.
The quality of a repair depends on the effort expended in surface preparation, regardless
of the nature or quality of the repair material. Surface preparation starts just after the
removal of deteriorated concrete and proceeds through the steps taken to prepare surfaces
when little or no concrete is removed. The objective being to provide a dry, even, level
surface, free of dirt, oil, and grease. The final condition of the concrete after surface
preparation depends at a certain level on the type of repair to be undertaken.
For reinforced concrete, repairs must include proper preparation of the reinforcing steel
to ensure good bond development with the replacement concrete so that the desired
behaviour in the structure is obtained . Surface preparation does not only imply the
removal of extraneous loose material from the substrate surface, but also the removal of
reaction products like laitance that cover the surface. The removal of surface
contaminants allows primers, and the repair materials themselves, to have intimate
contact with the substrate 111. Increasing of the surface area is achieved by the increasing
of the roughness of the surface that provide more points for increased anchorage of the
repair material.
It is a trend during present times to use organic materials for concrete repair. When such
types of materials have to be utilised, the prepared concrete should be saturated, the
surface dry to prevent rapid loss of water from the repair material to the substrate so that
shrinkage and cracking is prevented and maximum adhesion achieved (for resin-based
materials). The presence of moisture may also lead to a poor bond.
To ensure efficiency of the repair it is recommended that all damaged concrete should be
removed during the surface preparation phase. However, it is not always possible to
determine when all such material has been removed because the zones of damaged or
deteriorated concrete are not well defined. Therefore, the best action is to continue to
remove material until aggregate particles are being broken, rather than simply pried loose
from the matrix (11 . If damaged concrete has been removed from a structure by rigorous
methods, such as impacting or splitting, it should be further prepared using a secondary
method, such as wet sandblasting or high pressure water jetting, to remove any damaged
surface material.
In order to choose the best removal method, or combination of methods, the following
safety, environmental, and job related information should be obtained: i l l

81

Job location: is it inside a building?

Are there restrictions to noise, dust, vibration, exhaust fumes, and disposal of watery
waste?
If the work is to be done on elevated decks, are there any weight restrictions on
equipment?
What thickness of concrete or coating has to be removed?
What is the condition of the concrete? If it sound concrete, what is the estimated
compressive strength?
Is there reinforcing steel close to the surface?
What kind of new surface will be applied, and what thickness?
Does an existing coating have to be remove? If so, what kind of coating is it?
The following methods are commonly used for surface preparation:
6.4.2.1 Chemical cleaning

The chemical cleaning is required for concrete that has been contaminated with oil,
grease, or dirt. Many chemical products are available for this work. However, care must
be exercised to avoid residues after the cleaning process. Vigorous scrubbing and
thorough rinsing with water will often required. Solvents must be avoided because they
will dissolve the contaminate and carry it deeper into the concrete.
6.4.2.2 Mechanical cleaning

Mechanical cleaning is made rotary or impact type devices. Rotary equipment includes
rotary discs and grinders and are used for relatively low compressive strength concrete.
Impact tools are equipment such as bush hammer , scabblers, and needle guns. They are
effective in the sense that they can remove several millimetres of surface. Impact tools
pulverize the concrete and can cause fracturing of lower levels. Therefore, other means
such as water jetting or wet sandblasting may be used for final cleaning of the concrete.
Scarifying machines applying a rotating circular cutting wheel to the concrete surface are
also used. These machines are effective on old floors and will successfully remove old
paint or curing compounds. However, they are relatively expensive and require skilled
operators. I ll
6.4.2.3 Blast cleaning

Blast cleaning includes:

Abrasive wet and dry cleaning.
Shotblasting.
Water jet cleaning.

1. Sandblasting

82

Sandblasting machines use compressed air to eject a high speed stream of sand or other
abrasive from a nozzle. Dust is a problem in the dry method of sandblasting. Because of
the dust and associated health problems, dry sandblasting is sparingly used now Pi . The
use of non-silica abrasives may reduce potential health hazard.
Shotblasting
In shotblasting machines, a metallic abrasive (steel shot) is used to scour the concrete
surface. A pneumatically driven vacuum system collects dust and the shot, separating and
recycling the usable shot and removing the dust through a filtering system. 111
Waterblasting
Waterblasting consists of directing a high velocity, high pressure, water jet to the
concrete surface through a special designed nozzle which travels transversely along a
boom, sweeping back and forth across the concrete surface as the equipment
incrementally advances. (11
Advantages of the method are as follows:i ll
No dust is produced and noise is minimal.
There are no mechanical vibrations that might cause structural damage.
The machine selectively removes deteriorated concrete and leaves good concrete
intact.
Rebars are not damaged as they might be by scarifiers or scabblers.
Removal of deteriorated concrete is faster than by conventional methods such as jack
hammers.
6.4.3 Reinforcement preparation

The repair programme of a reinforced concrete should include the preparation and if
necessary the repair of steel reinforcement. This stage comes after concrete removal,
inspection of the steel, and cleaning of the rebars. Should reinforcing bars are found
damaged, a repair project of the damaged steel must be considered and carried out.
The present study does not have the intention of treating the rebars reparation because
this is beyond the scope of the study. However, we have judged necessary to dwell on the
preparation of the reinforcing bars.
During the removal of concrete surrounding the steel care should be exercised to avoid
the damage of sound concrete at the periphery of the damaged area. Therefore the use of
light instruments is recommended. The use of a covermeter will facilitate the location of
the steel and determine their depth in the concrete.
When more than half of the perimeter of the bar has been exposed during the removal of
deteriorated concrete, then removal should continue until a clear space of 6.25 mm ( 1/4")
behind the reinforcing steel, plus the size of the maximum size aggregate is obtained.t 1 '
If less than half of the perimeter of a bar is exposed after concrete removal, the bar should
83

be inspected, cleaned as necessary, and repairs may then proceed without further concrete
removal. However, if inspection indicates that a bar or bars must be replaced, concrete
must be removed to give the clear space indicated above.E l l
Inspection is conducted in order to determine whether the reinforcing steel is capable of
performing according to the intended design of the structure. If the cross sectional area of
a bar has been significantly reduced by corrosion, the steel may have to be replaced. (191
If during inspection it is found that the reinforcing bars do not need replacing, they
should however be cleaned of all rust, scale, and foreign matter before the fresh concrete
is placed. Depending on the area of the rebars, brushing, abrasive blasting or other
methods may be used for reinforcement preparation. An alternative method of cleaning
the steel is high pressure water jet cleaning. The disadvantage of the latter method is that
it provides oxygen and water necessary to initiate corrosion of the cleaned steel. Coating
the rebar with an alkaline cement slurry or an epoxy coating may reduce the potential for
the steel to rust between the time it is cleaned and the time the fresh replacement concrete
is placed.
Recently, a new concrete repair method that is not requiring necessarily demolition of the
structural concrete has been developed for curing carbonated embedded concrete. This
method called Electrochemical Realkalisation is largely covered in the next chapter.

84

PART II
CHAPTER 7
ELECTROCHEMICAL REALKALISATION,
A REVOLUTIONARY CONCRETE REHABILITATION TECHNIQUE
7.1 BACKGROUND
The electrochemical technique known as realkalisation was totally unknown prior its
development by Norwegian Concrete Technologies a.s., now styled simply NCT who
started to commercialise the method in 1988 (then under the name of Norssk
Overflateteknikk a.s.[NOT]). [221 In 1995 the Oslo based company NCT was acquired by
FOSROC, a UK based company who specialises in concrete repair materials. This
acquisition represents an important addition to FOSROC's existing concrete repair range,
which already includes Renderoc repair mortars and fluid micro-concretes, and Dekguard
high performance protective and decorative coatings.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
The Rand Afrikaans University (RAU) decided during 1996 to conduct a pilot project for
the rehabilitation of its building structures. This pilot project consisted of testing various
concrete repair materials and techniques, with a selection to be made ultimately
according to the performance of each material or method. Repair materials included the
most recently known repair mortars available on the south african market. Traditionally
known repair techniques (e.g. patching repair) as well as recent technologies such as the
electrochemical realkalisation had been also selected as part of the project.
In order to make a comparative assessment between the traditional repair methods and
the electrochemical realkalisation of concrete, the repair programme of the RAU
Concrete Rehabilitation Pilot Project had selected 48 testing panels to be treated with
different products and methods. Among them, two panels, D2/1/7 and D3/1/7, shown in
the Figure 6.1, had been selected for the realkalisation test. However, the carbonation
depth measurements and subsequent electro-potential measurements taken by the
contractor appointed by RAU in July 1997, showed that there was not enough
carbonation depth and therefore not enough reinforcement corrosion to necessitate the
realkalisation of the 2 selected panels. The realkalisation treatment is normally
recommended for carbonation depths beyond values of 25 mm. The average of recorded
carbonation depths on panels D2/1/7 and D3/1/7 was less than 10mm. But the covermeter
survey .conducted by myself on AUgust 14, 1997 for the panel D2/1/7 and on September
2, 1997 for the panel D3/1/7, revealed as it is shown on report charts N 1 & 2 in annexe,
that the concrete cover was largely sufficient for a successful realkalisation treatment.

85

The minimum concrete cover required for realkalisation being 10 mm. The average
concete cover recorded was about 30 mm.
7.3 DEFINITION
As stated before, concrete may suffer from the classic effects of carbonation, whereby the
passive oxide layer surrounding the steel reinforcement is being broken down by carbonic
acid, resulting in the formation of an expansive steel rust and ultimate spalling of the
concrete. In the first step, preliminary testing will identify the range of reasons for the
apparent rapid on-set of carbonation that includes low cover on the steel reinforcement,
poor quality concrete and high permeability. The recommended method to halt ongoing
and prevent future reinforcement corrosion in carbonated concrete is a non-destructive
electrochemical treatment called realkalisation.
Electrochemical realkalisation is a recently developed rehabilitation technique for
reinforced concrete where carbonation has penetrated beyond the depth of cover. It is a
temporary treatment which re-establishes high alkalinity around the steel reinforcement
by promoting the production of hydroxyl ions at the steel cathode and inward migration
of alkali ions from an external electrolyte. [22] The alkalinity of the cover concrete is
further enhanced by absorption and diffusion of the alkaline electrolyte.
7.4 PURPOSE OF THE REALKALISATION
Realkalisation is aimed at raising the pH of carbonated concrete to levels at which
corrosion cannot take place, while simultaneously passivating the embedded reinforcing
steel. Realkalisation provides a means to increase the pH of the carbonated concrete
initially to more than 12, which favours passivation, with a final value greater than 10.5,
which is sufficient to maintain passivity of the reinforcement. [241 Alkaline substances are
transported into the carbonated zone from a temporary anodic source under the influence
of an electric field.
Therefore realkalisation is used mainly to:
Halt corrosion of steel reinforcement.
Reinstate protective alkalinity in concrete.
The process enables the treatment of large areas as a whole instead of a treatment in
isolated patches as is the case for traditional patching repairs. Versatile applications
include the following:
High-rise buildings.
Soffits.
Balconies.
Bridges.
Water towers.
Car parks.

86

- Properties of special architectural significance

- Etc.
The process can be applied to horizontal, sloping or vertical surfaces regardless of the
shape, profile, texture (including exposed aggregate) or other architectural detail. the
process is adaptable to a wide range of structures.
7.5 PRINCIPLE AND DESCRIPTION OF
THE REALKALISATION TREATMENT
Realkalisation is performed by applying an electric field between the reinforcement in the
concrete and an anode system consisting of an anode mesh embedded in an electrolytic
reservoir and temporarily placed on the concrete surface.E 241 The principle is
schematically presented in the Figure 7.1.

Anode

N=4, IMIM

Electrolyte

MEM

+v.

-ye
Nat CO3 . NaHCO3

OH"
Concrete

Reinforcement

Figure 7. 1 The principle of realkalisation. [241

7.5.1 Preparation prior to realkalisation

The process starts only after cleaning the structure with on of the appropriate methods
seen previously in chapter 6 of the present study. The spalled and delaminated areas of
concrete should also be removed and repaired using an approved and appropriate cement
based repair mortar. During the RAU Concrete Rehabilitation Pilot Project, many types
of repair materials have been tested. However, it has come to our knowledge that ProStruct 528, a structural concrete repair material, has shown signs of good performance,
even later after the curing. Before repairing the structure any exposed and corroding
rebars should also be cleaned, preferably by wet sandblasting or wire brushing.

87

Concrete surface coatings should be removed prior to realkalisation since coatings may
increase the treatment time or limit the effect of the treatment. If for any reason the
removal of the surface finish must be avoided, a realkalisation trial is required to
establish necessary treatment time. 1241
7.5.2 The realkalisation process, step by step

Realkalisation can be performed under all weather conditions as long as the electrolyte
does not freeze.t241 FOSROC NCT recommends his advice before starting the
realkalisation of pre-stressed and post-tensioned structures and any concrete with unusual
characteristics. The reason being that even though realkalisation is suitable for most types
of reinforced concrete, it is not necessarily a panacea.
7.5.2.1 Rebar connections

Drilling is conducted into the concrete to reach the reinforcing steel to which a wire
connection is attached. This reinforcing steel will become ultimately the cathode during
the process. The number of rebar connections depends on rebar continuity. FOSROC
recommends at least one for each 50 m 2 . The continuity is determined by means of
resistance measurements carried out during installation. The resistance between two
rebars connection points should ideally be less than 1 ohm but up to 10 ohms is generally
acceptable. [24]
7.5.2.2 Installation of the anode system

The anode system consists of an anode mesh embedded in an electrolytic reservoir on the
concrete surface.. The purpose of the electrolyte is to conduct electricity and to provide
alkalis to the carbonated concrete. The reservoir keeps the electrolyte in contact with the
concrete surface and the anode mesh. Electrolyte may be sprayed-on cellulose fibre, felt
cloth or coffer tanks.
Softwood timber battens are fixed to the concrete surface with non metallic fixings.
These wooden battens act as spacers between the concrete and the mesh in order to avoid
short circuits. Than the cellulose fibre and the electrolyte are sprayed on the concrete
surface using an appropriate equipment. This is done in order to maintain continuity
between the anode mesh and the concrete surface. A layer of approximately 25 mm
thick is built up before the whole area to be treated. During treatment, regular wettings is
required. The same equipment used at the beginning of the treatment will be required
again. Once the mesh is fixed to the timber battens a final layer of about 25 mm thick
poultice is applied and the mesh is then wired up to carry a positive current. It becomes
the anode during the process.
Felt cloth may be used for decks in two layers rolled onto the concrete surface with the
anode mesh placed between them. Constant wetting will be required when felt cloth is
used.

88

Coffer tanks may also be used during the installation of the anode system. These tanks
consist of plastic sheets with sealing edge strips of compressible expanded plastic and
with built-in anode. They may be fastened directly to the concrete surface and filled with
electrolyte. Coffer tanks are particularly suitable for the treatment of smaller, separated
areas, provided that the concrete surface is relatively smooth and even. Coffer tanks may
be topped up during treatment if required.t 241
As realkalisation is an electrochemical method, rebar continuity is vital. Prior the
application of the cellulose material, felt cloth, or coffer tanks, a test should be performed
to establish both the size and the continuity of the steel within each area to be treated.
After installation of the anode mesh and once the cathode and the electrolyte are in place,
the process may start, by applying an electrical current between the cathode and the
anode. The anode mesh may be either in titanium or mild steel. The latter acts as a
sacrificial anode and is disposed of after the process, whilst the former can provide
greater treatment usage but at greater initial cost.
During realkalisation, the anode reaction is forced to take place on the anode mesh
temporarily placed in the electrolytic reservoir on the concrete surface while the cathode
reaction now takes place over the entire reinforcement surface. The anode is considered
to be the harmful part and the cathode as the protective part
7.5.2.3 The electrolyte

Generally, the alkaline solution is made by adding sodium carbonate to water under
continuous mixing. To get the correct concentration recommended by FOSROC, 110
grams of Sodium Carbonate, of the commercial grade known as light soda ash, is added
per litre of water. This will produce approximately 1 molar Sodium Carbonate solution.
A lower concentration may be used when considered satisfactory with regard to the
extent of carbonation into the concrete.
If realkalisation by electrolysis alone is required, the Sodium Carbonate solution is
sometimes exchanged with potable water to which 2 to 10 grams of Calcium Hydroxide
per litre of water are added. 24i
Alternative materials such as Calcium Hydroxyde solution, Lithium Carbonate or Borate
solution, or Potassium Carbonate may be used. The use of these materials may require a
formal approval of a qualified realkalisation Engineer. Full laboratory tests may be
required prior selection of an electrolyte.
In this study it is assumed that the electrolyte is a Sodium Carbonate solution because
being the most used for the over 200 realkalisation projects conducted world-wide. It will
also be considered that the anode mesh is embedded in cellulose fibre.

89

7.5.2.4 Basic process

Both leads, i.e. the cathode (-) and the anode mesh (+) are then simply connected to a
transformer rectifier to provide a DC voltage of approximately 240 A per hour of current
251
based on current density of around 3A per m 2 of steel surface area.t
The passage of current, besides the passivating effect, also causes the pH of carbonated
concrete to rise from around 9,5 to values at which passivity is easily maintained. This
[23) The pH
pH will reach the value of 12 in the event of use of Sodium Carbonate.
increase results from the introduction of extraneous alkali from the external electrolyte
into the carbonated zone. As a result of the passage of the current, at least four
superimposed mechanisms may occur:
Electrolysis.
Electro-osmosis.
Diffusion.
Capillary absorption.
Firstly, water is electrolysed at the reinforcement, producing hydroxyl ions, which restore
the passive oxide layer surrounding the steel, which was previously broken down by the
effects of carbonation. As the treatment continues these negative ions are repelled away
from the steel thereby widening the protective oxide layer.
Electrolysis results in the generation of very high pH values on and immediately around
the steel due to the formation of an hydroxide of the main alkali metal contained in the
electrolyte, i.e. Sodium Hydroxide for our study. This is caused by the electrical
neutralisation of incoming alkali metal and alkali earth metal ions at the reinforcing steel
cathode and the immediate subsequent reaction of the metal so produced with water may
be summarised as follows, when Sodium Carbonate is used as electrolyte:
2 Na +
Ca + 21120

+ H2
Ca(OH)2 + H2

(7.1)
(7.2)

Therefore the pH increases at the reinforcement. This is important both in realkalisation

and in Chloride extraction, by contributing to the overall reduction of Cl/OH ratio
desired. The potential difference also causes electromigration of negative ions (Chloride,
Hydroxide) away from the reinforcement and positive ions (Sodium, Potassium, etc.)
towards the reinforcement, the latter being the primary objective in Chloride extraction.
In other words, during the electrolysis mechanism, the polarity between reinforcement
and anode is such that through a combination of mechanisms hydroxyl ions are generated
around the reinforcement and the pH is subsequently enhanced.
A second mechanism called electro-osmosis mechanism, or in other words electricallyinduced liquid movement into the concrete, is also proposed as a contributing mechanism
during realkalisation, but the extent of that contribution remains unclear.t 271 During the

90

occurrence of this mechanism, the positive ions, i.e. Sodium if the electrolyte is the
Sodium Carbonate, are transported into the concrete pore structure.
Electro-osmosis results in the external electrolyte (Sodium Carbonate solution) being
bodily transported into the concrete. This is thought to be due to part of the so called
electric double layer adsorbed on carbonated pore surfaces, and which is electrically
charged, being attracted towards the oppositely charged electrode. 1281 This slippage
causes the free pore water to be pulled along simultaneously, to create an effect which
may be thought of as a suction which greatly augments the capillary absorption.
The electrolyte (Sodium Carbonate solution or another) is also moved into the concrete
pores through a combination of electro-osmosis and probably a third mechanism known
as capillary or natural absorption.
Current-independent diffusion may also contribute to the transportation of the electrolyte
through the concrete pores. This is known as the fourth contributing mechanism during
the realkalisation process.
Except for very porous concretes, capillary absorption and diffusion are not important as
mechanisms. Penetration into typical concretes due to capillary absorption and/or
diffusion, is usually no more than a few millimetres in a normal realkalisation period of
about three to four days. 1231
Which mechanism is dominant in a particular case is dependent on factors such as: 123 i
Concrete porosity.
Extent of carbonation
Extent of chloride contamination (if any).
Type of cement.
Type of aggregate.
Voltage gradient applied.
Therefore installations need to be dimensioned to the work with regard to the above
mentioned factors for the highest efficiency.
7.5.3 Monitoring and control of the process

FOSROC NCT recommends the anode system to be kept moist at all times during
treatment. This is achieved by wetting the anode system as appropriate. The process is
monitored by means of current and voltage readings, and, if necessary, adjusted to
maintain 1 A/m2 of concrete surface. 1261 The Norcure RD2 units provide easy current
control and process monitoring.E 241 These units are computer controlled rectifiers
associated with software, with as main function the regulation of the supply of current.
Norcure RD2 units are also programmed to draw attention to any malfunctions should
they ever occur. 1241

91

40

Companies such as Martech Ltd, or Draper & Penhall and Associates have developed
computer software systems that monitor and control the supply of current required,
advising of changes in voltage, resistance and indicating potential faults in the circuit so
that remedial actions can be taken. The system can also switch itself off should a fault
requires such action or in fact simply when the treatment has attained the required amp
hours. These computer monitoring systems provide accurate assessment 24 hours a day
of how the treatment is progressing.
When the system is switched on for each treatment area the resistance is much dependant
on the level of carbonation of the concrete, since the greater the carbonation between the
anode and the cathode, the higher the resistance.
As the electrolysis and the electro-osmosis take place, the resistance to the flow of
electrical current between the anode and the cathode drops until a point is reached where
the resistance effectively flattens out. The current density is maintained constant so that
the computer monitoring system can only adjust the voltage at the required value. In fact
unless the fibre surrounding the anode is kept wet with further Sodium Carbonate, the
resistance can rise again as the carbonated concrete absorbs so much of the electrolyte.
The real advantage of the computer is that the resistance curve can be monitored
constantly to consider whether rewetting is required or if the resistance curve flattens off
for a period of time, whether to consider turning off the process.
FOSROC recommends that cores be drilled at the previously marked test locations, after
a few days of treatment. The cores will then undergo phenolphthalein test in order to
determine the carbonation front and therefore, the extent of realkalisation. The treatment
should continue until the alkalinity of the cover zone has been re-established. This can be
determined by quantitative chemical analysis for sodium levels and testing with
phenolphthalein solution.E291
7.5.4 Dismantling

When the carbonated concrete has been satisfactorily realkalised, the treatment is
terminated. The treated structure is cleaned of all the fibre, mesh, battens and electrical
wiring. It is then left for up to a week to allow the electrolyte to redistribute and for any
salts to appear at the surface. The salt may then be removed by dry grit blasting to
provide a suitable surface for further coatings. Further, dust samples are taken to check
the increase in the sodium content of the concrete, whilst further phenolphthalein testing
shows that the previously carbonated concrete is now restored to its highly alkaline state,
especially that surrounding the steel.

92

7.5.5 Advantages

The fact that realkalisation treats the causes of corrosion in-depth by treating the afflicted
concrete and steel (not merely the superficial symptoms) results in considerable
advantage over both conventional repair techniques and cathodic protection schemes. The
main advantages of the realkalisation process may be listed as follows:
The cause of corrosion is addressed and removed, not merely the symptoms.
Steel reinforcement is passivated throughout, not just in isolated areas
Vastly reduced concrete break-out resulting in
. major time-savings,
less noise, dust and environmental pollution,
no need for expensive structural support,
little chance of inducing micro-cracks during extensive break-out.
Architectural and exposed aggregate finishes can be maintained.
Little chance of inducing micro-cracks during extensive break-out
No need for permanent electronic monitoring.
Fixed prices can be offered.
A variety of anode systems for various structures and conditions are available.
From the above mentioned advantages, it could be perceived that the realkalisation
treatment is the ideal solution to any concrete problem arising from carbonation of the
reinforcing steel. But the process is still recent and previously realkalised structures are
still under monitoring in order to assess the real effectiveness of the treatment.
7.5.6 Effects of realkalisation on leaching, durability, and carbonation

Electrochemical realkalisation is a relatively new repair method without a long track

record at least as far as the durability of the treatment is concerned. However, the short
term effects of the method have been examined widely in several research laboratories,
which have provided plenty of essential facts for understanding the behaviour of
realkalisation. [30]
Among all different research works done on the realkalisation we found that trials carried
out by J.S. Mattila, M.J. Pentti and T.A. Raiski in Finland in 1991 were interesting in this
sense that they revealed relevant results concerning leaching of alkalis, durability, and
penetration of alkalis.t 291 Sodium Carbonate has been used as electrolyte. Various panels
including coated, uncoated, treated, untreated, good quality, and porous specimen panels
have been used during the study. After testing them, the following conclusions have been
drawn:

93

7.5.6.1 Leaching of alkalis

Leaching of alkalis was examined by measuring at intervals the sodium concentration of

the concrete at a depth range of 0 to 15 mm in uncoated specimens during an accelerated
weathering test. Changes in sodium concentration in the depth range of 0 to 15 mm have
been noticed and plotted. On the basis of the measurements it can be stated that alkali
concentration may be lowered by intense weather exposure (cyclic wetting and drying)
The effect of leaching will probably be limited to near the surface. Deeper in the concrete
the alkali concentration may even increase due to moisture transportation, although this
could not be confirmed by measurements. However, it is probable that the alkali
concentration can be lowered due to leaching in normal climate exposure, although the
leaching will affect primarily the zone near the surface. It can be concluded that corrosion
protection in realkalised concrete may be endangered due to leaching in low cover areas
(cover < 5 to 10 mm) in structures where weather exposure is intense.
7.5.6.2 Durability of coatings

The behaviour of the coatings was observed by bond strength measurements and by
monitoring visual changes in the coating films. As for the leaching test, the bond strength
measurements were performed four times during the weathering test. Realkalised and
untreated specimens were used during the test.
It is known from experience that the moisture content in the concrete will affect the bond
strength of all kinds of coatings. That is the reason why the moisture content in the
concrete was approximately equalised by adjusting the conditions to 30 C and RH 40 %
in the test chamber one week before each test.
At the beginning of accelerated weathering exposure test the bond strengths increased in
all the coatings. Therefore it may be concluded that realkalisation would be at least not
disastrous for coating adhesion. Later in the test the bond strengths started to decrease.
But the bond strength was not clearly stronger in realkalised specimens than in untreated
ones. Only specimen coated with a non-alkali resistant binder performed less well
because the bond strength in the realkalised specimens with non-alkali coating were
systematically weaker than in the untreated ones. In addition, the bond strength decreased
in time more seriously in the realkalised specimens than in the untreated ones.
On the basis of the accelerated weathering test it may be concluded that realkalisation
would not adversely affect the durability of alkali resistant organic or inorganic coatings.
For other coatings, realkalisation might restrict the service life of coatings on realkalised
surfaces in comparison with normal concrete surfaces because of the weakness of the
bonding strength. Therefore care must be exercised when opting for protecting with
coating a recently realkalised structure.

94

7.5.6.3 Penetration of realkalisation

and its effect on carbonation

The penetration of realkalisation into carbonated concrete was examined by measuring

the sodium concentration of samples taken from different depths in the concrete and by
investigating changes of the pH-profile in the specimens due to the further carbonation.
On the basis of the measurements it can be seen that in porous concrete, where
carbonation has penetrated fairly deeply, realkalisation can also penetrate deeply in three
days treatment, which is the time assumed to be normal for a realkalisation treatment.
The effect of carbonation will be fairly limited to the carbonated zone. It can also be
confirmed from experiences that the realkalisation will neither accelerate nor reduce the
carbonation rate. The same experiences revealed also that in good quality concrete, where
the carbonation depth was much smaller, the sodium concentration in the zone of 0 to 15
mm remained much lower after three days of normal treatment. Sodium concentration
can be increased by continuing the treatment for up to 6 days.
The fact that the realkalisation does not really penetrate into uncarbonated concrete and
does not retard the carbonation rate means that further carbonation may endanger the
corrosion protection of the rebars behind the carbonation front. On the basis of this it may
be further concluded that realkalisation can not be used as a preventive measure too early,
when the carbonation front is still proceeding quite rapidly, at least not when the test
treatment durations are followed. This means that realkalisation should not be
recommended for relatively new structures where carbonation is still progressing fairly
rapidly.

95

CHAPTER 8
MANAGEMENT OF A REALKALISATION PROJECT
Case study of the Rand Afrikaans University

8.1 GENERAL REMARKS

This chapter will treat the building structures situation of the Rand Afrikaans University
as a management case study of an electrochemical realkalisation project. In order to
render the reader familiar with project management terms and prepare him for a better
understanding of the case study itself, the first part of this chapter will address project
management and associated phases, definitions and vocabulary. Project initiation, project
implementation and project termination which are the three main phase of project life
will be analysed successively.

I. BACKGROUND IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The management of a project includes three main phases, namely the initiation phase, the
implementation phase and the termination phase. The following sections examine each
one of these three stages.
8.2 INITIATION PHASE OF A PROJECT
8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.1.1 Definitions

Program : A program is an exceptionally large, long-range objective that is broken down

into a set of projects.
Project : A project is a specific, finite task to be accomplished and which must be seen as
a unit. Project is further divided into tasks, which are, in turn, split into work packages
that are themselves composed of work units.
Attributes characterising a project
Purpose : well defined set of desired end results.
Life cycle: beginning, middle, end.
Interdependencies: interaction with other projects carried out simultaneously.
Uniqueness: every project has some elements that are unique.
Conflict: for resources and personnel.

96

8.2.1.2 Why project management

The basic purpose for initiating a project is to accomplish some goals and focus the
responsibility and the authority for the attainment of these goals in a timely and
economically acceptable manner.
During the project's life cycle (stages on the path from origin to completion), the project
is born, a manager is selected, the project team and initial resources assembled, and the
work program is organized. The basic to successful project management is the ability to
recognize where it is needed and where it is not.
The following must be well defined to ensure that a project is successfully managed:
Scope: picture of the project, objectives, time, money, etc.
Unfamiliarity: lack of familiarity or lack of precedent usually leads to disagreement
or uncertainty as to how the undertaking should be managed.
Complexity: degree of interdependence among tasks is a decisive criterion because it
can affect cost or timing.
Stake: the company's stake in the outcome of the undertaking is a final criterion that
may tip the scales in favour of project management.
Special sources of trouble
Organizational uncertainties.
Unusual decision pressures.
Vulnerability to top-management mistakes.
The executive actions required to avoid trouble are:
1. Define the objective, by defining the management's intent in undertaking the project,
outlining the scope of the project, and describing the end results of the project.
2. Establish a project organization. Basic steps to be followed are:
Appointment of an experienced manager to run the project full time.
Organization of the project management in terms of responsibilities.
Assignment of a limited number of staff to the project.
Maintenance of a balance of power between the functional heads and the Project
Manager.
3. Install project controls over time, cost, and quality.
Time may be controlled by drawing up a list of all the tasks to be carried out by each
department involved in the project. The PM discusses each of these lists with the
respective departmental supervisors in detail in order to establish the sequence in the
project in relation to other departments. Each department should estimate the time

97

required for each of its project activities. Once the overall schedule is established, review
meeting should be held to check progress against schedule.
The main steps for cost control are:
Break the comprehensive cost summary into work packages.
Devise commitment reports for technical decision makers.
Act on early, approximate report data.
Concentrate talent on major problems and opportunities
The quality control comprises :
Defining performance criteria.
Expressing the project objection in terms of quality standards.
Monitoring progress toward these standards.
8.2.2 Project initiation
8.2.2.1 Project selection

Project selection is the process of evaluating individual projects or groups of projects, and
then choosing to implement some set of them so that the objectives of the organization
will be achieved. The same systematic process can be applied to any area of the
organization's business in which choices must be made between competing alternatives.
The PM needs to know the goals of the project in order to perform effectively.
The techniques used for selecting a project are called decision-aiding models. The
process of carrying away the unwanted reality from the bones of a problem is called
modelling the problem. The idealized version of the problem that results is called model.
The model represents the problem's structure and its form. Models can be iconic,
analogic, verbal, diagrammatic, graphic, flow graph or network, or symbolic.
8.2.2.2 Criteria for project selection models

The following criteria, defined by Souder are the most important :

Realism.
Capability.
Flexibility.
Ease of use.
Cost.
Easy computerisation.

98

8.2.2.3 The nature of project selection models

The two basic types of selection models are:

Numeric models.
Nonnumeric models.
Measured criteria may be subjective or objective. Two critically important facts to keep
in mind are:
Models do not make decision, people do.
All models are only partial representations of the reality they are meant to reflect .
Models are helpful to assist Project Managers in making project selection decisions. The
choice between two or more alternative courses of action requires reference to some
objective(s) and the choice is thus made in accord with some, possibly subjective model.
Elements of the list should be weighted. Each item is added to the list because it
represents a contribution to the success of the organization, but each item does not make
an equal contribution. The weights reflect the different degree of contribution of each
element in the set of goals. If the estimated level of goals achievement is sufficiently
large, the project is then selected. If not it is rejected. Generally the information required
to evaluate a project can be listed under : Production, Marketing, Financial, Personnel,
Administrative etc. Critical values must be attributed to those of the factors which may
have thresholds. It is important to note that all the factors are not at the same level of
generality.
8.2.2.4 Types of project selection models.

Nonnumeric models
The following are commonly used :
The sacred cow.
The operating necessity.
The competitive necessity.
The product line extension.
Comparative benefit models.
One of the several techniques used for ordering projects is the Q-sort method.
Numeric models
Profit/profitability is commonly used as the sole measure of acceptability. The following
critical measures are used :

99

Pay back period.

Average Rate of Return.
Discounted Cash Flow.
Internal Rate of Return.
Profitability Index.
Other profitability models
Scoring is also used in numeric models. The common measures are :
Unweighted 0-1 Factor Model.
Unweighted Factor Scoring Model.
Weighted Factor Scoring model.
Constrained weighted Factor Scoring Model.
Dean and Nishry's Model
The description of each one of the above model is beyond the scope of this study. The
reader may find relevant explanations in specialised books.
Choosing a project selection model depends on the philosophy and wishes of
management but weighted scoring models are the most used. A certain analysis under
high uncertainty must be made through :
Risk analysis method.
General simulation analysis.
8.2.2.5 Base for selection

The use of either scoring models or profit/profitability models assume that the decisionmaking procedure takes place in a reasonably rational organizational environment. Such
is not always the case. In some organizations, project selection seems to be the result of
political process, and sometimes involving questionable ethics.
Three special problems affecting the data used in project selection are:
Accounting data.
Measurements: subjective, objective, qualitative, quantitative, reliable, unreliable,
valid, unvalid.
Technological shock
8.2.2.6 Project Proposal

The project proposal is a set of documents submitted for evaluation of a project. It

contains a short summary statement covering the fundamental nature of the proposal as
well as the general benefits expected. The project proposal should be accompanied by a
cover letter and should deal with the following:

100

The nature of the technical problem and the approach used.

The plan for implementing the project.
The plan for logistic support and administration of the project.
A description of the proposing to do the work and its past experience in similar work.
The project proposal in brief contains :
The technical approach of the problem.
The implementation plan.
The plan for logistic support + administration.
The past experience of the proposing group.
8.2.3 Project Manager
Depending on the organization, project management calls for the appointment of one
person, the Project Manager who has the responsibility for the detailed planning, coordination, and ultimate outcome of the project. The Project Manager (PM) is supplied
with a team (project team members) from various functional departments involved in the
project and who report directly to him. The PM's responsibility and authority are interfunctional within the limits of the project.
After evaluation and selection of a project and before any progress, a Project Manager
must be appointed. The PM will take responsibility for planning, implementing and
completing the project.
The first set of the Project Manager's tasks include the following:
To prepare preliminary budget and schedule.
To help select people to serve on the project team.
To get to know client requirements.
To make sure that the proper facilities are available.
To ensure that supplies required in the project life cycle are available.
To take care of details necessary to the project progress.
Communication must be facilitated between the PM and all parties involved in the
project. Meetings and briefings are necessary . The difference between a PM and a
functional manager is that the latter uses the analytical approach when he is involved with
his charge whereas the PM uses the systems approach.
The Project Manager's responsibilities fall into three areas, namely:
Responsibility to the parent organization.
Responsibility to the project.
Responsibility to the project team members.
The demands on the Project Manager include:

101

Acquiring adequate resources.

Acquiring and motivating personnel.
Dealing with obstacles.
Making project goal trade-offs.
Handling failure and risk of failure.
Communicating with all parties.
Negotiating
The most popular attributes, skills and qualities in selecting project managers are:
Strong technical background.
Hand-nosed manager.
Mature individual.
Currently available.Good relations with senior executives.
Ability to keep the project team happy ,etc.
The major categories of skills required for a PM are:
Credibility ( technical and administrative ).
Sensitivity ( political, social and technical).
Leadership.
Ability to handle stress
8.2.4 Project organization

Project organization is the interface between the project and the parent organization.
8.2.4.1 Types of organizations

The main types of organizations are:

Functional organization.
Pure project organization.
Matrix organization.
Mixed organizational systems.
8.2.4.2 Choosing an organizational form

The choice is determined by the situation. Some principles to be considered are:

Nature of the potential project.
Characteristics of the various organizational options.
Advantages and desadvantages of each.
Cultural preferences of the parent organizations.

102

One performing the choice of a final organization form one must make the best
compromise possible between the above principles.
The following people are more critical to the project's success :
Senior project team.
People with whom the PM will require continuous or close communication.
People with rare skills necessary to project success.
8.2.4.3 Human factors and the project team

Beside meeting schedule, cost goals, and performance, there is also a human problem
which can occur during the management of a project. The PM has to motivate project
team members. Recognition, achievement, work, responsibility, advancement and
learning are among strong motivators, according to F. Herzberg The use of a
participative management is also motivating. This kind of management can be
accomplished by M.B.O. (management by objectives).The PM will have also to handle
conflicts. Sources of conflicts are : priorities, procedures, schedules, techniques, labour,
responsibility, etc..
8.2.5 Project planning

Project Planning considers how to plan the work of the project and to examine how the
project plan impacts on the structure of the project team as well as on the parent
organization. The purpose of planning is to facilitate later accomplishment of a project.
Planning may be illustrated by the following phases:
Definition phase: the problem is defined in a "Requirements Document".
Analysis: produce the functional specifications, "deliverables".
Design phase: a system is proposed to solve the problem.
Programming phase: bring the system into being.
System test phase: test all the system.
Acceptance phase: the customer tests the system for acceptance and payment.
Operation phase: installation and use.
The general process can be broken as follows:
Preliminary co-ordination
Detailed description of various tasks.
Deriving the project budget.
Deriving the project schedule.
Precise description of all project status reports.
Plan for project termination.
A project plan generally contains the following elements : overview, objectives, general

103

approach, contractual aspects, schedules, resources, personnel, evaluation methods,

potential problems, etc. The process of integrating technical disciplines to achieve
customer's objectives and/or integrating the project into customer's system is called
"Systems Integration" and is concerned with 3 major objectives, namely, performance,
effectiveness and cost.
Strategic factors associated with success in implementation projects are project mission,
top management support, project schedule or plan, client consultation, personnel,
technical tasks, client acceptance, communication, trouble shooting.
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and linear responsibility charts can be used to picture
a project subdivided into hierarchical units of tasks, subtasks, work packages, etc.
Sometimes a verbal responsibility chart may be developed to reorganize the distribution
system. The most difficult aspect of implementing the project plan is the co-ordination of
the various elements of the project in order to meet the overall and joint goals of
performance, schedule and budget.
The process and the fact of this co-ordination is called interface management. A tool
particularly helpful in identifying potential interface and co-ordination problems is called
TREND (Transformed Relationships Evolved from Network Data) which is an
organization chart overlay, based on differences in status or prestige level, task
dependence and uncertainty.
8.2.6. Negotiation and conflict resolution

Negotiation, according to Wall, is the process through which two or more parties seek an
acceptable rate of exchange for items they own or control. Cohen defines negotiation as
being a field of knowledge and endeavour that focus on gaining the favour of people
from whom we want things.
Three situations arising during projects and that call for the highest level of negotiating
skill of the Project Manage are :
The use of subcontractors.
The development of the project's mission statement.
The management of changes in deliverables and/or priorities.
Methods used to transform the traditional adversarial atmosphere in a co-operation and
mutual helpfulness one, are partnering and chatering
8.2.6.1 Partnering

Partnering is a method of transforming contractual relationships into a cohesive cooperative project team with a single set of goals and established procedures for resolving
disputes in a timely and effective manner. The condition for that being that both parties
must agree on a joint evaluation of the project progress and method for resolving any

104

problem or disagreement, an acceptance of a goal for continuous improvement (Total

Quality Management ) for the joint project, and a continuous support for the process of
partnering from senior management of both parties.
8.2.6.2 Chartering

Chartering is the fact of producing a project charter which is a written agreement between
the Project Manager, senior management, and the functional managers who are
committing resources and/or people to the project.
Chartering member team must commit to meet the design intent, complete the contract
without need of litigation, and finish the project on schedule. Changes of project have
impact on specifications of the deliverables, the schedule and the budget. Changes of
project may result from :
Error in the initial assessment and in the choice of the proper goal for the project.
Technological uncertainty.
New technology allowing faster and cheaper solution.
Client/user or project team needs new knowledge about the nature of the project
deliverable.
New government law.
8.2.6.3 Conflict and the project life cycle

Certain patterns of conflict are associated with the periods in the life of the project.
Four main stages of the project life are :
Project formation (Conceptualisation).
Build-up (Planning).
Main program (Execution).
Phase-out (Termination).
Three categories of conflicts that may arise during the life of a project are:
Conflicts over differing goals.
Conflicts over uncertainty about authority.
Conflicts between personalities
Three primary sources of conflicts are:
Project team.
Client.
Functional and senior manager
Critical issues in the project formation stages are delimiting technical objectives, getting
management commitment, setting the project's relative priority, and selecting the project
organizational structure. The total level of conflict is highest during the project build-up

105

stage. Scheduling and technical are most frequent and serious in the project build-up and
main program stages, and scheduling conflicts in particular during the phase-out stage.
Project negotiation requirements are that conflicts must be settled without permanent
damage.
The methodology must foster and the solution must satisfy both individuals' and the
organization's needs.
The "principled negotiation" technique developed by Fisher and Ury is defined by four
points, namely:
Separate the people from the problem.
Focus on interests.
Before trying to reach agreement, invent options for mutual gain.
Insist on using objective criteria.

8.3 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

8.3.1 Budgeting and cost estimation
8.3.1.1 Introduction.

Before implementing a project the PM should obtain resources to do the work, through a
project budget. A budget is a plan for allocating resources and the allocation of scarce
resources to the various endeavours of an organization is the act of budgeting. Budget has
some constraints and the degree to which the different activities of an organization are
fully supported by an allocation of resources is one measure of the importance placed on
the outcome of the activity.
A budget serves as a standard for comparison, a baseline from which to measure the
difference between the actual and planned uses of resources. Deviations from planned
usage of resources can be checked against the progress of the project, and exception
reports can be generated if resource expenditures are not consistent with
accomplishments and so, some corrective actions can be taken.
Budgets are important in the management process. Without budget, the management may
misinterpret the true state of affairs. Data must be collected and reported in a timely
manner to avoid lost of the value of budget in identifying and reporting current problems
or anticipating upcoming problems. This reporting process must be carefully designed
and controlled in order to avoid the data to be sent to the wrong person or the reports to
take a long time to be processed through the system.
8.3.1.2 Estimating project budgets

Developing a budget demands to forecast what resources are required for the project as
well as required quantity of each, the exact time when they will be needed and how much
they will cost. Although forecasts have some uncertainty, some forecasts have less

106

uncertainty than others. It has been found that project budgets are stable over time when
measured as a percent of the total allocation to R&D (Research and Development), from
parent firm, though within the project, the budget may be reallocated among activities.
The situation is not different for other kinds of projects. For long-term projects, the
forecast resource usage may be altered by the availability of alternate or new materials,
machinery, or personnel. So the longer the project life, the less the P.M. can trust that
traditional methods and costs will be relevant. The P.M. must be aware of both the
resource requirements and the specific time pattern of resource usage.
Every expenditure must be identified with a specific project task and with its associated
milestone. There are two fundamentally different strategies for data gathering, top-down
and bottom-up.
Top-down budgeting
Top-down budgeting is a strategy based on collecting the judgements and experiences of
top and middle managers, and available past data concerning similar activities. After
estimating these cost by the above mentioned level management, the estimates are then
given to lower-level managers, who are expected to make the breakdown into budget
estimates for the specific tasks and work packages that comprise the subprojects. The
process continues to the lower level.
In this budgeting process, lower-level managers will argue for more funds if they judge
insufficient the budget allocation granted to them. Otherwise they will feel forced to
accept what they perceive to be insufficient allocation to achieve the objectives to which
they must commit. The advantage of the top-down process is that aggregate budgets can
often be developed quite accurately.
Bottom-up budgeting.
Bottom-up budgeting is a process in which elemental tasks, their schedules and their
individual budget are constructed again following the WBS. People doing the work are
consulted regarding times and budgets for the tasks to assure the best level of accuracy.
Estimates are initially made in terms of resources (e.g. labour hours, materials, etc.) and
the later converted to equivalent money. Standard analytic tools (learning curve analysis)
and work sampling are often employed where appropriate to improve the estimates.
The resulting task budgets are aggregated to give the total directs costs of the projects.
Addition of indirect costs and general and administrative (G & A), project reserve for
contingencies and profit figure gives the final project budget. Bottom-up budgets are
generally more accurate in the detailed tasks but it is critical that all elements be included.
It is difficult to develop a complete list of tasks when constructing that list from the
bottom-up than from the top-down.

107

Advantages of the bottom-up process are those generally associated with participative
management. But this process is rare because seen by senior managers as a risky.
8.3.1.3 Budget request process

The budget process often starts with an invitation from top management for each division
to submit a budget request for the coming year. The invitation flows through
departments, sections etc. and from below the requests are aggregated and flow up to top
management. As the budget requests are passed back up the organization, they are
carefully inspected for conformity to guidelines. If they do not conform, they are adjusted
often with little or no consultation with the originating units.
The Project Manager's budget request is expected to conform to policy. So the Project
Manager's channels of communication must be sensitive enough to receive policy signals
even in the event that a communicative superior blocks those signals.
8.3.1.4 Activity budgeting vs Program budgeting

Another facet of a budget is the degree to which it is activity-oriented or program

oriented. The traditional organizational budget is activity-oriented. Individual expenses
are classified and assigned to basic budget lines (materials, personnel, labour costs, etc.).
These expense lines are gathered by section, department, division etc.
A program-oriented project budget is divided by task and expected time of expenditure.
Program budgeting is the generic name given to a budgeting system that aggregates
income and expenditures across programs (projects).
There are 2 special forms of program budgeting:
Planning-Programming - Budgeting Systems ( PPBS ).
Zero-Base- Budgeting ( ZBB )
Both forms of program budgeting are not widely used today. PPBS was developed in the
late 1960's through then Secretary of Defense Robert Mc Namara's efforts to deal
rationally with the budget of the DOD (Department of Defence).t 431 PPBS is basically a
program budgeting (and planning) system oriented to identifying, planning, and
controlling projects that will maximize achievement of the organization's long-run goals.
The objective is fund those projects that really bring the greatest progress toward
organizational goals for the least cost.
Four major steps are followed in this budgeting program:
Identification of goals and objectives for each major area of activity.
Analysis of the programs proposed to attain organizational objectives.(Long-term and
Short-term programs are considered).
Estimation of total costs for each project, including indirect costs.

108

4. Final analysis of the alternative project and sets of projects in terms of expected costs,
expected benefits, and expected project lives.
ZBB came into favor in the 1970's as a reaction to the automatic budget increment given
year after year to government agencies. The goals of ZBB was to link the level of funding
directly to the achievements associated with specific programs. The philosophy of ZBB is
that the fundamental desirability of ever program should be reviewed and justified each
year before the program receives any funding at all. The ZBB procedure is to describe
each project/program, evaluate each one and rank them in terms of cost-benefit or some
other appropriate measure. Funds will then be allocated in accordance with this ranking.
As PPBS is associated with Robert Mc Namara, ZBB is associated with President Jimmy
Carter who employed ZBB as governor of Georgia and promised (threatened) to do so as
president.t 431 ZBB is not applied to projects that are clearly successful or are obvious
failures, but to projects that cannot be identified as belonging to either group.
8.3.1.5. Improving the process of cost estimation

Generally it is the job of the PM to generate a description of the work to be done on the
project in sufficient detail that the estimation can know what cost data must be collected.
Help from experts in the functional areas is frequent for complex projects. Two different
ways to deal with the chance events that occur on every project are:
Make an allowance for contingencies (usually 5 to 10 % of the estimated cost).
The forecaster selects most likely optimistic and pessimistic estimates.
Estimating direct costs can be done on a form that lists the level of resource needs and
when each resource will be needed and notes if it is available (or will be available at the
appropriate time). Generally overheads costs do not appear in such a form. The PM
should take the learning curve into account when estimating costs. Changes in resource
prices can produce errors in cost estimates. The solution is to increase all cost estimates
by some fixed percentage. Improvements can be done on a project cost estimate by taking
in account the fact that the prices of different inputs often change at very different rates.
The PM has to use different inflators for each of several different classes of labor or types
of commodities.
It is important to note that every project needs an allowance of contingencies to deal with
the unpredicted.There are 2 generic types of estimation error:
Random error in which overestimates and underestimates are equally likely.
Bias, which is systematic error.The chance of over and under estimates are
not equally likely.
Two simple statistical measures are used:
The Mean Absolute Deviation MAD = I A (t) - F (t) I / n

(8.1)

109

MAD is the arithmetic average of the absolute values of the differences between the
actual value A (t) and the estimates or forecast for that period F (t), where n is the
number of differences.
The Tracking Signal TS which measures the estimator's bias.
8.3.2 Scheduling
8.3.2. 1 Introduction

A schedule is the conversion of a project action plan into an operating timetable. It serves
as a fundamental basis for monitoring and controlling project activities and, taken
together with the plan and budget, is probably the major tool for the management of
projects. Not all project activities need to be scheduled at the same level of detail. There
may be several schedules: the master schedule, the development and testing schedule, the
assembly schedule, and so on. These schedules are typically based on the previously
determined action plan and/or work breakdown structure (WBS). A schedule for each
major task level in the WBS is recommendable.
Dates and time allotments for the work packages must be in precise agreement with those
set forth in the project master schedule. The work units that aggregate into work packages
must also be in agreement with the times in the master schedule. These times are control
points for the PM. The basic approach of all scheduling techniques is to form an actual or
implied network of activity and event relationships that graphically portrays the
sequential relations between the tasks in a project. Preceding and following tasks are then
clearly identified, in time as well as function.
8.3.2. 2 Network techniques : PERT and CPM

The most common approach to project scheduling is the use of network techniques such
as PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) and CPM (Critical Path Method).
The PERT was developed by the US Navy in co-operation with Booz-Alen Hamilton and
the Lockeed Corporation in the Polaris missile/submarine project in 1958. The CPM was
developed by Dupont, Inc., during the same time period.
Initially, PERT has been used for R & D projects. CPM was designed for construction
projects. The two methods are quite similar and are often combined. Therefore in the
present study the term PERT / CPM will be used whenever the distinction is not
important.
Originally PERT was used to aid in determining the probability that a project could be
completed by some given date. CPM was designed to control both the time and costs
aspects of a project, in particular, time/cost trade off. Both techniques identified a project
critical path whose activities could not be delayed, and also indicated slack activities that
could be somewhat delayed without lengthening the project completion time. Generally
critical activities constitute about 10% of the total activities.

110

There is no significant difference in the technological performance on projects where

PERT/CPM was used and where it was not, but research found that there was a
significantly lower probability of cost and schedule overruns when PERT/CPM was used.
Definitions

Activity : A specific task or set of tasks that are required by the project, use up
resources, and take time to complete.
type 3

typel

>0

O
"

Start"

type 2

>0

>0
" Finish "

" Continue"

Event: The result of completing one or more activities.

Network : The combination of all activities (usually drawn as arcs) and events
(graphically drawn as nodes at the beginning and the end of each arc) defines
the project and the activity precedence relationships. Networks are usually
drawn starting on the left and proceeding to the right.
Path : The series of connected activities (or intermediate events) between any two
events in a network.
Critical: Activities, events, or paths which, if delayed, will delay the completion of the
project.
Milestone: A clearly identifiable point in a project set of activities that commonly denotes
a reporting requirement or completion of a large or important set of activities.
Node: An intersection of two or more lines or arrows commonly used for depicting an
event or activity.
Trade-off : The amount of one factor that must be sacrificed in order to achieve more or
less of another factor.
There are two types of network:

AOA ( Activity - On - Arrow ) network

AON ( Activity - On - Node ) network

> Arrows represents activities while

nodes stands for events.
> Activities are represented by nodes
and arrows to show the precedence
relationships.

EOT(Early Occurrence Time) represents the earliest times that an event can occur.
111

Calculating Activity Times

From data such as optimistic time, most likely time, pessimistic time, it is possible to
calculate the expected time (based on the fact that this time follows a beta statistical
distribution) the variance as well as the standard deviation.
Critical Path and Time
By proceeding to calculate the EOT of each node beginning at the start, we are actually
finding the critical path and time to each of the nodes in the network. Most of the time the
PM will employ the "as-soon-as-possible" approach to scheduling tasks (early start) but
there are situations where other approaches will sometimes be used. For example the
simultaneous start, where all resources are launched and the beginning or the
simultaneous finish, where a facility can be moved to its next location once the tasks are
finished.
A reason for using an " as-late-as possible " approach is that it delays the use of resources
as much as possible, thereby optimizing the cash flow of the project, but again at some
risk of delay.
EST which is the earliest starting time is equal to the EOT for the event from which the
activity emanates.
LST is the latest starting time.
The difference between the LST and the EST for an activity is called its slack or float. It
is obvious that all activities on the critical path have zero slack. They cannot be delayed
without making the project late. To find the slack for any activity or the LOT (Last
occurrence Time) one makes a backward pass (right to left) through the network just as
we made a forward pass (left to right) to find the critical path and time and the EOTs for
all events (which are also the ESTs for successor activities). It is conventional to
calculate the slack for any activity as if it was the only activity in the path.
Uncertainty of Project Completion Time
The P.M. should try to determine the probability that a project will be completed by the
suggested deadline, or find the completion time associated with a predetermined level of
risk.
8.3.2.3 Gantt chart

One of the oldest and still one of the most useful method of presenting scientifically
information is the Gantt chart, developed around 1917 by Henry L. Gantt. The Gantt
chart is particularly effective and easy to read, easy to construct and can be helpful in
expediting, sequencing, and reallocating resources among tasks. That is why the Gantt
chart is the most popular method for displaying a project schedule. One of the

112

disadvantages of the Gantt chart is that it is not indicating clearly task precedence and
dependencies.
8.3.2.4 Extensions of PERT

GERT
The Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT) is a network model developed
to deal with more complex modelling situations. GERT combines signal flow graph
theory, probabilistic network PERT/CPM, and decision trees all in a single framework.
Its components consist of logical nodes and directed arcs (or branches) with 2 parameters,
the probability that a given arc is taken (or "realized") and the distribution function
describing the time required by the activity.
Difference between GERT and PERT/CPM.
GERT
Branching from a node is probabilistic
Various possible probability
distributions for time estimates
Flexibility in node realization
Looping back to earlier events is
acceptable
Difficult to use as a control tool
Arcs may represent time, cost,
reliability etc....

PERT/CPM
Branching from a node is deterministic
Only the beta distribution for time
estimates
No flexibility in node realization
Looping back is not allowed
Easy to use for control
Arcs represent time only

Pritsker conducted some work and found a modelling package called Q-GERT which
simulates queues, or waiting lines, in the network. [431 There are other extensions of PERT
that have some features similar to GERT and Q-GERT, e.g. VERT, but GERT seems to
be the most widely used extension.
8.3. 2.5 Other methods

Other methods can be used for project scheduling such as the one developed by the
Goddard Space Flight Center in three phases, and the one in use by the Department of
General Services and called PMIS (Project Management Information System).
Bubshait and Selen worked on the use of project management techniques. Digman and
Green have developed a useful framework for evaluating the various planning and control
techniques. The PM should opt for the simplest method sufficient to the needs of the
project and its parent firm.

113

8.3.3 Resource allocation

8.3.3.1 Introduction

After looking at allocation of time among project tasks (scheduling), next is to consider
the allocation of physical resources. The subject relates directly to the matter of the
scheduling because altering schedules can alter the need for the resources and the timing
of resources needs. The approaches employed to solve allocation problems include the
Critical Path Method (CPM) and several other well known techniques.
8.3.3.2 The Critical Path Method

In CPM, two activity times and two costs are specified, if appropriate, for each activity.
This first time/cost combination is called normal and the second set is referred to as
crash. Normal times are "normal" in the same sense as the m time estimate of the three
times used in PERT. Crash times result from a attempt to expedite the activity by the
application of additional resources, e.g., overtime, special equipment, additional staff and
material, etc.
It is common standard practice with PERT/CPM to estimate activity times under the
assumption of resource loading that are normal. There must have been some decision
about what resources would be devoted to each task, but much of the decision-making is
practice, relegated to the common methods of standard practice and rules of thumb which
are sufficient for estimating the source needs for normal progress. However a careful
planning is critical when attempting to expedite (crash) a project. Crash plans that appear
feasible when considered activity by activity may incorporate impossible assumptions
about resource availability.
Use of the three probabilistic time estimates of PERT may reduce chance that crashing
will be needed because they include uncertainties that are sometimes ignored when
making deterministic time estimates. If deterministic time estimates are used, and if
project deadlines are first, there is a high likelihood that it will be necessary to crash the
last few activities in most projects.
If we define a cost/time slope as follows:
Crash cost - normal cost
(which is the cost per day of crashing a project ) (8.2)

slope =
Crash time - normal time

The slope is negative, indicating that as the time required for a project or task is
decreased, the cost is increased.
Crashing a project results in a change of the technology with which something is done. At
certain times, crashing may involve a relatively simple decision to increase groups of

114

resources already being used. In some cases technology cannot be changed, and task
duration is fixed.
Changes in technology tend to produce not only discontinuities in outcomes, but they
tend also to produce discontinuities in cost. As the technology is changed to speed a
project, the cost curve relating input costs to time is apt to jump as we move from less to
more sophisticated production systems. To use CPM , the PM has to develop a table or a
graph of the cost of a project as a function of the project's various possible completion
dates. This can be obtained by either of two approaches:
Start with the normal schedule for all project activities, and then crash selected
activities, one at a time, to decrease project duration at the minimum additional.
Start with an all-crash schedule, compute its cost, and "relax" activities one time at
time. It is obvious that the activities relaxed first should be those that do not extend
the completion date of the project.- that is, those not on the critical path.
Then it is possible to draw a time/cost curve. Starting at the right, the more the curve of
cost per unit of duration gets steeper and steeper the more the project duration is reduced.
Such kind of charts (curves) are useful to the PM in exercising control over project
duration and cost. They are particularly helpful in dealing with senior managers who may
argue for early project completion dates with little understanding of the costs involved.
Similarly, such data are of great benefit when clients plead for early delivery. It is
important to note that indirect costs are often altered when a project is crashed. It is
advisable for the PM to ignore overhead cost over which he/she has no control.
If a project has a penalty clause making the organization liable for late delivery, the
cost/duration trade off curve contains the information the PM needs to know in order to
determine whether crashing the project or paying the penalty is the more economic
course of action.
8.3.3.3 The resource allocation problem.

The present study will not refer to resource usage simply as "costs" but refers also to
individual types of labor, specific facilities, kinds of materials, individual pieces of
equipment, and other discrete inputs that are relevant to an individual project and are
limited in availability.
The relationship between progress, time, and resource availability/usage is the major
focus. Schedules should be evaluated not merely in terms of meeting project milestones,
but also in terms of the timing and use of scarce resources. A fundamental measure of the
PM's success in project management is the skill with which the trade-offs among
performance, time, and cost are managed. The extreme points of the relationship between
time use and resource use are:
- Time Limited: The project must be finished by a certain time, using as few resources
as possible. But it is time, not resource usage, that is critical.

115

Resource Limited: The project must be finished as soon as possible, but without

exceeding some specific level of resource usage or some general resource constraint.
The points between these two extremes represent time/resource-use trade-offs.They
specify the times achievable at various resources levels. Equivalently, they specify the
resources associated with various completion times. The range of time or resource
variability is limited.
If all three variables, time, cost, specifications are fixed, the system is "over determined".
One or more tasks in a project may be "system constrained". A system-constrained task
requires a fixed amount of time and known quantities of resources. No trade-offs are
possible when dealing with a system- constrained task or project. More important is to
make sure that the required resources are available when needed.
Resource loading
Resource loading describes the amounts of individual resources an existing job requires
during specific time periods. It is also a step in attempting to reduce excessive demands
on certain resources, regardless the specific technique used to reduce the demands. The
PERT diagram, if modified to illustrate slacks, will be helpful for resource levelling. A
Gantt chart could be also adapted.
Resource levelling
Resource levelling aims to minimize the period-by-period variations in the resource
loading by shifting tasks within their slack allowances. The purpose is to create a
smoother distribution of resource usage.
The advantages of smoothening resource usage that the PM can arrange to have the
resource available when needed, can have the supplier furnish constant amounts, and can
arrange a backup supplier if advisable.
Another implication is that when resources are levelled, the associated costs tend to be
levelled. Resource levelling is a procedure that can be used for almost all projects,
whether or not resources are constrained. Depending on the size of the network, resource
levelling can be done manually or by computer package.
Constrained resource scheduling
There are two fundamental approaches to constrained allocation problems, heuristics and
optimization models .

Heuristic approaches employ rules of thumb that have been found to work reasonably
well in similar situations. They seek better solutions. Optimization approaches seek the
best solutions but far more limited in their ability to handle complex situations and large
problems.

116

a) Heuristic methods.

Heuristics approaches to constrained resources scheduling problems are widely in use

because they are the only feasible methods of attacking the large, non-linear, complex
problems that tend to occur in project management environment and also because the
schedules generated by this methods are good for most projects. In a period when the
available supply of a resource is exceeded, the heuristic examines the tasks in the period
and allocates the scarce resource to them sequentially, according to some priority rules
which are mainly:

As Soon as Possible : The default rule for scheduling. This provides the general
solution for critical path and time.
As Late as Possible : All activities are scheduled as late as possible without delaying
the project. The usual purpose of this heuristic is to defer cash out flows as late as
possible.
Shortest Task First : Tasks are ordered in terms of duration, with the shortest first.
This rule in general maximizes the number of tasks that can be completed by a
system during some time period.
Most Resources First : Activities are ordered by use of specific resource, with the
largest user heading the list, because the more important tasks usually place a higher
demand on scarce resources.
- Minimum Slack first : This heuristic orders activities by the amount of slack, least
slack going first. It is common, when using this rules, to break ties by using the
shortest-task-first rule.
Most Critical Followers: Tasks are arranged by number of critical activities
following them. The ones with the greatest number of critical followers go first.
Most Successors : Same as the previous rule, except that all followers, not merely
critical ones, are counted.
Experiments by Fendley revealed that the minimum slack rule was the best or near-best
quite often and rarely caused poor performance. The heuristic procedure just described is
probably the most common. There are, however, other heuristic procedures that work in a
similar manner. One works in reverse and schedules jobs from the end of the project
instead of from its beginning. Activities that just precede the project finish are scheduled
to be completed just barely within their latest finish times. Other heuristics use the branch
and bound approach. They generate a wide range of solutions, discard those that are not
feasible and others that are feasible with poor solutions. Another heuristic procedure for
levelling resource loads is based on the concept of minimizing the sum of the squares of
resource requirements in each period. This approach, called Burgess's Method, was
applied by Woodworth and Willie to a multiproject situation involving a number of

117

resources. The method was applied to each resource sequentially starting with the most
critical resource first.
b)

Optimizing methods

The methods to find an optimal solution to the constrained resource scheduling problem
fall into two categories, mathematical programming (linear programming) and
enumeration
Linear programming (LP) is usually not feasible for reasonably large projects where there
may be a dozen resources and thousands of activities. Advanced in LP techniques now
allow LP to be used on large constrained resource scheduling problems.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, limited enumeration techniques were applied to the
constrained resource problem with more success. Tree search and branch and
bound methods were devised to handle up to 5 resources and perhaps 200
activities. Recent approaches have combined programming and enumeration
methods.
8.3.3.4 Multiproject scheduling and resource allocation

Scheduling and allocating resources to multiple projects, as is the case for the RAU
Concrete Rehabilitation Project, is much more complex than for the single-project case.
The most common approach is to treat the such projects as if they were each element of a
single large project.
Another way of dealing with the problem is to consider all projects as completely
independent.
In a multiproject, each project has its own set of activities, due dates, and resource
requirements. Penalties for not meeting time, cost and performance goals for the several
projects may differ. A multiproject problem involves determining how to allocate
resources to, and set a completion time for, anew project that is added to an existing set
of ongoing projects. This requires the development of an efficient, dynamic multiproject
scheduling system.
Three important parameters affected by the project scheduling are:
Schedule slippage: is the time past a project's due date or delivery date when the
project is completed. It may result in penalty costs. It may also cause other projects to
slip.
Resource utilization : A resource allocation system that smooths out the peaks and
valleys of rescue usage is ideal but it is extremely difficult to attain while maintaining
scheduled performance because all the projects in a multiproject organization are
competing for the same scare resources.

118

3. In - process inventory concerns the amount of work waiting to be processed

because there is a shortage of some resource(s).
Fendley found that when a new project is added to a multiproject system the amount of
slippage is related to the average resource load factor. The load factor is the average
resource requirement during a set time period divided by resource availability for that
time period. Analysis of resources loads is important in determining the amount of
slippage to expect when adding projects. There are various types of multiproject
scheduling and resource allocation techniques such as:
Mathematical programming which can be used to obtain optimal schedule to certain
types of multiproject scheduling problems.
Heuristic techniques on which have been focused major efforts in attacking the
resources constrained multiproject scheduling problem because the difficulties with
the analytical formulation of realistic problems.
These additional heuristic for resource allocation have been developed and are
commercially available for computer:
Resource Scheduling Method.
Minimum Late Finish Time.
Greatest Resource Demand
A multiproject scheduling heuristic

If an entire network is decomposed into subnetwork, we have the equivalent of the

multiproject problem where each of the projects (subnetworks) is linked to processor and
successor projects (other subnetworks). In this case the predecessor/successor
relationships depend on the technology of the parent project. Before undertaking the
allocation of resources it is proper to consider the quantity of resources available
allocation. Excluding activities that have been completed in previous periods, every
activity planed by the project is in one of four states: ongoing, stopping, waiting and
technologically able to start or waiting and technologically unable to start.
Ongoing activities are labelled us "resource users".
Stopping are " resource contributors"
- Waiting and able to start are "resource demanders"
If the PM uses up the resources before all critical activities are scheduled, we can adopt
one or two subheuristics
1 Borrow resources from currently active , but non critical tasks.
2. Deschedule a currently active ,non critical taste .

119

In both cases, some resources will be for use on critical tasks.

8.3.4 Monitoring and Information Systems
8.3.4.1 Introduction

Monitoring is collecting, recording, and reporting information concerning any and all
aspects of project performance that the P.M or others in the organisation wish to know
Monitoring as an activity, should be kept distinct from controlling .
Controlling activity uses the date supplied by monitoring to bring actual performance into
approximate congruence with planed performance.
Monitoring should also be kept distinct from evaluation(through which judgements are
made about the project is completed.
8.3.4.2 The planning

monitoring

controlling cycle

The key things to be planned ,monitored, and controlled are time (schedule), cost
(budget), and performance (specifications).
Planning - monitoring - controlling cycle is continuously in process until the project is
completed.
Designing the monitoring system
The first step is to identify the key factors to be controlled and the source of items to be
monitored by the project action plan. Monitoring system follows and should concentrate
on measuring various facets of output rather than intensity of activity. The measurement
of project performance usually poses most difficult than gathering problems.
How to collect data
It is necessary to define precisely what pieces of information should be gather and when
the collected data take one of the following forms:
Frequency counts.
Raw members.
Subjective numeric ratings.
Indicators.
Verbal measures.
After data collection has been completed reports on project progress should be generated
project status reports, time/cost reports, various reports. Causes and effects should be
identified and trends noted. Plans, charts and tables should be updated on a timely basis.
The purpose of the monitoring system is to gather and report data. The purpose of the
control system is to act on the data and to aid the project controller. It is helpful for the
monitor to carry out some data analysis .

120

8.3.4.3 Information needs and the reporting process

The monitoring system ought to be constructed so that it addresses every level of

management, but reports need not be of the same depth or at the frequency for each level.
Lower level personnel have a need for detailed information about individual tasks and the
factors affecting such tasks. Reports should be available in time to be used for project
control. The timing reports should generally correspond to the timing of project
milestones. Project reports may not be issued periodically excepting progress reports for
senior management.
Report- types
The three distinct types of reports are:
Routine (issued on regular basis).
Exception (directly oriented to the project management decision and they may be
issued when a decision is made on an exception basis).
Special analysis ( used to disseminate the results of special studies conducted as part
of the project or as a response to special problems during the project.)
Meetings
A few rules can help project meetings to be pleasant:
Use meetings for making group decisions or getting input for important problems.
Have preset starting and stopping times as well as a written agenda.
Be prepared.
Minutes must be distributed as soon as possible after the meeting.
Avoid attributing remarks or viewpoints to individuals in the minutes.
Avoid overly formal rules of procedure.
In case of crisis, call a meeting to deal with that issue only.
Common reporting problems
There are three common difficulties in the design of project reports:
There is usually too much detail, both in the reports and in the input being solicited
from workers.
Poor interface between the project information system and the parent firm's
information system.
Poor correspondence between the planning and the monitoring.
8.3.4.4 The earned chart value

Monitoring of performance for the entire project is important. Individual task

performance must be monitored carefully because the timing and co-ordination between

121

individual tasks is important. One way of measuring overall performance is by using an

aggregate performance measure called earned value. Three variances can be identified on
the earned value chart.
The time variance = difference in the time scheduled for the work that has been
performed (STWP) and the actual time used to perform it (ATWP).
- The cost or spending variance = the difference between the amount of money
budgeted for the work that has been performed (BCWP) to date and the actual cost
of that work (ACWP)
- The schedule variance = the difference between the budgeted cost of the work
performed (BCWP) to date and the cost of the work scheduled to be performed to
date (BCWS).
When the project is behind schedule as is the case of the realkalisation project at Rand
Afrikaans University, the variances are negative.
8.3.4.5 Cost/Schedule Control System Criteria (C/SCSC)
C/SCSC was developed by the US Department of Defence in the late 1960s and is
generally required for defence projects. It is an extension of earned value analysis. The
approach emphasizes the need to relate the realities of time, cost, and performance with
the project's master plan which must be kept up to date.
Milestone - reporting
These types-of reports show project status at specific time. They serve to keep all parties
up to date on.what has been accomplished.
8.3.4.6 Computerized PMIS (Project Management Information Systems)
These systems are certainly efficient, but they can be misused or inappropriately applied.
The most common error of this type is managing the PMIS rather than the project itself.
Thamhain described it in the form of the following list:
Computer paralysis.
- PMIS verification.
Information overload.
Project isolation.
- Computer dependence.
PMIS misdirection.
The PMIS have a wide of capabilities which can be helpful for Project Managers. Project
Managers' preferred PMIS features are:

122

- Friendliness,
- Schedules,
- Calendars,
Budgets,
- Reports, with graphics,
Networks charts,
- Migration,
- Integration.
The five areas of internal PMTS capabilities are
Project Planning.
Resource Management.
Tracking / Monitoring.
Report generation.
Decision making.
8.3.5. Project control
8.3.5.1 Introduction

Control is the last element in the implementation cycle of planning-monitoringcontrolling. Information is selected about system performance, compared with the desired
(or planned) level and action taken if actual and desired performance differ enough that
the Project Manager wishes to decrease the difference.
In essence, control is the act of reducing the difference between plan and reality. Control
is focused on the three elements of a project, namely performance, cost and time. The
process of controlling a project defines what points in the project should be controlled,
how it will be measured, how much deviation from plan will be tolerated before to act,
what kinds of interventions should be used, and how to spot and correct deviations before
they occur.
8.3.5.2 The fundamental purposes of control

The two fundamental objectives of control are :

The regulation of results through the alteration of activities.
The stewardship of organizational assets.
Physical asset control
Requires control of the use of physical assets. It is concerned with asset maintenance
(preventive or corrective) as is the case for RAU buildings . The timing of maintenance
or replacement as well as the quality of maintenance are also among the issues.
Physically inventory (of equipment or material), must also be controlled.

123

Human resource control

Human resources must be controlled. Such devices for the measurement of human
resource conservation as :
Einployee appraisals.
Personnel performance indices.
Screening methods for appointments, promotion, and retention are not particularly
satisfactory devices for ensuring that the conservation function is being properly
handled.
Financial resource control.

Capital investment controls work to conserve the organization's assets by insisting that
certain conditions be met before capital can be expended, and those same conditions
usually regulate the use of capital to achieve the organization goal of a high return on
investments. It is difficult to separate the control mechanisms aimed at conservation of
financial resources from those focused on regulating resource use. The techniques of
financial control, both conservation and regulation include current asset controls and
project budgets as well as investment controls.
8.3.5.3 Three types of control processes
a) Cybernetic control

Also known as steering control, cybernetic control is characterized by its automatic

operation. It is essentially constituted by inputs, process, outputs (and sensors for
measurement of outputs), comparator, effector and decision maker. A cybernetic control
system that acts to reduce deviations from standard is called a negative feedback loop.
There are three types of cybernetic control systems:
A first-order control system.
A second order control system.
A third order control system.
The information requirements of a cybernetic control are:
The characteristics of an output (interim output or final output) which must be
controlled.
Standard must be set for each characteristic.
Sensors must be built to measure the characteristics at desired level of precision.
Measurements must be transformed into a signal that can be compared to a
standard signal.
The difference between the two is sent to a decision maker.

124

The signal is transmitted to the effector to cause the system to react in order to
counter act the deviation from standard.
Go/No go controls
-

Go/No-go controls take the form of testing to see if some specific precondition has been
met. For many facets of performance, it is sufficient to know that the predetermined
specifications for project output have been met. It is also true for cost and time.
Judgement is required in the use of go/no-go controls.
The project plan, budget, and schedule are control documents, so the PM has a predesigned control system complete with pre-specified milestones as control checkpoints
contrary to cybernetic controls which are automatic, go/no-go controls operate only when
and if the controller uses them. In many cases go/no-go controls functions periodically, at
regular, pre-set intervals. Advantage associated to go/no-go controls is that with them it is
easy to administer a control system whereas the disadvantage is that there is an allowance
of errors to be compounded before to be detected.
Therefore controls should be linked to the actual plans and the occurrence of real events,
not simply to the calendar. The PM should establish an early warning system in order to
expose potential problems. The most information required to operate go/no-go project
control are contained in the project proposal, plans, specifications, schedules and budgets.
Milestones are the key events that serve as a focus for ongoing control activity and they
are the project's deliverable in the form of in-process output or final output.
Postcontrol

PostcOntrols (also known as post performance controls or post project controls) are
applied after the fact. Postcontrol is applied through a formal document with four distinct
sections:
The project objectives.
Milestones, checkpoints, and budgets.
The final report on project results.
Recommendations for performance and process improvement.
Some useful control tools are:
Trend projection charts.
Actual progress
X
Critical ration =
Scheduled progress
Control charts.

Budgeted cost
(8.3)
Actual cost

125

8.3.5. 4 Control as a function of management

Control is a necessary and inherent part of life in any organization. It must be taken as a
tool assuring the maintenance of ethical goal-directed behavior. Control does indicate the
direction toward which the motivated person should move.
Three responses to the goal-directedness of control systems are:
Active and positive participation and goal seeking.
Passive participation in order to avoid loss.
Active and negative participation and resistance.
8.3.5. 5 Balance in control system

When developing a control system, it is important that the system be well balanced. A
balanced control system is cost-effective, well geared for the best results sought, and not
overdone. The most important principle to achieve a balanced control system is the need
to tie controls directly to project objectives. Control should also be closely and directly
related to specific performance outcomes. Constructing a balanced system must be done
when control systems are designed . The work planned will also to be controlled.
8.3. 5.6 Control of creative activities

This type of control deals particularly with controlling research and development
projects, design projects and similar processes that depend ultimately on the creativity of
individuals and teams.
Three general approaches must be adopted by the PM in order to control creative
projects:
Progress review.
Personnel reassignment.
Control of input resources.
8.3.5.7 Control of change

Changes result from three basic causes, namely the uncertainty about the technology, the
increase in the knowledge base of the client/user and the modification of rules applying to
the process of carrying out the project or to its output. The most common changes,
however, are due to the natural tendency of the client and project team members to try to
improve the product or service. The purpose of the formal change control system is to:
Review all requested changes to the project.
Identify all task impacts.
Translate the impacts into project performance, cost and schedule.
Evaluate the benefits and costs of the requested changes.

126

Identify alternative changes that might accomplish the same ends.

Accept or reject the requested changes.
Communicate the changes to all concerned parties.
Ensure that the changes are implemented properly.
Prepare months reports summarizing all changes to the date and their project
impacts.
To establish an effective change control procedure some guidelines must be followed:
Description of how requests for a change will be introduced and processed.
Any change in a project will be in the form of a change order.
Changes must be approved.
The PM must be consulted on all desired changes prior to the preparation and
approval of the change order.
Once the change order has been completed and approved, the project master plan
should be amended to reflect the change and the change order becomes a part of
the master plan.
The next phase after implementing a project and which is also the last stage in a project
life cycle is the project termination. The next section examines how to terminate a
project.
8.4 PROJECT TERMINATION
8.4.1 Project auditing
8.4.1.1 Introduction

Postcontrol tries to capture the essence of project success and failures so that future
projects can benefit from past experiences. Understanding past experiences requires
evaluation. One of the evaluation process is called project auditing. Project evaluation
appraises the progress and performance of a project compared to that project's planned
progress and performance or compared to the progress and performance of other, similar
projects. The evaluation also supports management decisions required for the project.
Therefore the evaluation must be presented in such a way that all pertinent data have
been considered.
8.4.1.2 Purposes of evaluation

The primary purpose of evaluation is to aid in achieving the project's goals and
contribution to the parent's organization's goals. All the facets of the project must be
studied in order to identify and understand the project's strengths and weaknesses. It is
the equivalent of application of TQM to project management.
Identification of goals of a project is easy. It requires only a careful reading of the project
proposal and a close examination of any documentation that indicates why the project

127

was selected and undertaken. Immediately following the project description is a section
headed "reason for interest" which is a statement of the project's direct goal. If this
section does not exist a few interviews with the individuals in charge of making decision
about projects will help to expose the direct goals sought by the firm.
Identification of ancillary goals is a difficult and politically delicate task. Ancillary goals
are usually not overtly identified . For the most part, they are "hidden" by accident, not
by purpose. Finding them requires deductive reasoning. A well advised P.M has to take a
keen interest in finding ancillary goals of a project he has to request that evaluations
include ancillary goals of the parent organization's if not those of individuals.
8.4.1.3 The project audit

The project audit is a thorough examination of the management of project, its

methodology and procedures, its records, its properties its budgets and expenditures and
its degree of completion. It may deal with a project as a whole , or only with a part of the
project.
The formal report may be presented in various formats, but should , at a minimum,
contain comments on the points.
Current status of the project.
Future status.
Status of crucial tasks.
Risk assessment.
Information pertinent to other projects.
Limitations of the audit.
Project audit is not a financial audit. The processes are similar but the outputs are quite
different. A financial audit has a limited scope whereas a project is far broader in scope
and may deal with the project as a whole or any components of the project. Project audit
is not also a traditional management audit. Management audits are primarily aimed at
ensuring that the organization's management systems are in place and operation. The
project audit studies the financial, managerial, and technical aspects of the project as an
integrated set applied to a specific project in a specific organizational environment .
Depth of the audit
Time and money are two of the most common limits on the depth of investigation and
level of detail presented in the audit report. Some costs are associated with the audit/
evaluation process. The Depth of the investigation may vary depending on circumstances
and needs unique to each project.
Three levels of audit are generally recognized:

128

1. The general audit (normally most constrained by time and resources and is usually
a brief review of the project).
2 The detailed audit is conducted when a flow-up to the general audit is required.
3. Technical audit is normally carried out by a qualified technician under the direct
guidance of the project auditor. It is usually the most detailed.
Timing of the audit
The timing will depend on the circumstances of a particular project. The first audits are
usually done early in the project's life and are focused on the technical issues in order to
make sure that key technical problems have been solved or are under competent attack.
As the project develops, technical issues are less likely to be matters of concern.
Conformity to the schedule and budget becomes the primary interest. Management issues
are major matters of interest for audits made late in the project's life. Post project audits
are conducted as a legal necessity because the client specified such an audit in the
contract. It is also a major part of the managerial feedback to the parent organization. A
post project audit is needed to account for all project property and expenditures.
8.4.1. 4 Constructions and use of the audit report

It is useful to establish a general format to which all audit reports must conform.
Significant deviations of actual from predict results should be highlighted and explained
in a set of footnotes or comments. Negative comments about individuals or groups
associated with the project should be avoided. The report must be written in a clear,
professional, unemotional style and restrict its content to information and issues that are
relevant to the project. The following items cover the minimum information that should
be contained in the audit report:
Introduction
Current status : should include - cost (direct charges).Overheads cost data should be
presented in an additional set of tables,
schedule,
progress,
quality.
Future project status
Critical management
Risk analysis
Caveats, limitations, and assumptions
Responsibilities of the Project Auditor/Evaluator
The auditor should tell the truth. He must also approach the audit in an objective and
ethical manner and assume responsibility for what is included and excluded from
consideration in the report.
Walker and Bracey suggest the following steps for carrying out an audit: [431

129

Assemble a small team of experienced experts.

Familiarize the team with the requirements of the project.
Audit the project on site.
After completion, debrief the project management.
Produce a written report according to a prespecified format.
Distribute the report to the PM and project team for their response.
Follow up to see if the recommendations have been implemented
8.4.1.5 The project audit life cycle

The audit should be considered as a formal document required by contract with the client.
The life cycle of an audit is composed of an orderly progression of well-defined events:
Project Audit Initiation.
Project Baseline Definition.
Establishing an Audit Database.
Preliminary Analysis of the Project.
Audit Report Preparation.
Project Audit Termination
8.4.1.6 Some essential of an audit/evaluation

For an audit/evaluation to be conducted with skill and precision, for it to be credible and
generally acceptable to senior management, to the project team, and to the client, several
conditions must be met:
The audit/evaluation team must be properly selected.
All records and files must be accessible.
The contact with project team members must be preserved
8.4.1.6 Measurement

The measurement of a project is not an easy issue to deal with. Criteria and scoring
procedures should be decided at the start of the project. After measuring the project
comes the termination phase.
8.4.2. Project termination

Project termination is the stage during which the signing and acceptance procedures must
take place. In other words, at this stage, all parties involved in the project must ensure
that the final output is as specified and have a point at which the project is declared
completed.

130

8.4.2.1 The varieties of project termination

A project can be said to be terminated:

When work on the substance of the project has ceased or slowed to the point that
further progress on the is no longer possible.
When the project has been indefinitely delayed.
When its resources have been deployed to other projects.
When project personnel (especially the PM) becomes a personae non gratae with
senior management and in the company lunchroom.
There are four fundamental different ways to close out a project :
By extinction.
By addition.
By integration.
By starvation.
Termination by extinction
The project is stopped. It may end because it has been successful and achieved its goals.
It may also be stopped because it is unsuccessful or has been superseded or it will cost
too much and take too long to get the desired performance. Termination by murder may
also be a case of termination (political assassination, accidental projecticide, etc.).
When a project terminates, all activity on its substance ceases. Arrangements must be
made in order to release project team members and to reassign them to other activities if
they remain in the parent firm. The property, equipment and materials belonging to the
project must be disbursed and a final report, also known as the project history must be
prepared.
Termination by addition
In-house projects are carried out by the project team for use in the parent organization. If
a project output is a major success, it may be terminated by institutionalising it as a
formal part of the parent organization. In the case of termination by addition, as in the
case of termination by extinction the project ceases to exist. Project personnel, property,
and equipment are often simply transferred from the dying project to the newly born
division.
Termination by integration
This kind of termination is the most common way of dealing with successful projects,
and the most complex. The property, equipment, material, personnel, and functions of the
project are distributed among the existing elements of the parent organization. The more

131

important aspects of the transition from project to integrated operation that must be
considered when the project functions are distributed, are the following:
Personnel : Where will the project team go? Will it remain a team? etc.
Manufacturing : Is training complete? Are input materials and the required facilities
available?
Accounting/Finance : Have the project accounts been closed and audited?
Engineering : Are all drawings complete and on file?
Information systems/software.
Marketing : Is the sales department aware of the change?
Purchasing, Distribution, Legal; etc... Are all these and other functional areas aware
of the change?
Termination by starvation
It is more a "slow starvation by budget decrement" than a project termination by itself. In
effect, the project is terminated, but the project still exists as a legal entity complete with
sufficient staff to maintain some sort of presence such as a secretary who issues a project
"no-progress" report each year.
8.4 2.2 When to terminate a project

Buell developed a list of some questions which must be asked before terminating a
project. [431 This list is not reproduced in this study but can be found in specialised books.
This list can help senior management to take decision about the life of the project.
Dean reports that the probabilities of technical and/or commercial failure are the two
most important reasons for terminating projects.t 431
Balachandra and Raelin performed a discriminant analysis on 23 factors involved in
terminating projects, not as a decision model, but as a way of highlighting the various
factors involved and their relevance to the termination problem, as related to projects in
general. [431 Some critical success factors had been selected by Pinto and Slevin. In order
of importance, there are: [431
Project mission.
Top management support.
Project schedule / plan.
Client consultation.
Personnel.
Technical tasks.
Client acceptance.
Monitoring and feedback.
Communication.
Troubleshooting

132

These success-related factors can be used as termination decision models. There are also
relatively few fundamental reasons why some projects fail to produce satisfactory
answers to Buell's questions. Among them we find mainly the followings:
A project organization is not required.
Insufficient support from senior management.
Naming the wrong person as Project Manager.
Poor planning.
8.4.2. 3 The termination process

This process has two distinct parts :

The decision (whether or not to terminate a project).
The implementation of the decision (execution).
The decision
Two categories pertain to this process:
There are models that base the decision on the degree to which the project qualifies
against a set of factors associated with successful or failed projects.
There are models that base the decision on the degree to which the project meets the
goals and objectives set for it.
Balachandra and Raelin state that project selection models are not appropriate for the
project termination decision. For them, data requirements for selection models are too
large and costly. They also argue that the evaluation of factors in project selection models
may change during the life cycle of the project.
Shafer and Mantel have developed a project termination decision support system (DDS)
available on Lotus 1-2-3 and using a constrained weighted factor scoring model. [431
The implementation process
Once taken, the decision to terminate a project must be implemented. The termination
can be planned or be a simple hatchet job. The implementation process is a complex
process. Special termination managers are sometimes useful in completing the long and
involved process of shutting down a project. Some suggestions have been made but are
very difficult to be followed in case of termination by murder.
8.4.2.4 The final report, a project history

The project final report incorporates the process knowledge gained from the project. The
elements that should be covered in the final report are:

133

Project performance.
Administrative performance.
Organizational structure.
Project and administrative teams.
Techniques and project management.
These comments are made in order to preserve project records.
8.4.3 Multicultural, environmental and unsolved issues
8.4.3.1 Introduction

Projects are conducted in different environments, namely, economic, political, legal and
socio-technical environments. The PM has to deal with all these environments in order to
manage and reduce conflict between the parties involved in the project, i.e., project team,
client, senior management, public, etc. The problems are greater if the parties-at-interest
represent different nations, industries, and firms.
8.4.3.2 Problems of cultural differences

Culture refers to the entire way of life for a group of people. It encompasses every aspect
of living and has four elements that are common to all cultures:
Technology (tools, materials in use).
Institutions (structure of the society).
Language (means of communication and expression).
Arts (aesthetic values of a culture)
Culture and project
Philosophy of staffing projects varies greatly in different cultures.
Microcultures and project
The term microculture is used to differentiate "corporate cultures" from the broader
national or regional cultures. Microcultures vary from industry to industry and from firm
to firm just as cultures do from nation to nation. The impact of interindustry, interfirm
and intrafirm microcultural diversity on the PM is very significant.
8.4.3.3 Impact of institutional environments

The environment of a system is defined as everything outside the system that receive
system outputs from it or delivers inputs to it.

134

Socio-economic environment

The PM must deal with the socio-economic environment of where the project is
conducted (governmental regulations about, safety use of people, profits regulations, etc).
Legal environment

Regulated by laws which are a product of the history of a nation. Law results to attempt
to reduce conflict by a regularised procedure. Law is constantly changing. The project
must evolve together with the law.
The business cycle as an environment

The PM must aware of the general level of business conditions in the nation hosting the
project. Different perceptions about the level of prosperity or recession differ from region
to region and will be reflected in positive or negative attitudes toward investment, and
employment.
Technological environment

The ability to complete a project with success is often dependent on the Project
Manager's ability to plan the project in such a way as to be compatible with the
technology available in the host nation.
Other environmental factors

Political uncertainty, rampant inflation, governmental bureaucracy, local contractor

politics and so on are also some environmental issues that should be in the focus of the
PM at any stage during the evolution of the project.
8.4.3.4 Multicultural communication and managerial behaviour

These aspects of the environment where the project are conducted include the following:
The language in use in the environment (easy of communication).
The structure and style of communications.
The managerial and personal behaviours of the PM (guaranty of success).
8.4.3.5 Three critical, unsolved problems

In general, there are always three critical unsolved problems when conducting a project.
These are:
The ability of Project Managers to learn from the experiences of others.
The ability to manage conflict.
The consideration of project management as a career.

135

8.4.3.6 Disputes
Disputes include disagreement between the concerned parties in the project and are due
either to the way requirements or obligations have been achieved after the operational
phase of the project. A good PM should plan and forecast all these kinds of issues during
the initiation phase (Planning) of the project so that he can handle them easily when they
arise.
During the progress of the contract issues inevitably arise over which the contractor and
the Engineer have differing points of view. Such difficulties may take the form of
circumstances which the contractor regards as disruptive and not necessarily foreseeable,
or requirements for additional work, or delays due to operations outside of the direct
control of the contractor, or disputes over the standard of work being produced.
Those responsible for supervision have to decide whether or not a contractor's requests
for additional payment or for an extended time for completion are reasonable within the
terms of the contract. As all these issues have been planned during the planning phase of
the project, the way to handle them should be not frustrating for any party. Both parties
must be prepared to agree that it is desirable to minimize areas of disputes.
An open and constructive approach toward the settlement of differences requires that
both parties should be experienced engineers, confident of what they are doing and
enjoying the confidence of their superiors. An excessive reliance on correspondence in
disputes generally indicates that theparties are more interested in establishing their own
positions than in seeking agreement.I i51

II. REAKALISATION MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDY

OF THE RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
The first part of this chapter addressed the project management life cycle, principles and
related definitions and terminology. This second part will attempt to examine the real
situation of RAU concrete infrastructures and deal with the realkalisation project in a
case study. The purpose is to help the university management in their decision making on
whether or not an electrochemical realkalisation has to be considered as a radical solution
for those part of the building infrastrutures that are suffering from severe reinforcement
corrosion.
8.5 HISTORIC OF THE UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS
The main campus buildings of the Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg have been
constructed during the 1970s. In terms of today value, the capital worth was in the order
of R 1 billion. The project was designed and constructed over a period of five years.t 311
During the design phase, off-shutter concrete was selected because it was believed at that
time to be maintenance free and virtually ever-lasting.

136

Considering the fact that university buildings are normally expected to last for hundreds
of years, the decision to use off-shutter concrete on such a scale as durable and
321
maintenance free material was perhaps not based on the correct information.t Now,
more than 80 000 m2 of exposed off-shutter concrete is found on the campus, due to the
design decision of using of-shutter concrete panels. 1311 Shortly after completion,
corrosion problems related primarily to spalling of concrete in certain parapet walls
started manifesting itself and the problem has accelerated over the last decade. Therefore,
the aesthetic appearance of the university buildings is being threatened while user safety
and some possible minor structural problems are becoming a concern to the university
authorities.
The main problem is that owners of concrete structures such as the RAU complex are
often under the impression that concrete is a maintenance free building material and,
therefore virtually no maintenance is done during the initial life of the structure.
Unfortunately, due to insufficient planning, wrong evaluation factors, bad workmanship,
inadequate quality control and lack of maintenance, a high percentage of concrete
structures showed signs of damage within the first few years of service and maintenance
due to corrosion of the reinforcing steel, becomes necessary.
8.6 RAU PROJECT INITIATION
As stated above, at the initial design of RAU, the concrete used was considered
"maintenance free". Therefore very little time and money were spent on the maintenance
of external facade of the building during the life of the structure. Soon, inadequate
concrete cover exposed itself through cracking, leaching of corrosion products and
spalling.
Spalling of concrete on high locations, non-aesthetic appearance of cracks and unsightly
leaching eventually gave rise to concern and it became clear for the university authorities
that a full maintenance and repair management program should to be implemented. This
resulted in the initiative taken by Mr J.C.J. to Wet, Senior Director of Projects at RAU
tocall for an in-depth investigation into the problem, with supporting rehabilitation
recommendations to be presented to the university authorities. For this preliminary
investigation, both internal and external consultants have been appointed.
As external consultants, Draper Penhall & Associates, corrosion specialists, conducted an
intensive and comprehensive investigation in 1994 including the following :
Stray Current Survey.
Covermeter Survey.
Carbonation depths Chloride and Sulphate Ions Profiles.
Electro-potential Mapping.
BKS Incorporated, a consulting company conducted a theoretical study in 1995 with
some relevant recommendations made on how surface inspection, testing and cleaning,
repair and protection should be carried out in order to ensure successful results.

137

Professor M.G. Alexander, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cape Town,

had also been approached by RAU to provide an independent and preliminary assessment
of the durability state of the main buildings on campus. His final report, isssued on
October 22, 1996 contains a practical approach to the problem solution.
Internal investigations include works and investigations conducted by done by Mr D.
Kruger, Professor P.C. Pretorius and final year civil engineering students.
Many means, methods and equipment were used by these different consultants to assess
the problem before releasing information and recommendations to the university
authorities. The next section explains how to conduct an investigation of a building
structure when reinforcement corrosion is involved.
8.6.1 Field assessment to quantify damage

The assessment of any concrete structure involves two phases. The first stage is a
preliminary investigation to determine whether the damage requires repair. If it is
concluded that repair is needed, a second stage consisting of an extensive investigation
should be launched. The results of this investigation should provide the information
required for chossing the repair strategy and the details of the repair programme. An
initial survey when corrosion of steel reinforcing is suspected should include the
following steps: [391
Visual inspection and sounding tests (hammer-tapping, etc.) to determine damage:
any rust strains, cracks and delamination should be noted. Crack width of any visible
cracks should be recorded.
Determination of cover thickness, location of the steel and concrete quality. Nondestructive test methods should be used (equipment includes covermeter survey and
Schmidt hammer).
Determination of the depth of carbonation by phenolphthalein test of cover pieces of
concrete broken from the surface.
Measurement of the Chloride content in cores or pieces of concrete broken from the
surface, or pieces of concrete drilled from the structure.
The more extensive survey which may follow if required should include the following
steps: [39]
Mapping of potentials, using half-cell techniques.
Mapping areas of delamination and of damaged concrete, by means of ultrasonic
testing or chain-drag.
Determination of the electrical resistance of the concrete.
Measuring surface properties of the concrete by surface absorption techniques or
similar tests, and determining the strength of drilled concrete cores.
Detailed study of depth of carbonation and of Chloride ingress profiles by testing of
drilled cores.

138

Evaluation the nature of the cracks and of their width and changes of width with time,
to resolve whether they are "live" or in other words cracks induced by thermal and
loading effects, which are still active.
Assessment of the structural conditions by full-scale loading tests in which the
deflections under load are measured.
Destructive tests to assess the reduction of the cross-section area of the steel.
Etc.
8.6.2 Considerations after site inspection and testing

Preliminary investigations conducted by different consultants appointed by the Rand

Afrikaans University had identified a potential corrosion problem on most of the campus
buildings.
The testing carried out include both hammer sounding tests, phenolphthalein tests and
covermeter surveys to respectively identify pores and voids, determine the depth of
carbonation and measure the concrete cover. It quickly became evident that structures
were suffering essentially from the effects of carbonation. It appeared also that the
carbonation front, in some places, had advanced relatively quickly over the last two
decades, causing corrosion of the first layer of steel. Its advancement can be supposed to
have evolved further into the denser cementitious material. From all the investigation
works, the surface defects could be categorised into the following four groups:
Spalled or delaminated areas due to corrosion, including unacceptable previously
prepared areas
Corroded steel without spalling
Carbonated areas without cracking or spalling
Contaminated surfaces by algae growth, dust and general pollution sediments.
After carrying out site inspection and evaluating measurements taken, all the
commissioned consultants were unanimous, indicating that two factors need to receive
attention the case of reinforcement corrosion of the university's buildings:
A sound alkali environment must be ensured for the enveloped reinforcement.
Preventive techniques need to be taken to obviate the condition deteriration or
progressing to the extent that further areas of corrosion become manifest in time.
8.6.3 Alternative options

As for any project involving repair or protection of a structure, it is important first to have
a proper consideration of its structural and material condition. Derived information may
facilitate the prediction of the future condition of the structure and therefore enable the
selection of an effective remedial strategy.

139

The primary factors are normally the question of the target lifetime over which
acceptable, safe performance of the structure is required, and the largely economic
question of whether this is to be achieved by regular repetitive repairs (e.g. regular
patching repairs), or by a higher performance initial repair method with a substantially
lower level of subsequent attention. The choice for reinforcement corrosion problems
typically lies between methods used either singly or in combination.
A number of repair options may be open to any consultant. The following four alternative
options may be taken in consideration in the case of RAU concrete deterioration problem:
Option A: Potentially extensive traditional patch repairs, coupled with steel
replacement if required.
Option B: Limited repair and coating systems.
Option C: Limited patch repairs coupled with some form of cathodic protection.
Option D: Limited repair and realkalisation of the structures.
8.6.4 Choosing a repair strategy

The next step once the alternative options are laid down is to choose an effective and
definitive repair strategy before starting to implement the project repair. To generate a
means of selecting repair strategies scientifically, the European Standard for Protection
and Repair of Concrete (ESPRC) has a section dealing with "principles" of repair, in
which the primary deterioration causes are identified, covering damage to the concrete
and separately the reinforcement. (27] The principles of protection and repair are then
defined for each form of deterioration or damage, and the available methods of repair are
defined in turn for each principle. The operations and materials issues then follow
accordingly. This approach is illustrated in Table 8.1, which shows the principles and
associated methods for dealing with reinforcement corrosion. [27]
Faced with a problem involving corrosion in concrete, an owner would, by following the
ESPRC principles, assess the structure, available options, and user requirements, and be
able then to select possible repair methods from each appropriate principle.t 271 The owner
needs therefore to examine each option and determine from technical advantages and
inconveniences which option is possibly suitable to be implemented with the funds
available.

140

Table 8. 1 Principles of protection and repair of damage by reinforcement corrosion

CC
PRINCIPLE

RP

IR

Title

Restore passivity

Increase resistivity

Cathodic control

Method

Remove and replace

contaminated or
carbonated concrete

Limit moisture content

by surface treatments,
coating or shelter

Limiting oxygen
content at the cathode

Electrochemical
realkalisation or
chloride extraction
Realkalisation by
diffusion
PRINCIPLE

CP

CA

Title

Cathodic protection

Control anodic areas

Method

Provide electric current

to maintain
reinforcement at
negative potential

Coat reinforcement with

coatings containing
active pigments
Paint reinforcement
with barrier coatings
Apply anodic inhibitors

Option A
This option implies to simply patch the spalls and coat the structure with an anticarbonation coating, which will certainly slow down the advancement of the carbonation
front but will not deal with the real problem of corroding steel that is currently out of
sight. The latter is likely to continue to corrode and repairs will be necessary again in a
matter of few years.
Whilst this form of repair is not recommended for an effective long term solution, it may
be suitable where a buildings usable life is nearing an end (which is not the case of RAU)
or where repair budgets are limited.
The ideal method of traditional repairs is to cut away all delaminated or carbonated
concrete until clean, uncorrodding steel is reached. This is then repaired and an anticarbonation coating applied to the whole structure. In the case of low rise structures, it is

141

a relatively easy exercise for the owner's agent to assess the likely extent of such repairs
whilst preparing his tender documentation. In addition, by choosing this option, one
should be aware of the building occupation during the work in order to avoid disruption
of the routine business of the premise by noise, dust, etc. Two critical issues in
conventional concrete repair are that the repair is fundamentally dependent on:
The extent and rigour of concrete removal.
Reinforcement cleaning.
The likely cost of works pertaining to the conventional repair option is extremely difficult
to assess at a tender stage due to the fact that the real condition of the concert is only
known after the breaking-out phase.
Option B
Concrete is exposed to many environmental conditions against which it require
protection. Among the less aggressive of these is the atmospheric carbonation. When
concrete cures, approximately 25 percent of water is retained as water of crystallisation
and 15 percent as gel. Capillary pores are formed during evaporation of the remaining 60
percent and eventually the 15 percent gel water. [42] Concrete is strongly alkaline, and as
such it is susceptible to attack from acid reagents. The capillary pores allow carbon
dioxide and other gases to diffuse into the concrete and dissolve in the pore water to fprm
acidic solutions and produce carbonation of the concrete. This produces carbonic acid
which reacts with the free lime in to form calcium carbonate. This leads to a gradual fall
in pH. Once carbonation reaches the reinforcement, depassivation of the steel results in
corrosion and spalling when oxygen and water are present.
Coatings may be applied to concrete to arrest the carbonation process. These are known
as anti-carbonation coatings and are normally based on chlorinated rubber, polyurethane
resins or acrylic emulsions. 1421 Although they are principally designed to prevent
diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the concrete, the coatings will also limit or
prevent penetration of chlorides in solution.
By choosing option B as the repair strategy, RAU management will face the problem of
aesthetic aspect of the buildings. The university is likely to become a multicoloured as
this remedial solution demands preliminary limited patch repairs of the damaged
concrete, and the protective coating has to be applied only on the repaired areas.
Extending the coating protection to the whole concrete structure will certainly be costly
but will not surely halt the problem because, as stated before, spalling is not a reliable
indicator of the extent of damage due to reinforcement corrosion. Some areas presumed
to be good and already coated may reveal later that corrosion was already existing during
the application of the protective coating.
Anti-carbonation coatings may be effectively used to resist carbonation and general
atmospheric deterioration of reinforced concrete. In cases where the level of carbonation
has led to localised depassivation and corrosion of the reinforcing steel, application of the

142

coatings will limit the ingress of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture, and reduce
deterioration of the structure to a certain level. Where corrosion and spalling are more
widespread, however, using an anti-carbonation coating will be satisfactory. The only
realistic solution in this situation is to strip the concrete to behind the reinforcement and
reinstate with a cement-based repair material. This freshly placed mortar may then be
coated preventively.
The volume of the repair must be considered when taking the decision of opting for
limited patch repairs combined with coating systems. This will certainly help to avoid
excessive cost that could be avoided by opting for another alternative. Technical aspects
such as ease of the procedure, time, noise, equipment and workmanship must also be
considered. Therefore option B is as risky as option A and should be recommended for
areas that are not suffering from confirmed reinforcement corrosion.
Option C
Cathodic protection, if applied properly, can prevent corrosion of steel in concrete, and
stop corrosion that already in progress. It accomplishes this by making the steel
reinforcing bar a cathode and by use of an external anode, as shown schematically in
Figure 8.1. Electrons are supplied to the reinforcing bar from the anode, through the
ionically conductive concrete. The current supplied should be sufficiently high so that all
local cells are inhibited and the steel surface becomes anodic. Figure 8.2 is an illustration
of the migration of ions in cathodically protected reinforced concrete.
The external current can be supplied by'connecting the steel to a metal which is higher in
the electrochemical series (e.g. zinc). [391 It serves as the anode relative to the cathodic
steel. In this method the anode gradually dissolves as it oxidizes and supplies electrons to
the cathodic steel. Therefore this type of cathodic protection is referred to as "sacrificial
protection:. The anode is called a "sacrificial anode".
An alternative metod for cathodic protection is based on supplying electrons to the
reinforcing steel from an external electrical power source. The electrical power is fed into
an inert material which serves as the anode and is placed on the concrete surface. This
method is referred to as "impressed current cathodic protection". Figure 8.3 shows the
electrical circuit in such a case, The anode is frequently called "fixed anode".
A sacrificial anode can be particularly effective in submerged structures where the
concrete is wet and the resistivity is low. The relatively small potential difference of two
metals is sufficient to render cathodic protection effective. [391
In structures exposed to the atmosphere, the electrical resistance is usually higher and
therefore a greater potential difference is required. This can be more readily achieved by
impressed current anodic protection. [391

143

Concrete surface

Cathode

Anode

Corrosion Control

Cathode

(a)

Protective layer, e.g. gunite

Anode
/ ,00,7

oi./Z7
iiiiiaiiisii

0 1(co 3 ) 2

I
;71

' .-__2

,----_-,

,----,

o
,---

Cathode

)b )

Figure 8. 1 Schematic description

cathodic protection. [391

0 I (so

0 `)

0o

0
n t

,..,

(OH)

cJ
Figure 8. 2 Migration of ions in protection
cathodically protected reinforced concrete.

Cathodic protection for concrete is a permanent, lower current density process. The main
objectives in realkalisation and other processes such as chloride extraction, namely
electrolysis and ionic movement, are the minor, secondary effects of the cathodic
protection process in concrete, where the primary purpose is polarisation of the
reinforcement, generally measured as "shift" or "decay".
Choosing this option would obviously be better than the first solution since it involves
less repairs. However, the fact that the buildings visual impact may be impaired by use of
cathodic protection system, changing it from a clear finish natural stone to some form of
coloured coating, is not practical. (241 In addition, this solution requires a permanent
monitoring in order for cathodic protection to have long term benefit. This permanent
nature of cathodic protection necessitates ongoing operation and specialist servicing,
which in some circumstances can be a disadvantage although there are situations where
cathodic protection can be a far more suitable treatment. An other fact to be considered is
that cathodic protection is mostly recommended for structures suffering from chloride
induced corrosion. This is the reason why in the case of the Rand Afrikaans University
this option should not be recommendable due to the extremely low Chloride level found
in concrete during preliminary tests. This Chloride level is likely to remain almost
constant for the next coming decades.

144

4) 2-

0
Co

(1)

Reinforcing
bar cage
Embedded
reference
electrode

Special
voltmeter

Cover coat
Anode

Figure 8.3 Electrical circuit in impressed current cathodic protection. [391

Option D

The electrochemical realkalisation process differs from cathodic protection in that it is a

short-term "accelerated" treatment operating at higher current density (1 A/m 2 against
0.01 A/m2 for cathodic protection). Realkalisation can in principle be considered for most
carbonation problems. Since realkalisation is an electrochemical method and by that fact
addresses the corrosion mechanism, its success does not rely on the pre-treatment
reinstatement repairs for the corrosion control.
In comparison with conventional repair, the all-over application of an electrochemical
method (cathodic protection, chloride extraction, or realkalisation) can lead to significant
savings, arising primarily from their avoidance of the so-called "incipient anode effect".
In this phenomenon, a patch repair to a corroding reinforcing bar can cause the adjacent,
apparently non-corroding areas to start corroding. [26]
Therefore unlike traditional concrete repair, realkalisation is not fundamentally
dependent on the extent and rigour of concrete removal and reinforcement cleaning. As
said before, this can produce substantial saving in the reinstatement aspect of a project,
since there is no longer a need to cut out extensive sound concrete, which is often the
only real alternative means of preventing the incipient anode problem. This in turn avoids
the structural disturbance which could result from releasing areas of reinforcing from
bond to the concrete, and similarly the possible need for load control and temporary
propping. There will also be reduced levels of noise, dust, and debris, and savings would
be expected in time, traffic management, operational interference and so on , i.e., in the
overall gross cost associated with concrete removal and reinstatement.

145

In addition, once carbonation has extended up to and beyond the steel reinforcement, and
the passive layer is broken down, the steel reinforcement will begin to form an extensive
rust, which will eventually spall the concrete cover. Without regular maintenance this can
at the end cause considerable disruption and potential danger in the university
environment. Unfortunately as concrete is not homogeneous, the advancement of the
carbonation front towards the steel is relatively hard to predict without the regular
monitoring of the whole structure through, for example half cell potential mapping. And
on the other hand, those areas that have spalled are not necessary representative of the
whole problem. It may be that the spalled areas only represent a n-th part of the total
surface area of concrete that has corroding steel beneath, currently beyond the naked eye
but still representing potential further spalls.
The owner is often therefore faced with a difficult decision to make as how best to repair
the structure with the available funds. Therefore, if one considers traditional methods of
concrete patch repairs of carbonated structure, it becomes readily apparent that in many
cases, an electrochemical realkalisation treatment is an economic solution that provides a
long term answer to the problem of reinforcement decay. However, the clear evidence of
corrosion control is far more complicated to gather and, mainly for this reason, is more
limited, but growing. For example, ongoing electrochemical post-treatment monitoring
by Taywood Engineering in Australia has shown reduced activity of the reinforcement
passivation after three years.t 271 Thus the selection of an electrochemical realkalisation
must be considered with its perceived level of risk in comparison with the main
alternatives, primarily traditional concrete repair and cathodic protection, each of which
has its own level of risk. This risk element would be manifested as future costs of
repeated patch repair, servicing computer systems, possible re-application of
realkalisation, or coating maintenance. In overall terms it appears that realkalisation can
offer some saving over conventional patching, and the possible attraction of not being
permanently installed as for cathodic protection.
8.6.5 Feasibility issues

Now that the electrochemical realkalisation has been chosen as part of the remedial
method, it becomes evident that we should examine the feasibility of the project. This
includes the possible influence on concrete bond strength to plain reinforcement, whether
there is a potential risk of alkali-silica reaction or not, and where there is prestressed steel
(pre or post-tensioned). As alkali silica reaction can be provoked in some conditions but
not in others, it was found that it is possible to suppress this problem by tailoring the
extraction electrolyte with Lithium Borate additions.t 271 The issue with prestressed steel
concerns the risks of hydrogen embrittlement and findings are varied. Where ducting is
present, the ducting is significantly deeper than reinforcement, and steels are cold-drawn
and not alloyed with chromium, risks are substantially reduced. As with any
electrochemical of prestressed structures, particularly close attention to uniformity of
current distribution and it subsequent control are required.

146

8.7 COST OF REALKALISATION

The first question one should ask after opting for an electrochemical realkalisation as a
means to halt ongoing corrosion is what is going to be the cost? The answer is difficult to
express in terms of money value because some benefits from the realkalisation treatment
cannot be evaluated in figures value.
According to experience of specialists like Draper Penhall & Associated the cost of an
electrochemical realkalisation treatment may be of R 1000/m 2 for small areas. It has been
noticed that for small areas the specific consumption of electrolyte per square meter is
about 20 litres. The cost of electrolyte such as Sodium Carbonate solution being of R 50
per litre. In order to find an approximate cost for realkalisation, it must be added to the
electrolyte cost of R 1000/m2 the cost of breaking out of damaged concrete and the cost
of preliminary patch repairs.
When big areas are concerned the figure of R 1000/m 2 will not apply because experience
has shown that in such events the specific consumption of electrolyte is less than 20
litres/m2 . The frequent rewetting of the cellulose fibre with a recycled solution is the
main contributor to this saving. In addition, big areas do not necessitate extensive
concrete removal when prepared to a realkalisation treatment. Therefore for big areas a
fixed price of less than R 1000/m 2 may be afforded. One of the ways to assess the cost of
realkalisation comparatively to traditional concrete repair methods is to consider the lifecycle cost of repairs conducted on a structure.
The cost of corrosion protection in a concrete structure is a combination of initial,
maintenance, and repair costs occurring within the projected service life of the structure.
Maintenance and repair costs are generally higher than the initial costs of corrosion
protection system. However, frequently only the initial costs are considered, and as a
result the total cost may be higher.t 391
The use of Net Present Value (NPV) analysis can be used to estimate the present cost of a
future repair. For example: for a repair that occurs in year n, the NPV is defined as:
NPV = Cost x (1=D)"

(8.4)

where Cost is the price for the repair and D is the discount rate or the interest rate less the
inflation rate.
The total life-cycle costs of a structure is therefore the initial cost plus the sum of the
NPV of all future costs. As the discount rate increases, the cost of future repairs Iis less
significant. Thus, a lowering of the discount rate results in an increase in the NPV of
future repairs.
To compare the cost of an electrochemical realkalisation with the cost of rehabilitation of
a structure using traditional methods, one must calculate the NPV of the future repairs
and maintenance actions over a certain period. These costs will be then compared to the

147

present value of the initial cost of implementing a realkalisation treatment. A period of

more than 25 years is considered to be realistic because it is thought that a second
realkalisation of a structure may take place after this period. Secondary benefits such as
the aesthetic aspect of the structure, timing, disturbance, etc. of each remedial method
should also be considered when conducting a comparative analysis.
Notions such as "time-to-repair" will be useful when estimating the number of repairs to
be performed during a certain period. The time-to-repair of a structure is related to the
time for corrosion initiation (or proceeding) and the time for corrosion damage to reach a
point from which concrete becomes distreSsed to the point where repairs are needed. [39]
This is shown schematically in Figure 8.4. Knowing the time-to-repair of a given
structure, one may predict the approximate number of repairs to be conduted on the
structure over a preliminary chosen period of time.

Corrosion
initiation

Percen tag e o f cumu la tive damag e

100

Diffusion period

Corrosion

Corrosion
products
build-up

Initial cracks and

crack repair

Major
damage

0
Time (years)

Figure 8.4 Schematic description of the corrosion process. t39I

The next step after opting for a remedial strategy, analysing feasibility issues and
estimating approximate costs to be involved, is to deal with the problem as a project
having been selected. Once a project is selected the parent organization, RAU in the
present case, must now define the project. The following section deals with the definition
of a project, by considering the realkalisation project to be conducted at Rand Afrikaans
University.

148

8.8 DEFINITION OF THE PROJECT

8.8.1 Project specification

The project specification is a description of the project so that all interested parties know
what is planned and what the outcome should be. A project specification should include
the following: [331
The title of the project.
The scope.
The objectives.
Any conditions under which the project is to be carried out
Priority.
Authority.
In the following sections attempt is to define in the case of RAU project what should be
the content of each one of the above aspects of a project specification.
Title

The title of the project may be the following in the situation of RAU:
"Electrochemical realkalisation of the Rand Afrikaans University's building suffering
from deep corrosion of the reinforcing steel".
Scope

In its initial phase the project will be limited to those areas that have revealed a deep
corrosion of rebars with an average carbonation depth higher than 20 mm (e.g. Kruisig
building). This limitation is made according to the allocated funds and in order to avoid
potential and imminent disaster of these buildings.
Objectives

The objectives of the RAU realkalisation project are in three-fold :

To passivate all areas already suffering from corrosion of reinforcing steel.
To prevent any further advancement of carbonation front.
To maintain the expected service life of the university buildings achievable without
changing neither their aesthetic aspect nor their structural strength.
Conditions
The project including all the preliminary break-out and repairs, must be carried out with
minimum disturbance for the occupants of concerned buildings. If possible repair works

149

may take place and be completed totally during vacation leave, for example during
Christmas holidays.

Priority
The present realkalisation project must take priority over all other repair projects around
the university, except those that directly threaten the structural strength of university
structures. However, other small projects involving repair works such as simple patch
repairs which are not demanding big amounts to be spent, may take place simultaneously.

Authority
The authorisation for the project should be stated by Rand Afrikaans University
management and the authority of people working on the project should be defined. In this
specific case, instead of giving to one person sole responsibility for planning and
executing the work, a team of people must be appointed and the authority for particular
part defined. The authority for making decisions at different stages is defined at the start.
8.8.2 Implications of the project

Implications of the project include the benefits expected from the project and the cost
thereof. In the specific case of RAU, benefits may be expressed in terms of service life,
safety and aesthetic aspect of the university buildings. The cost of the project will be
examined in the section 8.7 of this study.
8.8.3 Constraints on the project

Constraints on a project are the factors that restrict what can be done in the project.
Typical constraints may come from deadlines to be met or the level of funding to be rose
or other forms of resource available, e.g. people, equipment, etc. The university should
identify all constraints that may slow down or simply stop the project. RAU
realkalisation project is now beyond the schedule because too much time has been spent
by the university to identify which repair mortar was suitable for repair around the
university. This should have been done during the initiation phase of the project, i.e.,
during preliminary and secondary investigations called by the RAU management.
8.8.4 Project proposal

The project proposal is the document that brings together all the information about the
project so that it can be accessed by other people. [331 The proposal must include the
project specification, the cost, the justification, any constraints, and a project plan. The
preparation of the latter has been discussed in the section 6.3 of the present study. Project
activities, milestones, Gantt charts, critical path analysis have to be defined and analysed
in the project plan. The first part of this chapter has dealt largely with all these notions.

150

8.9 QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) AND QUALITY CONTROL (QC)

DURING A REALKALISATION TREATMENT

In South Africa, Quality Assurance is defined in SABS 0157 (ISO 9002) as: "all those
planned and systematic actions that are necessary to provide confidence in the
achievement of the required quality". Unfortunately, all too often, the necessary
systematic actions do not include Quality Control or "hands-on". The common belief is
that, provided the QA documentation looks good, all is in order. It is only when a
[34]
problem arises that it is realised that the necessary QC records in fact do not exist.
Quality must be agreed and quantified before starting the project. Quality Assurance can
be controlled from inside or outside of the project. External and internal inspection points
should be implemented to warrant the quality. External points are those required by the
law and internal points ensure that quality standards remain acceptable. In other words
QC is the "hands-on" activity of confirming. that the applied treatment meets the
specification requirements and QA is a surveillance and documentation checking
procedure. The correct implementation of QC and QA activities decreases the likelihood
of a failure, and provides the following:
Traceability : in the event of failure, enables the cause or causes to be identified.
Record keeping : identification of the relevant information recorded in a concise
manner : Material batch records, ambient conditions, concrete
repair, surface and substrate preparation, records of specific tests
and measurements, etc.
Method statement : details each activity to carried out during the job. Each activity
should be supported by a detailed procedure for that activity.
Witness and hold points : Before commencing any work a witness and hold point
should be drawn up by, the contractor in consultation with
the client's engineer. This schedule should detail the
inspection requirements of each activity, listing whether it
is a witness or hold point, and defining the responsibilities
of the various parties at each stage of the work.
Quality plans : All requirements, from preparation and job activities to final
inspection and acceptance /rejection, can be summarised in a quality
plan which tabulates the activity, acceptance criteria, additional
criteria and witness and hold point responsibilities.
Inspection and methods : includes typical activities that should be inspected must be
listed and the standard test methods adopted defined.

151

Data books : On completion of the job, the contractor should provide the client's
engineer with a data book containing all the relevant quality and records
pertaining to the works.
8.10 TENDERING AND CONTRACT
At this stage the project has been selected, defined. Implications and other coditions have
been analysed. Quality standards and performance have also been defined and fixed. The
next step consists of finding the "best" contractor to whom the project may be given for
excution. The process of looking for and selecting the contractor is called tendering.
8.10.1 Tendering
Consists of producing documents which summarizes the output from the conceptual
phase of the project. this document must contain the following:
An introductory overview of the project.
The overall quantified objectives and purpose of the project.
The deliverables ( requirements in terms of output and quality).
The probable project limitations (time, money, people, materials. etc.).
The project constraints.
The required timing for the project, etc.
This document must be widely spread by the Client ( RAU in this case) in order to get
many propositions from probable contractors.
Following the tendering is the evaluation which is a stage during which tenders from
different contractors are examined, analysed and evaluated according to criteria defined
by the tenderer himself. After evaluation, the project is awarded to the contractor who
met closely the requirements of the tender.
Although it is possible to nominate specific subcontractors for specialist work it is
generally regarded as advisable to avoid doing this since it can cause complications in
administering a contract, in the event of a nominated sub-contractor defaulting or causing
delay in some way. [35] Nevertheless there are items where the Client will wish to restrict
the choices made by a main contractor.
8.10.2 Contract documents
Contract documents consist of drawings, a specification of the project, conditions of
contract and bills of quantities. It is also becoming general practice to issue bending
schedules to tenderers, which has the effect of giving them the status of part of contract
documents since they then become information on which the contractor bases his tender.
[35]

152

Drawings are the primary vehicle for a designer to communicate his intentions to the
people. it is important that the impression they give is clear unambiguous and yields the
required information without prolonged searches.
For drafting specification clauses two distinctive approaches can be made. The method of
working or a description of the required end product. Contractors prefer the latter
"performance" type of specification because it leaves them freedom of choice in their
way of working. A "method " specification does not of itself guarantee the quality of the
end product, since it is quite possible to do a job the right way but badly.E 351 A
performance specification is appropriate when the objectives can be clearly defined. The
weakness of a performance specification occurs where it may be extremely difficult to
describe a standard of quality - like a concrete surface.
Conditions of a contract are generally regulated by laws from the government or from
the institution that controls civil engineering works (e.g. The Institution of Civil
Engineers). However when third parties are involved in a contract, it becomes necessary
to include additional conditions to meet their requirements.
Bills of quantities are documents containing quantities of various resources used during a
project. These documents are established in conformity of the principle of the " Standard
measurement for civil engineering quantities " which is based on the initial premise that
every item relates to completed work and includes all materials, labour, plant and other
cost involved.
A full set of contract documents normally includes the following items:
Instructions for tendering
Location and brief description of the works
Collusive tendering certificates
Form of the tender
Forms of bond
Conditions of contract
- General conditions of contract
Special; conditions of contract
- Variation of contract price
- Noise control
- Traffic control
Diversion of public utilities
Special requirements in relation to:
Central electricity board
- Area authorities, etc.
List of drawings
Specification
Reference to standard specification
- Additional and revised clauses
Bills of quantities

153

Preambles
Bills
General Summary
8.10. 3 Planning scheduling
The scheduling of resources must be done during the initiation phase of the project. A
document known as the project schedule contains the following
A synopsis of the project (why the project was conceived).
Functional project maps (showing contractors and sub-contractors involved in the
development of the project).
The necessary conditions for success project maps (what, why, when).
Critical monitoring points (and actions to be taken if any of them fail to be met).
Gantt charts, resources usage histograms for human and material resources.
Financial reports of overall cost broken down by sub-project with cash flows.
Explanations where necessary of how activities will be done, the contract itself ready
for signing.
8.11 REA LKALISATION PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
8.11.1 Installation design
After the initial structural assessment, selection of repair strategy, feasibility appraisal
and definition of the project, the treatment configuration and layout must be planned.
Configurations include using sprayed fibre electrolytes or liquid electrolyte tanks. The
layout of treatment zones is based on reinforcement density, likely operating currents,
and structure geometry. [261 Practical considerations of access/configuration can also
prevail in unusual circumstances. From this follows choice of materials, anode type,
electrolyte, and control facilities. Areas where cover concrete has already spalled or
delaminated must be repaired in advance, since electrical shorts to the reinforcement
must be avoided. The process parameters and performance criteria need to be set. The
post-application treatment such as coating application must also be identified.
As for any properly executed traditional repair or cathodic project there are many design
and specification issues that need to be addressed:
Current provision and uniformity.
Reinforcement connections and their distribution.
Cabling and power supplies.
Monitoring and control.
Documentation.
An appropriate system for managing before, during and after the treatment should also be
considered.

154

8.11.2 Survey

Following installation design, the physical implementation of the project must realised.
However, it is always recommended to carry out structural and condition test as close as
possible of the beginning of the remedial repairs in order to work with recent information
giving the real condition of the structure. This the reason why we include in the present
section at this stage.
Survey includes the determination of :
The cause or origin of the problem (concrete deterioration).
The extent of the problem.
The concrete cover.
Cracks, spalls, delamination and other effects.
The location of metallic features.
Concerning the cause of the problem at RAU, it has been found from previous works that
most serious concrete deterioration is due to carbonation-induced corrosion of the
reinforcing steel. (311 Carbonation front measured by phenolphthalein method, are found
to be in the order of 20 mm while almost 60 % of the measured reinforcing steel cover
was found to be less than 20 mm. These two factors have led to cracking and spalling
prevailing on most external facades where sufficient moisture is present to drive the
corrosion reactions. Algae and fungal growth are also found on certain shaded areas
exposed to moisture on a regular basis.
It also has been found that corrosive problems are concentrated at areas where low
quality concrete is evident. Where signs of inadequate compaction, honeycombing or low
cement content were visible, carbonation was found to depths of up to 45 mm due to poor
quality of concrete.
The extent of the problem were determined by means of complete surveys of all concrete
facades of the university, using the following survey techniques:
Stray current survey.
Electro-potential mapping.
Covermeter survey.
Carbonation depth survey.
Chemical analysis.
Visual inspection.
Audio-testing (steel hammer and tapping device).
The cost of using all these techniques is obviously a big concern because including the
cost of erecting scaffolding and other access systems, the cost of using specialised and
sophisticated instruments and products, and the cost of employing high calibre skilled
people and engineers.

155

8.11.3 Preparation prior to installation

The key points during this stage include the following:
The removal of all cracked and spalled concrete.
The establishment of a full rebar continuity.
The establishment of a sufficient concrete cover.
The insulation or removal of metallic features.
The patch repair of all cracks, spalls, delaminations etc.
8.11.4 Installation and treatment
8.11.4.1 Installation
Installation for realkalisation includes :
The anode system installation.
The connection of leads to the metal mesh.
The installation of electrolyte circuit and reservoirs.
The anode system as said previously consists of a steel mesh embedded in an alkaline
reservoir temporarily applied on the concrete surface. Choice may be made between two
types of anode system, a mild steel mesh or titanium mesh. The steel mesh has the
following as advantages:
Low cost.
Disposable.
Easy installation.
Eliminates chlorine production.
Among disadvantages related to the steel mesh, the following may be retained:
- Rust staining.
May require replacement mid-project
Electro-catalysed titanium mesh has the following advantages:
Practically inert.
No rust staining.
Will not require replacement mid-project.
Can often be reused.
Disadvantages associated to the use of a titanium mesh are:
Higher initial cost.
Surface etching possible.

156

- Chlorine release.
When the mesh is in place, a specially formulated cellulose fibre is sprayed directly onto
the concrete surface together with a liquid electrolyte. The cellulose fibre acts as a
reservoir for the electrolyte, which is an alkaline solution. Depending on the site
characteristics a choice is possible between various electrolytes such as sodium
carbonate, tap water, calcium hydroxyde solution, lithium carbonate or borate solution,
etc. Three types of reservoirs are commonly used, namely sprayed-on cellulose fibre,
coffer tanks, and felt cloth. The anode system may be applied to all types of concrete
surfaces: horizontal, inclined or vertical, regardless of shape, profile surface condition or
architectural detail.
8.11.4.2 Treatment and monitoring
The treatment during an electrochemical realkalisation process includes the following:
Connection of leads to a rectifier.
Adjustment and regulation of current flow.
Checking of voltage and current flow.
Regular rewetting
Analysis of concrete samples.
Leads to the rebars are connected to the negative pole of an AC/DC rectifier. Leads to the
anode mesh are connected to the positive pole. A voltage is applied and adjusted to give a
current flow of approximately 1 A per m 2 . The rectifier automatically adjust the voltage
to maintain the required current output. Voltage and current flow are checked regularly
and fresh electrolyte sprayed onto the fibre reservoir when necessary. Concrete cores may
be obtained and examined on site using the pH indicator phenolphthalein to determine
when carbonated concrete is sufficiently realkalised. The treatment takes typically less
than one week depending on the surface and the extent of carbonation. Monitoring of the
treatment may also be performed by computer systems as described in the section 7.5.3 of
the present study.
To keep the project on track, the contractor has to develop a list of events which, when
monitored, would give him an instant indication of whether the project is about to run
into trouble with its constraints. These events include the control of the following :
Cost control: overtime hours expected on specified activities, material cost expected.
Scheduling control: material arrival dates, time expected for each specified activity, a
selection of milestone nodes on the critical path and their completion dates.
Production control: manpower prestation, productivity, reliability of equipment.
resources control: effective allocation of people, material and equipment on each
activity.

157

8.11.4.3 Contract supervision

Normally an Engineer's representative is appointed in order to supervise the work on the
site. It is important that he should have a clear understanding of what is expected in this
role. The realkalisation project at RAU being a substantially-sized contract, we think that
it should involve a residents engineer's staff of Section Engineers, Assistant Engineers
and Inspectors.
Resident Engineer's duties
The objective of the Resident Engineer and his staff should be to ensure that the works
are completed in accordance with the contract documents, and to keep the Engineer fully
informed on all relevant matters. [351 Their basic terms of reference are the specification,
contract drawings, conditions of contract and bill of quantities.
Safety
One area of potential confusion on civil engineering sites is the question of
responsibilities regarding safety. under the civil engineering contract between the
contractor and the employer, responsibility for the safety of all operations on the site rests
with the contractor. [35
Site meeting
The Resident Engineer should call and take minutes of site meetings at regular intervals.
The general purpose of such site meetings is to provide a regular opportunity for the
contractor and for the contractor and the engineer to monitor jointly the progress of the
project, and record items of contractual importance or interest.
Approvals
On commencing the works the contractor is require to produce a programme setting out
the sequence in which he intends to tackle the work and giving sufficient details to enable
the Engineer to make a reasonable assessment of whether it is in fact an appropriate
sequence of operations compatible with related job requirements and that can reasonably
be achieved within the contract period.
8.12 REALKALISATION PROJECT TERMINATION
8.12.1 Dismantling
Dismantling is the step coming after the treatment has been declared completed according
resistance curve monitoring and chemical testing of cores. The main actions during the
dismantling operation can be summarized as follows:
AC/DC convertor is switched off.

158

All leads are disconnected.

The anode system is removed.
The surface is cleaned.
The structure is left to dry.
Once the treatment is completed the rectifier is switched off . cables dismantled, and the
anode system removed. The concrete surface is washed with generally high pressure
warm water and left to dry before application of a protective coating if defined during the
design phase of the project. It is interesting to note that due to the high hydroxyl content
around the steel and the possible conversion of the sodium carbonate into sodium bicarbonate with time, the concrete surface does not necessarily warrant the use of an anticarbonation coating, since sodium bi-carbonate has a high pH value, above at least the
point at which passive oxides around the steel begin to break down. L 251
8.12.2 Project auditing

This process includes the following:

Final quality checks.
Testing of finished product.
External inspection.
Timing achieved.
Expended budget, etc.
At this stage RAU may appoint external auditors/consultant in order to evaluate if the
output of the project really meets its requirements.
8.12.3 Post treatment analysis and maintenance
-

After dismantling of all the system installed for electrochemical realkalisation, the treated
concrete needs to be analysed in order to determine the effect of the treatment. This
carried using the following tests:
pH indicator phenolphthalein.
Sodium and Potassium analysis if a quantitative value is required.
Chlorine analysis.
On structures in severe environments, it is recommended to install reference electrodes
(e.g. Norcure reference electrodes) to monitor the stability of the treated concrete. [231 The
precaution of providing surface coatings against re-carbonation may also be considered
as a means to maintain the infrastructure in good environmental conditions. However, the
concrete surface should be allowed to dry and a compatible material must be chosen.t 241

159

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
The current study is subdivided into two main parts. The first part addresses concrete as a
building material widely used in the civil construction. Its composition, characteristics and
the various ways for its protection are the main topics discussed early in the study.
Immediately after the introductory part, analysis of deterioration processes of concrete and
means of investigation causes and effects of concrete degradation follow. Condition
survey, diagnosis of defects in concrete structures and related methods and equipment are
finally examined in the first part of the study. The main objective of such an approach is to
provide for any building structure owner sufficient knowledge and background that may
be helpful in drawing up an effective repair programme for a concrete structure suffering
from any form of degradation.
When a building owner reaches the stage of establishing a repair programme for its asset,
two important decisions must be taken. Firstly, selection of an appropriate repair method
must be made in accordance with the level of damage encountered in the structure.
Secondly, suitable repair materials must be determined and used in this particular
circumstance in order to warrant success of the repair operation and ultimately halt the
deterioration progress.
Several alternative options have to be considered. The first approach may be oriented
towards traditional repair methods involving a thorough break-out of deteriorated
concrete, followed by patch repairs with materials selected among a wide varied range of
existing and approved repair materials. A second alternative may be to opt for an
electrochemical treatment consisting of a cathodic protection, a desalination or a
realkalisation, depending on the causes of the damage, the extent of the problem, and
other constraints such as aesthetic aspect of the building, available funds, expected
remaining service life, availability of technologies and skills, etc.
As a case study, the second part of the present study examines the problem that the Rand
Afrikaans University management is facing in what is considered to be an early
degradation of most of main campus buildings just after 20 years of service life. After
investigation by both internally and externally appointed consultants, it was noticed that
the main causes of structure degradation at RAU may be subdivided in four main groups.
The university management should address each group separately and find specific and
unique solution suitable for each group
Spalling and delamination due to an advanced corrosion of concrete reinforcing steel is
among the main causes of RAU buildings degradation. To halt this ongoing corrosion and
reinstate the alkalinity of concrete which is the condition for the reinforcement to be in a
passive medium that can prevent any corrosion, the electrochemical realkalisation seems
to be one of the repair strategies that should be considered. The prevailing conditions and

160

the compliance with the expected service life of the buildings which is of hundreds of years
should be both considered during the decision phase.
This is the reason why the second part of the study is mainly dedicated to the
electrochemical realkalisation as a project to be managed by the Rand Afrikaans University
in the near future. Preliminary survey and testing have been already conducted by both
internal and external consultants. The choice of this method as the remedial strategy is
dictated by the present condition of the main building structures as well as by selection
criteria suggested by the European Standard for Protection and Repair of Concrete.
After a theoretical, economical and environmental analysis, it has been advocated for the
Rand Afrikaans University's concrete problem an electrochemical realkalisation treatment
combined with small patch repairs. The reason is that the use of realkalisation combined
with limited patch repairs has many chances to provide as for other many cases around the
world, a cost effective, long term repair solution on these RAU particular structures,
especially when one considers the other, perhaps non-building problems of structure borne
noise pollution and disruption levels in a fully occupied, restricted site such as the Rand
Afrikaans University.
In most cases the method competes well in terms of cost with both traditional repair
techniques and cathodic protection. Nevertheless there are limitations to the costeffectiveness of the method, the general rule being to treat the affected structure at as
early a stage of damage development as possible. Vastly reduced concrete break-out
means that fixed prices can be offered.
However, it remains obvious that for areas that do not present any structural danger for
the university environment, traditional patch repair methods should be considered and
largely used, as long as the selected repair materials may comply with the technical and
economical considerations and the aesthetic aspect of buildings as a whole. Colour
matching between old and new concrete should be a great concern for building as
universities for this reason that they are called to be a motif of pride, not only locally but
world-wide. The cathodic protection could also be a competitive alternative but it is not
favoured because of its almost permanent nature necessitating ongoing operation and
specialist servicing.
The pending question regarding electrochemical realkalisation is the durability of concrete
after treatment. For that it is said that there is no substitute for experience. The more
projects involving realkalisation will receive subsequent checks, preferably by independent
organisations, the more rapidly confidence can grow.
There are some concerns that, with widely-spaced reinforcement, "blind spots" could be
created between bars which, with time, could lead to redistribution of alkali, possibly
influencing corrosion conditions. Data from closely monitored trials, however, is
encouraging [27] .

161

According to many researches, there is also evidence emerging that the Sodium Carbonate
product formed when used as electrolyte in a realkalisation treatment, is stable and that no
significant loss of Sodium has been found even after five years. [271 Whilst such technical
assessments continue, the precaution of providing surface coatings against re-carbonation
may still be considered.

162

REFERENCES
1

Noel P. Mailvaganam, "Repair and protection of concrete structures",

Institute for Research in Construction, National Research Council of
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. CRC Press, Bocaraton Ann Arbor,
London, 1992.
ACI Publication SP - 19, cited by N.P. Mailvaganam in "repair and
protection of concrete structures".

G.J. Verbeck, "Carbonation of hydrated Portland Cement", ASTM

Special Technical Publication, N 235, 1958.

4.

Philip H. Perkins, "Repair, protection and waterproofing of concrete

structures", Elsevier applied science publishers Ltd, 1986.

Grahm West, "Alkali-aggregate reactions in concrete roads and

bridges", Thomas Telford Publications, 1996.
Y. Ohno, S. Praparntanatorn & K. Suzuki, "Influence of cracking and water
cement ratio on macrocell corrosion of steel in concrete", published in
"Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete constructions"
Kinnear, R.G., "Concrete surface blemishes", Cement and Concrete
Association Rep., Slough, UK, 1979.
Shilstone, J.M., "Surface blemishes on formed concrete", Concrete
construction, 23, 735, 1979.
Anon, "Identification and control of consolidation related defects in formed
concrete", Rep. N ACI 309 2R - 82, Concr. Int., 982.
J. Gulikers and E. Schlangen, Delft University of technology, Netherlands,
"Numerical analysis of galvanic interaction in reinforcement corrosion",
published in "Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction".
Ted Kay, "Assessment and Renovation of concrete structures", Concrete
design and construction series, Longman Group UK Limited, 1992.
M. Raupach, Bauingenieur Sozietat Aachen, Germany, published in
"Corrosion of steel in the area of cracks in concrete", Corrosion of
reinforcement in concrete constructions.

163

ACI Committee 437, "Strength evaluation of existing concrete buildings,

American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1985.
Menzies J.B., "Load testing of concrete building structures", The
structural engineers, 54 A (12), 1978.
Institution of Structural Engineers, London, "Appraisal of existing
structures", 1980.
K. S. Yeon, K.W. Kim, J.D. Choi and K. S. Kim, Department of
agricultural engineering, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Korea,
"Research trends of concrete polymer composites in Korea", Polymers in
concrete, proceedings of the second East Asia symposium on polymers in
concrete, College of engineering, Nihon University, Koriyama, Japan, May
11-13, E & FN Spon, 1997.
John C. Ropke, "Concrete problems, causes and cures", Mac Graw-Hill
Inc., 1982.
P.L. Domone, "Construction materials, their nature and behaviour", Part
three, "Concrete", edited by J.M. Illston, Consultant and Professor
Emeritus, University of Hertford, 1994.
CSA Technical Committee on Repair of Concrete Buildings, Draft 1, 1989.
J.T. Grundy, "Construction Technology, volume 2", published by Edward
Arnold, a division of Hodder Headline PLC, London, 1979.
Rilem Report 14, 'Durability design of concrete structures", edited by A.
Sarja and E. Vesikari, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Esppoo,
Finland, 1996.
G. Sergi, R.J. Walker and C.L. Page, " Mechanisms and criteria for the
realkalisation of concrete", Department of civil engineering, Aston
University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7 ET, UK, 1996.
John B. Miller, International Technology Manager, " Electrochemical
concrete repair", NCT, Construction Repair, December 1995.
"Norcure Realkalisation", a FOSROC's brochure, 1996.
Nigel Cox, "Realkalisation of precast panels for British Telecom, outlines
the development of a repair strategy at a British Telecom Plc central
telephone exchange, using the Norcure method and yellow pages",
Construction Repair, July/August 1995.

164

26.

FOSROC's brochure, "Norcure realkalisation", brochure 1994.

27

David Pocok, Taywood Engineering Ltd, "Chloride extraction and

realkalisation, six years on", Corrosion and Protection of reinforced
concrete Conference, Dubai, 10 - 11 October 1994.
"Realkalisation, case study : apartment building in Blindernoveien",
Construction Repair, November/December 1995.
Gun E. Nustad and Moira Decter, " Desalination and realkalisation, the
mechanisms and the advantages of electrochemical repair".
J.S. Mattila, M.J Pentti and T.A Raiski, " Durability of electrochemically
realkalised concrete structures", Tampere University of Technology,
Structural Engineering, Finland 1991.
Deon Kruger and Prof. Piet Pretorius, Department of civil engineering,
Rand Afrikaans University, "Rehabilitation of concrete : the owners
dilemma", Johannesburg, RSA, March 1996
P.0 Pretorius and D.J. Penhall, " durability aspects related to off-shutter
concrete at Rand Afrikaans University: A case study ", 23 January 1995.
Gail Freeman, Bell and James Balkwill, "Management in Engineering",
Prentice-Hall International UK (Ltd), 1993.
Colin E. Alvey, Corrosion Advisory Technical Services, " Quality
Assurance and Quality while applying protective coatings", Mechanical
Technology, December 1996.
E. Pennells, " Concrete Bridge Designer's Manual", Whitefriars Press Ltd,
London and Tonbridge, 1981.
Sidney Mindess and J. Francis Young, "Concrete", Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632, 1981.
P. Kumar Metha and Paulo J.M. Monteiro, "Concrete, structure, properties
and materials", second edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewoods Cliffs,
NJ 07632, 1981.
"Prediction of concrete durability", Proceedings of STATS 21st
anniversary conference, edited by J. Glanville and A. Neville, E & FN
SPON, Chapman & Hall, London 1997.

165

Arnon Bentur, Sydney Diamond and Neal S. Berke, "Steel corrosion in

concrete, fundamentals and civil engineering practice", E & FN SPON, St
Edmunds press, Great Britain, 1997.
"Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete", edited by C.L. Page, K.W.J.
Treadaway and P.B. Bamforth, Papers presented at the third international
symposium on "corrosion of reinforcement in concrete construction, held
at Belfry Hotel, Wishaw, Warwickshire, UK, 21-24 May 1990.
A.M. Neville, "Properties of concrete, fourth and final edition", John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1997.
R.T.L. Allen and S.C. Edwards, "The repair of concrete structures",
Blackie & Son Ltd, 1987.
Jack R. Meredith and Samuel J. Mantel Jr, "Project management, a
managerial approach", third edition, John Wiley & Sons. Inc., USA,
1995.

166

ANNEXES
RAU CONCRETE REHABILITATION PILOT PROJECT

CONCRETE STATUS REPORT

$0t- hufs.d S,AA-

SURVEY TYPE:

PANELNUMBER: Dal&

SURVEYED BY:

17

IU

DATE OF SURVEY:

can.

03 -

TOP

1
A in Go
3,, A

Go a a 61

32. 26'8 AS

40 ag 4e 58 *I, as Z. 4.7.. AS 5,
,
1.4 2.,...
2).tir,ttz 32 33 33 i

45

40

4.

43

G
49

58

3;

a ( 19 'Is i3 3.

34 .7.7

AV
6, 0 2.4

.ia 31

30

3,5

il i2 le II 31 .zu

a.

46 6.

6.

3.

64

C.

Si

2.5 3 7

&

3/'

36

145

:53

-;

34

34

36 -.1 38

3"

4-1 30

3z

3i

34

&

31

3;

3:,

SI

66

41

52

(4.5

3i .1.. 13.

;i

So

::. 31 28

(c

3.

6.. 47

____
jo 40 .19 ID

-----

32.
L ,.tc ja -24 Aci azs
30
;.;., Ya xi -3.

I8 -09.1 1

,----...
1
1816,21.30 al.ii.:

4...2.z_.

>,
4fF
A

i,

44

.3. 2.1 29 .10 .3,

'3' .14
i,

3,

So

CONCRETE STATUS REPORT

5oo..ve-1

M "Th14-16FrrsiG

SURVEYED BY:

3 I 10

PANELNUMBER:

3.7 37 36

Is

RAU CONCRETE REHABILITATION PILOT PROJECT

SURVEY TYPE: CcV cQ 141-C=4

3i

oc\

DATE OF SURVEY.

lggl

TOP

1 ,
38 'a-3 5 1 3iI Z. 22 2.9 .'I
36

4/

02

3ct xi

Ea Yi

17

21

3;

I;

Lii

too 44,

IG 111

15 40 iS

3z.\1 11

lcI t '

4 '9.0\2,5
I
i:, 4 a v q

3 5 34 --;-. -"--_, 61
;'.' ,I

18

a.14
A Al is li .21 is 1_13 is ri 2.2 Z2 l'i A2 A

3.6 32. 24 IS 2-,0

4i _65 3c1

1 1-i

14,

'.-1 21 521 21 14 22- 11 11

X-1 41 4s 41

II

"T" F

- -

.2z.

21 14,

2-6 ;24 .2-1 34

--1- - -

Is 11 20 ti ZS ' 2.4 2427 :26

25 30 2.1 /1 11 A4
C

26

.`24 :L? .

as -a 64 xS 33 3117 44 .,.6 a,
E

.S3 46

54

4c1 Lti 4 i It_

--.1 4 3

31 .53 31 &

'
--- :2 .;:.
.--: -.114

_y: -.51 L. i, o 42. a 33 41 41

w 4:7, 4.3 -'..S 47 .Z,

H

SOFFIT

COMMENTS: --7

"(IA rn

t.

.i

_5

N2,5 17C0kz2-A

cria

4r

4c1 54 3ii

Yria.Tn

167

4,2

3 2 31 -3e? Le