Theory

Aluminium Code Check

Subtitle

Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 1
Disclaimer ................................................................................................................................................ 2
EN 1999 Code Check ............................................................................................................................... 3
Material Properties .......................................................................................................... 3
Consulted Articles........................................................................................................... 4
Initial Shape ................................................................................................................. 5
Classification of Cross-Section .................................................................................. 13
Step 1: Calculation of stresses ............................................................................. 14
Step 2: Determination of stress gradient ........................................................... 14
Step 3: Calculation of slenderness ....................................................................... 15
Step 4: Classification of the part ........................................................................... 16
Reduced Cross-Section properties ............................................................................ 16
Calculation of Reduction factor c for Local Buckling ........................................... 17
Calculation of Reduction factor for Distortional Buckling ................................... 17
Calculation of Reduction factor HAZ for HAZ effects ............................................ 22
Calculation of Effective properties ........................................................................ 23
Section properties ...................................................................................................... 23
Tension....................................................................................................................... 24
Compression .............................................................................................................. 24
Bending moment ........................................................................................................ 24
Shear .......................................................................................................................... 25
Slender and non-slender sections ........................................................................ 25
Calculation of Shear Area ..................................................................................... 27
Torsion with warping .................................................................................................. 28
Calculation of the direct stress due to warping ..................................................... 29
Calculation of the shear stress due to warping ..................................................... 31
Standard diagrams ................................................................................................ 33
Decomposition of arbitrary torsion line ................................................................. 39
Combined shear and torsion ...................................................................................... 40
Bending, shear and axial force .................................................................................. 41
Localised welds ..................................................................................................... 41
Shear reduction ..................................................................................................... 41
Stress check for numerical sections ..................................................................... 42
Flexural buckling ........................................................................................................ 43
Calculation of Buckling ratio General Formula .................................................. 43
Calculation of Buckling ratio Crossing Diagonals .............................................. 45
Calculation of Buckling ratio From Stability Analysis ......................................... 48
Torsional (-Flexural) buckling ..................................................................................... 49
Calculation of Ncr,T ................................................................................................. 49
Calculation of Ncr,TF ............................................................................................... 50
Lateral Torsional buckling .......................................................................................... 51
Calculation of Mcr General Formula ................................................................... 51
Calculation of Moment factors for LTB ................................................................. 54
LTBII Eigenvalue solution ..................................................................................... 55
Combined bending and axial compression ................................................................ 55
Flexural buckling ................................................................................................... 56
i

Lateral Torsional buckling ..................................................................................... 56

Localised welds and factors for design section .................................................... 56
Shear buckling ........................................................................................................... 59
Plate girders with stiffeners at supports ................................................................ 59
Plate girders with intermediate web stiffeners ...................................................... 61
Interaction ............................................................................................................. 64
Scaffolding ................................................................................................................. 65
Scaffolding member check for tubular members .................................................. 65
Scaffolding coupler check ..................................................................................... 67
LTBII: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis ...................................................................... 71
Introduction to LTBII ................................................................................................... 71
Eigenvalue solution Mcr .............................................................................................. 71
nd
2 Order analysis ...................................................................................................... 73
Supported Sections .................................................................................................... 74
Loadings ..................................................................................................................... 75
Imperfections .............................................................................................................. 76
Initial bow imperfection v0 according to code ....................................................... 76
Manual input of Initial bow imperfections v0 and w0 ............................................ 76
LTB Restraints ........................................................................................................... 77
Diaphragms ................................................................................................................ 78
Linked Beams ............................................................................................................ 79
Limitations and Warnings ........................................................................................... 80
Eigenvalue solution Mcr ........................................................................................ 80
nd
2 Order Analysis ................................................................................................. 80
Profile conditions for code check ....................................................................................................... 81
Introduction to profile characteristics ......................................................................... 81
Data for general section stability check ..................................................................... 81
Data depending on the profile shape ......................................................................... 82
I section ................................................................................................................. 82
RHS ....................................................................................................................... 83
CHS ....................................................................................................................... 84
Angle section......................................................................................................... 85
Channel section .................................................................................................... 86
T section................................................................................................................ 87
Full rectangular section ......................................................................................... 88
Full circular section ............................................................................................... 89
Asymmetric I section ............................................................................................. 90
Z section................................................................................................................ 91
General cold formed section ................................................................................. 92
Cold formed angle section .................................................................................... 94
Cold formed channel section ................................................................................ 95
Cold formed Z section ........................................................................................... 96
Cold formed C section .......................................................................................... 97
Cold formed Omega section ................................................................................. 98
Rail type KA .......................................................................................................... 99
Rail type KF......................................................................................................... 100

ii

Rail type KQ ........................................................................................................ 101

References ........................................................................................................................................... 102

iii

Introduction
Welcome to the Aluminium Code Check Theoretical Background.
This document provides background information on the code check according to the
regulations given in:
Eurocode 9
Design of aluminium structures
Part 1-1: General structural rules
EN 1999-1-1:2007
Addendum EN 1999-1-1:2007/A1:2009

Version info

Documentation Title
Release
Revision

Aluminium Code Check Theoretical Background

2012.0
03/2012

Disclaimer
This document is being furnished by SCIA for information purposes only to licensed users
of SCIA software and is furnished on an "AS IS" basis, which is, without any warranties,
whatsoever, expressed or implied. SCIA is not responsible for direct or indirect damage as
a result of imperfections in the documentation and/or software.
Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a
commitment on the part of SCIA. The software described in this document is furnished
under a license agreement. The software may be used only in accordance with the terms of
that license agreement. It is against the law to copy or use the software except as
specifically allowed in the license.
Copyright 2012 Nemetschek SCIA. All rights reserved.

EN 1999 Code Check

In the following chapters, the material properties and consulted articles are discussed.

Material Properties
The characteristic values of the material properties are based on Table 3.2a for wrought
aluminium alloys of type sheet, strip and plate and on Table 3.2b for wrought aluminium
alloys of type extruded profile, extruded tube, extruded rod/bar and drawn tube.
The following alloys are provided by default:
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) O/H111 (0-50)
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) O/H111 (50-80)
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) H12 (0-40)
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) H22/H32 (0-40)
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) H14 (0-25)
EN-AW 5083 (Sheet) H24/H34 (0-25)
EN-AW 5083 (ET,EP,ER/B)
O/111,F,H112 (0-200)
EN-AW 5083 (DT) H12/22/32 (0-10)
EN-AW 5083 (DT) H14/24/34 (0-5)
EN-AW 5454 (ET,EP,ER/B)
O/H111,F/H112 (0-25)
EN-AW 5754 (ET,EP,ER/B)
O/H111,F/H112 (0-25)
EN-AW 5754 (DT) H14/H24/H34 (0-10)
EN-AW 6005A (EP/O,ER/B) T6 (0-5)
EN-AW 6005A (EP/O,ER/B) T6 (5-10)
EN-AW 6005A (EP/O,ER/B) T6 (10-25)
EN-AW 6005A (EP/H,ET) T6 (0-5)
EN-AW 6005A (EP/H,ET) T6 (5-10)
EN-AW 6060 (EP,ET,ER/B) T5 (0-5)
EN-AW 6060 (EP) T5 (5-25)
EN-AW 6060 (ET,EP,ER/B) T6 (0-15)
EN-AW 6060 (DT) T6 (0-20)
EN-AW 6060 (EP,ET,ER/B) T64 (0-15)
EN-AW 6060 (EP,ET,ER/B) T66 (0-3)
EN-AW 6060 (EP) T66 (3-25)
EN-AW 6061 (EP,ET,ER/B) T4 (0-25)
EN-AW 6061 (DT) T4 (0-20)
EN-AW 6061 (EP,ET,ER/B) T6 (0-25)
EN-AW 6061 (DT) T6 (0-20)
EN-AW 6063 (EP,ET,ER/B) T5 (0-3)

EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
12.5)
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW
EN-AW

6063 (EP) T5 (3-25)

6063 (EP,ET,ER/B) T6 (0-25)
6063 (DT) T6 (0-20)
6063 (EP,ET,ER/B) T66 (0-10)
6063 (EP) T66 (10-25)
6063 (DT) T66 (0-20)
6082 (Sheet) T4/T451 (0-12.5)
6082 (Sheet) T61/T6151 (06082 (Sheet) T6151 (12.5-100)
6082 (Sheet) T6/T651 (0-6)
6082 (Sheet) T6/T651 (6-12.5)
6082 (Sheet) T651 (12.5-100)
6082 (EP,ET,ER/B) T4 (0-25)
6082 (EP/O,EP/H) T5 (0-5)
6082 (EP/O,EP/H,ET) T6 (0-5)
6082 (EP/O,EP/H,ET) T6 (5-15)
6082 (ER/B) T6 (0-20)
6082 (ER/B) T6 (20-150)
6082 (DT) T6 (0-5)
6082 (DT) T6 (5-20)
7020 (Sheet) T6 (0-12.5)
7020 (Sheet) T651 (0-40)
7020 (EP,ET,ER/B) T6 (0-15)
7020 (EP,ET,ER/B) T6 (15-40)
7020 (DT) T6 (0-20)
8011A (Sheet) H14 (0-12.5)
8011A (Sheet) H24 (0-12.5)
8011A (Sheet) H16 (0-4)
8011A (Sheet) H26 (0-4)

The default HAZ values are applied. As such, footnote 2) of Table 3.2a and footnote 4) of
Table 3.2b are not accounted for. The user can modify the HAZ values according to
these footnotes if required.

Consulted Articles
The member elements are checked according to the regulations given in: Eurocode 9:
Design of aluminium structures - Part 1-1: General structural rules - EN 1999-1-1:2007.
The cross-sections are classified according to art.6.1.4. All classes of cross-sections are
included. For class 4 sections (slender sections) the effective section is calculated in each
intermediary point, according to Ref. [2].
The stress check is taken from art.6.2: the section is checked for tension (art. 6.2.3),
compression (art. 6.2.4), bending (art. 6.2.5), shear (art. 6.2.6), torsion (art.6.2.7) and
combined bending, shear and axial force (art. 6.2.8, 6.2.9 and 6.2.10).
The stability check is taken from art. 6.3: the beam element is checked for buckling (art.
6.3.1), lateral torsional buckling (art. 6.3.2), and combined bending and axial compression
(art. 6.3.3).
The shear buckling is checked according to art. 6.7.4 and 6.7.6.
For I sections, U sections and cold formed sections warping can be considered.
A check for critical slenderness is also included.
A more detailed overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles
marked with "X" are consulted. The articles marked with (*) have a supplementary
explanation in the following chapters.
5.3 Imperfections
5.3.1 Basis
5.3.2 Imperfections for global analysis of frames
5.3.4 Member imperfections

X
X
X

6 Ultimate limit states for members

6.1 Basis
6.1.3 Partial safety factors
6.1.4 Classification of cross-sections
6.1.5 Local buckling resistance
6.1.6 HAZ softening adjacent to welds

X
X (*)
X (*)
X (*)

6.2 Resistance of cross-sections

6.2.1 General
6.2.2 Section properties
6.2.3. Tension
6.2.4. Compression
6.2.5. Bending Moment
6.2.6. Shear
6.2.7. Torsion
6.2.8. Bending and shear
6.2.9. Bending and axial force
6.2.10. Bending , shear and axial force

X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
X
X (*)
X (*)

6.3 Buckling resistance of members

6.3.1 Members in compression
6.3.2 Members in bending
6.3.3 Members in bending and axial compression

X (*)
X (*)
X (*)
4

6.5 Un-stiffened plates under in-plane loading

6.5.5 Resistance under shear

X (*)

6.7 Plate girders

6.7.4 Resistance to shear
6.7.6 Interaction

X (*)
X (*)

Haunches and arbitrary members are not supported for the Aluminium Code Check.

Initial Shape
For a cross-section with material Aluminium, the Initial Shape can be defined.
For a General cross-section the Thinwalled representation has to be used to be able to
define the Initial Shape.
The thin-walled cross-section parts can have the following types:
Fixed Part No reduction is needed
Internal cross-section part
Symmetrical Outstand
Unsymmetrical Outstand

F
I
SO
UO

Parts can also be specified as reinforcement:

None
Not considered as reinforcement
RI
Reinforced Internal (intermediate stiffener)
RUO
Reinforced Unsymmetrical Outstand (edge stiffener)
In case a part is specified as reinforcement, a reinforcement ID can be inputted. Parts
having the same reinforcement ID are considered as one reinforcement.
The following conditions apply for the use of reinforcements:
-

RI: There must be a plate type I on both sides of the RI reinforcement,

I
RI

I
RI

RUO : The reinforcement is connected to only one plate with type I

RUO

For standard Cross-sections, the default plate type and reinforcement type are defined in
the following table.
Form code

Shape

I section

Initial Geometrical shape

(F, none)

(SO, none)

(SO, none)

(I, none)

(SO, none)

RHS

(F, none)

(SO, none)

(I, none)

(F, none)

(F, none)

(I, none)
(I, none)

(F, none)

CHS

(F, none)
(I, none)

(fixed value for )

Angle section

(UO, none)

(F, none)

Channel section

(UO, none)

(F, none)

(UO, none)

(I, none)

(UO, none)
(F, none)

T section

(UO, none)

(F, none)

(SO, none)
7

Full rectangular
section

No reduction possible

11

Full circular section

No reduction possible

101

Asymmetric I section

(SO, none)

(SO, none)

(SO, none)

(F, none)

(I, none)

(F, none)

(SO, none)

(SO, none)

102

Rolled Z section

(UO, none)
(F, none)

(I, none)

(UO, none)
(F, none)

110

General cold formed

section

(UO, none)

(I, none)

(UO, none)

(I,none)

(UO, none)

10

111

Cold formed angle

(UO, none)

(UO, none)

112

Cold formed channel

(UO, none)

(I, none)

(UO, none)

11

113

Cold formed Z

(UO, none)

(I, none)

(UO, none)

114

Cold formed C
section

(I, none)

(UO, RUO)

(I,none)

(I,none)
(UO, RUO)

115

(I, none)

Cold formed Omega

(I, none)

(UO, RUO)

(I, none)

(UO, RUO)

12

For other predefined cross-sections, the initial geometric shape is based on the centreline
of the cross-section. For example Sheet Welded - IXw

(UO, none)

(UO, none)

(I,none)
(UO, none)

(UO, none)
(I,none)

(I,none)

(UO, none)

(UO, none)
(I,none)

(UO, none)

(UO, none)

Classification of Cross-Section
The classification is based on art. 6.1.4.
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined and the proper checks are
performed. The classification can change for each intermediary point.
Classification for members with combined bending and axial forces is made for the loading
components separately. No classification is made for the combined state of stress (see art.
6.3.3 Note 1 & 2).
Classification is thus done for N, My and Mz separately. Since the classification is
independent on the magnitude of the actual forces in the cross-section, the classification is
always done for each component.

13

Taking into account the sign of the force components and the HAZ reduction factors, this
leads to the following force components for which classification is done:
Classification for Component
Compression force
NTension force
N+ with 0,HAZ
Tension force
N+ with u,HAZ
y-y axis bending
Myy-y axis bending
My+
z-z axis bending
Mzz-z axis bending
Mz+
For each of these components the reduced shape is determined and the effective section
properties are calculated. This is outlined in the following paragraphs.
The following procedure is applied for determining the classification of a part.

Step 1: Calculation of stresses

For the given force component (N, My, Mz) the normal stress is calculated over the
rectangular plate part for the initial geometrical shape.
beg: normal stress at start point of rectangular shape
end: normal stress at end point of rectangular shape

Compression stress is indicated as negative.

When the rectangular shape is completely under tension, i.e. beg and end are both
tensile stresses, no classification is required.

Step 2: Determination of stress gradient

beg
end
end
if beg is the maximum compression stress
beg
if end is the maximum compression stress

14

Step 3: Calculation of slenderness

Depending on the stresses and the plate type the slenderness parameter is calculated.

Internal part: type I

b
t
0.70 0.30

0.80
1

With:

(1 1)
( 1)

b
t

Width of the cross-section part

Thickness of the cross-section part
Stress gradient factor

Remark:

For a thin walled round tube

D
with D the diameter to mid-thickness of the tube
t

material.

Outstand part: type SO, UO

When = 1.0 or peak compression at the toe of the plate:

b
t
peak compression at toe

When peak compression is at the root of the plate:

b
t
0.70 0.30

0.80
1

(1 1)
( 1)
15

peak compression at root

Step 4: Classification of the part

The slenderness parameters 1, 2, 3 are determined according to Table 6.2.
Using these limits, the part is classified as follows:
if 1
if 1< 2
if 2< 3
if 3<

: class 1
: class 2
: class 3
: class 4

As specified in art. 6.1.4.4(3) a cross-section part is considered with welds in case it

contains a weld at any point along its width.

The modified expression given in art.6.1.4.4 (4) is not supported.

The cross-section is then classified according to the highest (least favourable) class of its
compression parts.

Reduced Cross-Section properties

Using the initial shape the cross-section parts are classified as specified in the previous
chapter.
For calculating the reduced shape the following reduction factors are calculated:
o Local Buckling: Reduction factor c
o Distortional Buckling: Reduction factor
o HAZ effects: Reduction factor HAZ

16

Calculation of Reduction factor c for Local Buckling

In case a cross-section part is classified as Class 4 (slender), the reduction factor c for
local buckling is calculated according to art. 6.1.5
For a cross-section part under tension or with classification different from Class 4 the
reduction factor c is taken as 1,00.
In case a cross-section part is subject to compression and tension stresses, the reduction
factor c is applied only to the compression part as illustrated in the following figure.
compression stress

t eff

tensile stress

Calculation of Reduction factor for Distortional Buckling

To take into account distortional buckling, a simplified direct method is given in art. 6.1.4
which is only applicable for a single sided rib or lip.
In Scia Engineer a more general procedure is used according to Ref. [2] pp.66
The design of stiffened elements is based on the assumption that the stiffener itself acts as
a beam on elastic foundation, where the elastic foundation is represented by a spring
stiffness depending on the transverse bending stiffness of adjacent parts of plane elements
and on the boundary conditions of these elements.
The following procedure is applied for calculating the reduction factor for an intermediate
stiffener (RI) or edge stiffener (RUO).

17

Step 1: Calculation of spring stiffness

Spring stiffness c = cr for RI:

Spring stiffness c = cs for RUO:

18

c cs
ys

1
ys

4(1 )b13 b12

c3
Et 3

3
Et ad
c3
12(1 )b p ,ad

With:

tad
bp,ad
c3

Thickness of the adjacent element

Flat width of the adjacent element
The sum of the stiffnesses from the adjacent elements
equal to 3 in the case of bending moment load or when the cross section
is made of more than 3 elements (counted as plates in initial geometry,
without the reinforcement parts)
equal to 2 in the case of uniform compression in cross sections made of 3
elements (counted as plates in initial geometry, without the reinforcement
parts, e.g. channel or Z sections)

These parameters are illustrated on the following picture:

considered plate
edge stiffener

t ad

bp,ad

adjacent element

19

Step 2: Calculation of Area and Second moment of area

After calculating the spring stiffness the area Ar and Second moment of area Ir are calculated.
With:

Ar
Ir

beff

the area of the effective cross section (based on teff = pc t ) composed of

the stiffener area and half the adjacent plane elements
the second moment of area of an effective cross section composed of
the (unreduced) stiffener and part of the adjacent plate elements, with
thickness t and effective width beff, referred to the neutral axis a-a
For RI reinforcement taken as 15 t
For ROU reinforcement taken as 12 t

These parameters are illustrated on the following figures.

Ar and Ir for RI:

20

Ar and Ir for RUO:

Step 3: Calculation of stiffener buckling load

The buckling load Nr,cr of the stiffener can now be calculated as follows:

N r ,cr 2 cEI r
With:

c
E
Ir

Spring stiffness of Step 1

Module of Young
Second moment of area of Step 2

21

Step 4: Calculation of reduction factor for distortional buckling

Using the buckling load Nr,cr and area Ar the relative slenderness c can be determined for
calculating the reduction factor :

f o Ar
N r ,cr

0.20
0 0.60
0.50(1.0 (c 0 ) 2c )
if c 0 1.00
if c 0
With:

f0
c
0

2 2c

1.00

0,2% proof strength

Relative slenderness
Limit slenderness taken as 0,60
Imperfection factor taken as 0,20
Reduction factor for distortional buckling

The reduction factor is then applied to the thickness of the reinforcement(s) and on half the
width of the adjacent part(s).

Calculation of Reduction factor HAZ for HAZ effects

The extend of the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is determined by the distance bhaz according to
art. 6.1.6.

The value for bhaz is multiplied by the factors 2 and 3/n

22

for 3xxx, 5xxx & 6xxx alloys :

for 7xxx alloys :

2 1 1.5

With:

T1
n

2 1

(T1 60)
120

(T1 60)
120

Interpass temperature
Number of heat paths

The variations in numbers of heath paths 3/n is specifically intended for fillet welds. In
case of a butt weld the parameter n should be set to 3 (instead of 2) to negate this
effect.

The reduction factor for the HAZ is given by:

u ,haz

f u ,haz

o,haz

f o,haz

fu

fo

Calculation of Effective properties

For each part the final thickness reduction is determined as the minimum of .c and haz.

The section properties are then recalculated based on the reduced thicknesses.
This procedure is then repeated for each of the force components specified in the previous
chapter.

Section properties
Deduction of holes, art. 6.2.2.2 is not taken into account.
Shear lag effects, art. 6.2.2.3 are not taken into account.

23

Tension
The Tension check is verified using art. 6.2.3.
The value of Ag is taken as the area A calculated from the reduced shape for N+(0,HAZ)
The value of Anet is taken as the area A calculated from the reduced shape for N+(u,HAZ)
Since deduction of holes is not taken into account Aeff will be equal to Anet.

Compression
The Compression check is verified using art. 6.2.4.
Deduction of holes is not taken into account.
The value of Aeff is taken as the area A calculated from the reduced shape for N-

Bending moment
The Bending check is verified using art. 6.2.5.
Deduction of holes is not taken into account.

The section moduli Weff; Wel,haz; Weff,haz are taken as Wel calculated from the reduced shape
for M+ / MThe section modulus Wpl,haz is taken as Wpl calculated from the reduced shape for M+ / M-

In case the alternative formula is used for 3,u or 3,w the critical part is determined by
the lowest value of 2 / in accordance with addendum EN 1999-1-1:2007/A1:2009.

The assumed thickness specified in art. 6.2.5.2 (2) e) is not supported.

24

Shear
The Shear check is verified using art. 6.2.6 & 6.5.5.
Deduction of holes is not taken into account.

Slender and non-slender sections

The formulas to be used in the shear check are dependent on the slenderness of the crosssection parts.
For each part i the slenderness is calculated as follows:

xend xbeg

t
i

i w
t w i
With:

xend

End position of plate i

xbeg

Begin position of plate i

Thickness of plate i

For each part i the slenderness is then compared to the limit 39

With

250 f
0

and f0 in N/mm

i 39

=> Non-slender plate

i 39

=> Slender plate

I) All parts are classified as non-slender

i 39

The Shear check shall be verified using art. 6.2.6.

II) One or more parts are classified as slender

i 39

The Shear check shall be verified using art. 6.5.5.

For each part i the shear resistance VRd,i is calculated.

25

Non-slender part:

Formula (6.88) is used with properties calculated from the reduced shape
for N+(u,HAZ)
For Vy: Anet,y,i =

( xend xbeg ) i 0, HAZ t i cos 2 i

For Vz: Anet,z,i =

( xend xbeg ) i 0, HAZ t i sin 2 i

With:

Slender part:

i
xend
xbeg
t
0,HAZ

The number (ID) of the plate

End position of plate i
Begin position of plate i
Thickness of plate i
Haz reduction factor of plate i
Angle of plate i to the Principal y-y axis

Formula (6.88) is used with properties calculated from the reduced

shape for N+(0,HAZ) in the same way as for a non-slender part.
=> VRd,i,yield
Formula (6.89) is used with a the member length or the distance
between stiffeners (for I or U-sections)
=> VRd,i,buckling
=> For this slender part, the eventual VRd,i is taken as the minimum of
VRd,i,yield and VRd,i,buckling

For each part VRd,i is then determined.

=> The VRd of the cross-section is then taken as the sum of the resistances VRd,i of all parts.

VRd VRd i
i

For a solid bar, round tube and hollow tube, all parts are taken as non-slender by
default and formula (6.31) is applied.

26

Calculation of Shear Area

The calculation of the shear area is dependent on the cross-section type.
The calculation is done using the reduced shape for N+(0,HAZ)
a) Solid bar and round tube
The shear area is calculated using art. 6.2.6 and formula (6.31):

Av v Ae
With:

0,8 for solid section

0,6 for circular section (hollow and solid)

Ae

Taken as area A calculated using the reduced shape for

N+(0,HAZ)

b) All other Supported sections

For all other sections, the shear area is calculated using art. 6.2.6 and formula (6.30).
The following adaptation is used to make this formula usable for any initial cross-section
shape:

Avy i 1 ( xend xbeg ) 0, HAZ t cos 2

n

Avz i 1 ( xend xbeg ) 0, HAZ t sin 2

n

With:

i
xend
xbeg
t
0,HAZ

The number (ID) of the plate

End position of plate i
Begin position of plate i
Thickness of plate i
HAZ reduction factor of plate i
Angle of plate i to the Principal y-y axis

Should a cross-section be defined in such a way that the shear area Av (Avy or Avz) is zero,
then Av is taken as A calculated using the reduced shape for N+(0,HAZ).

For sections without initial shape or numerical sections, none of the above mentioned
methods can be applied. In this case, formula (6.29) is used with Av taken as Ay or Az
of the gross-section properties.

27

Torsion with warping

In case warping is taken into account, the combined section check is replaced by an elastic
stress check including warping stresses.

tot, Ed
tot, Ed

f0

M1
f0
3 M 1

2
2
tot
C
, Ed 3 tot , Ed

tot, Ed N , Ed My, Ed

f0

M1
Mz , Ed w, Ed

tot, Ed Vy , Ed Vz , Ed t , Ed w, Ed
With

f0

0,2% proof strength

Total direct stress

tot,E
d

Total shear stress

tot,E
d

M1
C
N,E

Partial safety factor for resistance of cross-sections

Constant (by default 1,2)
Direct stress due to the axial force on the relevant effective
cross-section

My,

Direct stress due to the bending moment around y axis on the

relevant effective cross-section

Ed

Mz,

Direct stress due to the bending moment around z axis on the

relevant effective cross-section

Ed

Direct stress due to warping on the gross cross-section

w,E
d

Vy,E

Shear stress due to shear force in y direction on the gross

cross-section

Vz,E

Shear stress due to shear force in z direction on the gross

cross-section

t,Ed

Shear stress due to uniform (St. Venant) torsion on the gross

cross-section
Shear stress due to warping on the gross cross-section

w,Ed
The warping effect is considered for standard I sections and U sections, and for (= cold
formed sections) sections. The definition of I sections, U sections and sections are
described in Profile conditions for code check.

28

The other standard sections (RHS, CHS, Angle section, T section and rectangular sections)
are considered as warping free. See also Ref.[3], Bild 7.4.40.

Calculation of the direct stress due to warping

The direct stress due to warping is given by (Ref.[3] 7.4.3.2.3, Ref.[4])

w ,Ed

MwwM
Cm

With

Mw
wM
Cm

Bimoment
Unit warping
Warping constant

I sections
For I sections, the value of wM is given in the tables (Ref. [3], Tafel 7.87, 7.88). This value is
added to the profile library. The diagram of wM is given in the following figure:

The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).
The value for wM can be calculated by (Ref.[5] pp.135):

wM

With

1
b hm
4

b
hm

Section width
Section height (see figure)

29

U sections
For U sections, the value of wM is given in the tables as wM1 and wM2 (Ref. [3], Tafel 7.89).
These values are added to the profile library. The diagram of wM is given in the following
figure:

The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).

sections
The values for wM are calculated for the critical points according to the general approach
given in Ref.[3] 7.4.3.2.3 and Ref.[6] Part 27.

The critical points for each part are shown as circles in the figure.

30

Calculation of the shear stress due to warping

The shear stress due to warping is given by (Ref.[3] 7.4.3.2.3, Ref.[4])
s

w ,Ed

M xs
w M tds
Cm t 0

With

Mxs
wM
Cm
t

Warping torque (see "Standard diagrams")

Unit warping
Warping constant
Element thickness

I sections
The shear stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure)

For I sections, the integral can be calculated as follows:

b/2

w
0

M tds

b t wM
A
4

31

U sections, sections
Starting from the wM diagram, the following integral is calculated for the critical points:
s

M tds

The shear stress due to warping is calculated in these critical points (see circles in figures)

32

Standard diagrams
The following 6 standard situations for St.Venant torsion, warping torque and bimoment are
given in the literature (Ref.[3], Ref.[4]).
The value is defined as follows:

With
:

G It
E Cm
Mx
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
IT
CM
E
G

Total torque
= Mxp + Mxs
Torque due to St. Venant
Warping torque
Bimoment
Torsional constant
Warping constant
Modulus of elasticity
Shear modulus

33

Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, local torsional loading Mt

Mx

Mt b
L
Mt a
M xb
L
M xa

Mxp for a side

Mxp for b side
Mxs for a side
Mxs for b side
Mw for a side
Mw for b side

b sinh(b)

M xp M t
cosh(x )
L sinh(L)

a sinh(a )

M xp M t
cosh(x ' )
L sinh(L)

sinh(b)

M xs M t
cosh(x )
sinh(L)

sinh(a )

M xs M t
cosh(x ' )
sinh(

L
)

sinh(b)

sinh(x )
sinh(L)

M sinh(a )
M w t
sinh(x ' )
sinh(L)

Mw

Mt

34

Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, local torsional loading Mt

Mx

Mt b
L
Mt a
M xb
L
M xa

Mxp for a side

Mxp for b side
Mxs for a side
Mxs for b side
Mw for a side
Mw for b side

b k2 k1

M xp M t
D3
L

k 2 a k1

M xp M t
D4
L

M xs M t D3
M xs M t D4
M
M w t D1

M
M w t D2

35

(sinh(b) k 2) sinh(x ) k1 sinh(x' )

sinh(L)
k 2 sinh(x) (sinh(a ) k1) sinh(x ' )
D2
sinh(L)
(sinh(b) k 2) cosh(x ) k1 cosh(x' )
D3
sinh(L)
k 2 cosh(x) (sinh(a ) k1) cosh(x' )
D4
sinh(L)
sinh(a ) sinh(b)
a b sinh(a ) sinh(b) L
L
1

tanh( )
sinh(L)
2
sinh(L)
2
2
k1

L
2
L
2 tanh( )
L tanh( )
2

2
sinh(a ) sinh(b)
a b sinh(a ) sinh(b) L
L
1

tanh( )
sinh(L)
2
sinh(L)
2
2
k2

L
2
L
2 tanh( )
L tanh( )
2

2
D1

Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, distributed torsional loading mt

Mx

mt L
2
m L
t
2

M xa
M xb
Mxp
Mxs

M xs
Mw

L
cosh(x ) cosh(x ' )
( x )

sinh(L)
2

m cosh(x ) cosh(x ' )

t

sinh(L)

M xp

Mw

mt

mt
2

sinh(x ) sinh(x ' )

1

sinh(L)

36

Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, distributed torsional loading mt

Mx

mt L
2
mt L

M xa
M xb
Mxp
Mxs

M xs
Mw

k 1

L
cosh(x ) cosh(x ' )
( x ) (1 k)

sinh(L)
2

m
cosh(x ) cosh(x ' )
t (1 k )

sinh(L)

M xp

Mw

mt

mt
2

sinh(x ) sinh(x ' )

1 (1 k)

sinh(L)

L
2
L
t anh(
)
2

37

One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, local torsional loading Mt

Mx

M xa M t

Mxp
Mxs
Mw

cosh(x ' )
M xp M t 1

cosh(L)

cosh(x ' )
M xs M t

cosh(L)

Mw

Mt

sinh(x ' )

cosh(L)

One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, distributed torsional
loading mt

Mx

M xa m t L
Mxp

M xp

mt

(1 L sinh(L)) sinh(x )
x'L cosh(x )

cosh(L)

38


(1 L sinh(L)) sinh(x )
L cosh(x )

cosh(L)

m
(1 L sinh(L)) cosh(x )
M w t 1 L sinh(x )

cosh(L)

Mxs

M xs

Mw

mt

Decomposition of arbitrary torsion line

Since the Scia Engineer solver does not take into account the extra DOF for warping, the
determination of the warping torque and the related bimoment, is based on some standard
situations.
The following end conditions are considered:

warping free

warping fixed

This results in the following 3 beam situations:

situation 1 : warping free / warping free

situation 2 : warping free / warping fixed

situation 3 : warping fixed / warping fixed

39

Decomposition for situation 1 and situation 3

The arbitrary total torque line is decomposed into the following standard situations:
o

n number of torsion lines generated by a local torsional loading Mt n

one torsion line generated by a distributed torsional loading mt

one torsion line with constant torque Mt0

The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional
loadings Mtn and the distributed loading mt. The value Mt0 is added to the Mxp value.

Decomposition for situation 2

The arbitrary total torque line is decomposed into the following standard situations:
o

one torsion line generated by a local torsional loading Mt n

one torsion line generated by a distributed torsional loading mt

The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional
loading Mt and the distributed loading mt.

Combined shear and torsion

The Combined shear force and torsional moment check is verified using art. 6.2.7.3.
For I and H sections formula (6.35) is applied.
For U-sections formula (6.36) is applied without accounting for warping. In case warping is
activated, the combined section check is replaced by an elastic stress check including
warping stresses which takes into account all shear stress effects. For more information
please refer to Torsion with warping.
For all other supported sections formula (6.37) is applied.

In case of extreme torsion (unity check for torsion > 1,00) the shear resistance will be
reduced to zero which will lead to extreme unity check values.

40

Bending, shear and axial force

The combined section check is verified according to art. 6.2.8, 6.2.9 & 6.2.10
For I sections formulas (6.40) and (6.41) are applied.
For hollow and solid sections formula (6.43) is applied.
For all other supported sections an elastic stress check is performed according to art. 6.2.1
and formula (6.15). The stresses are based on the effective cross-sectional properties and
calculated in the fibres of the gross cross-section.

The plastic interaction for mono-symmetrical sections specified in art. 6.2.9.1 (2) is not
supported. For mono-symmetrical sections the elastic stress check of art. 6.2.1 is
applied.

Localised welds
In case transverse welds are inputted, the extend of the HAZ is calculated as specified in
paragraph Calculation of Reduction factor HAZ for HAZ effects and compared to the least
width of the cross-section.
The reduction factor 0 is then calculated according to art. 6.2.9.3
When the width of a member cannot be determined (Numerical section, tube ) formula
(6.44) is applied.

Since the extend of the HAZ is defined along the member axis, it is important to specify
enough sections on average member in the Solver Setup when transverse welds are
used.

Formula (6.44) is limited to a maximum of 1,00 in the same way as formula (6.64).

Shear reduction
Where VEd exceeds 50% of VRd the design resistances for bending and axial force are
reduced using a reduced yield strength as specified in art. 6.2.8 & 6.2.10.
For Vy the reduction factor y is calculated
For Vz the reduction factor z is calculated
The bending resistance My,Rd is reduced using z
The bending resistance Mz,Rd is reduced using y
The axial force resistance NRd is reduced by using the maximum of y and z

41

Stress check for numerical sections

For numerical sections an elastic stress check is performed according to art. 6.2.1 and
formula (6.15). The stresses are calculated in the following way:

tot
tot

f0

M1
f0
3 M 1

2
2
tot
3 tot
C

tot N My

f0

M1
Mz

tot Vy Vz

With
:

f0

0,2% proof strength

tot
tot
M1
C
N
My
Mz
Vy
Vz
Ax
Ay
Az
Wy
Wz

Total direct stress

Total shear stress
Partial safety factor for resistance of cross-sections
Constant (by default 1,2)
Direct stress due to the axial force
Direct stress due to the bending moment around y axis
Direct stress due to the bending moment around z axis
Shear stress due to shear force in y direction
Shear stress due to shear force in z direction
Sectional area
Shear area in y direction
Shear area in z direction
Elastic section modulus around y axis
Elastic section modulus around z axis

42

Flexural buckling
The flexural buckling check is verified using art. 6.3.1.1.
The value of Aeff is taken as the area A calculated from the reduced shape for N- however
HAZ effects are not accounted for (i.e. HAZ is taken as 1,00).
The value of AHAZ is illustrated on the following figure:

For the calculation of the buckling ratio several methods are available:
o

General formula (standard method)

Crossing Diagonals

From Stability Analysis

o Manual input
These methods are detailed in the following paragraphs.

Calculation of Buckling ratio General Formula

For the calculation of the buckling ratios, some approximate formulas are used. These
formulas are treated in reference [7], [8] and [9].
The following formulas are used for the buckling ratios (Ref[7],pp.21):

For a non-sway structure:

l/L =

(1 2 + 5 1 + 5 2 + 24)(1 2 + 4 1 + 4 2 + 12)2
(2 1 2 + 11 1 + 5 2 + 24)(2 1 2 + 5 1 + 11 2 + 24)

43

For a sway structure:

l/L = x

2
+4
1 x

With:

L
E
I
Ci
Mi
i

x=

System length
Modulus of Young
Moment of inertia
Stiffness in node i
Moment in node i
Rotation in node i

4 1 2 + 2 1

2 (1 + 2) + 8 1 2
CL
i = i
EI
M
i
Ci =
i
The values for Mi and i are approximately determined by the internal forces and the
deformations, calculated by load cases which generate deformation forms, having an
affinity with the buckling shape. (See also Ref.[11], pp.113 and Ref.[12],pp.112).
The following load cases are considered:
load case 1: on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are used,
on the columns the global distributed loads Qx = 10000 N/m and Qy =10000 N/m are used.
load case 2: on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=-1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are
used, on the columns the global distributed loads Qx = -10000 N/m and Qy= -10000 N/m
are used.

In addition, the following limitations apply (Ref[7],pp.21):

- The values of i are limited to a minimum of 0.0001
- The values of i are limited to a maximum of 1000
- The indices are determined such that 1 2
- Specifically for the non-sway case, if 1 1000 and 2 0,34 the ratio l/L is set to 0,7
The used approach gives good results for frame structures with perpendicular rigid or semirigid beam connections. For other cases, the user has to evaluate the presented bucking
ratios. In such cases a more refined approach (from stability analysis) can be applied.

The following rule applies specifically to ky: in case both the calculation for load case 1
and load case 2 return ky = 1,00 then ky is taken as kz. This rule is used to account for
possible rotations of the cross-section.

44

Calculation of Buckling ratio Crossing Diagonals

For crossing diagonal elements, the buckling length perpendicular to the diagonal plane, is
calculated according to Ref.[10], DIN18800 Teil 2, table 15. This means that the buckling
length sK is dependent on the load distribution in the element, and it is not a purely
geometrical data anymore.
In the following paragraphs, the buckling length sK is defined,
With:

sK
L
L1
I
I1

Buckling length
Member length
Length of supporting diagonal
Moment of inertia (in the buckling plane) of the member
Moment of inertia (in the buckling plane) of the supporting
diagonal
Compression force in member
Compression force in supporting diagonal
Tension force in supporting diagonal
Modulus of Young

N
N1
Z
E

Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension

diagonal

l/2

N
l1/2

Z
3 Z l
4 N l1
I1 l3
1
I l13

1
sK l

sK 0.5 l
See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 1.

45

Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned tension diagonal

l/2

N
l1/2

Z
sK l 1 0.75

Zl
N l1

sK 0.5 l
See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 4.

Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal

l/2

N
l1/2

Z
sK 0.5 l
N l1
1
Z l
3 Z l12 N l1
(E I1)d
(
1)
42
Z l
See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 5.

46

Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression

diagonal

N1

l/2

N
l1/2

N1
N1 l
N l1
l
I1 l3
1
I l13
1

sK

sK 0.5 l
See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 2.

Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned compression

diagonal

N1

l/2

N
l1/2

N1

sK

2 N1 l
l 1

12 N l1

See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 3 (2).

47

Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression

diagonal

N1

l/2

N
l1/2

N1
sK 0.5 l
(E I)d

N l1
N l3 2
(

)
2
l1 12
N1

See Ref.[10], Tab. 15, case 3 (3).

Calculation of Buckling ratio From Stability Analysis

When member buckling data from stability are defined, the critical buckling load Ncr for a
prismatic member is calculated as follows:

Ncr N Ed

Using Eulers formula, the buckling ratio k can then be determined:

With:

Critical load factor for the selected stability combination

NEd

Design loading in the member

Modulus of Young

Moment of inertia

Member length

In case of a non-prismatic member, the moment of inertia is taken in the middle of the
element.

48

Torsional (-Flexural) buckling

The Torsional and Torsional-Flexural buckling check is verified using art. 6.3.1.1.
If the section contains only Plate Types F, SO, UO it is regarded as Composed entirely of
radiating outstands. In this case Aeff is taken as A calculated from the reduced shape for
N+(0,HAZ).
In all other cases, the section is regarded as General.
In this case Aeff is taken as A calculated from the reduced shape for N-

The Torsional (-Flexural) buckling check is ignored for sections complying with the
rules given in art. 6.3.1.4 (1).

The value of the elastic critical load Ncr is taken as the smallest of Ncr,T (Torsional buckling)
and Ncr,TF (Torsional-Flexural buckling).

Calculation of Ncr,T
The elastic critical load Ncr,T for torsional buckling is calculated according to Ref.[13].

With:

Modulus of Young

Shear modulus

It

Torsion constant

Iw

Warping constant

lT

Buckling length for the torsional buckling mode

y0 and z0

Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid

iy

radius of gyration about the strong axis

iz

radius of gyration about the weak axis

49

Calculation of Ncr,TF
The elastic critical load Ncr,TF for torsional flexural buckling is calculated according to
Ref.[13].
Ncr,TF is taken as the smallest root of the following cubic equation in N:
0
With:

Ncr,y

Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis

Ncr,z

Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the z-z axis

Ncr,T

Critical axial load for torsional buckling

50

Lateral Torsional buckling

The Lateral Torsional buckling check is verified using art. 6.3.2.1.
For the calculation of the elastic critical moment Mcr the following methods are available:
o

General formula (standard method)

LTBII Eigenvalue solution

Manual input

The Lateral Torsional buckling check is ignored for circular hollow sections according
to art. 6.3.3 (1).

Calculation of Mcr General Formula

For I sections (symmetric and asymmetric) and RHS (Rectangular Hollow Section) sections
the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by the general formula F.2. Annex F Ref.
14. For the calculation of the moment factors C1, C2 and C3 reference is made to the
paragraph "Calculation of Moment factors for LTB".
For the other supported sections, the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by:
Mcr

With:

2 EI

L2

E
G
L
Iw
It
Iz

Iw LGI t
2 EI z
Iz

Modulus of elasticity
Shear modulus
Length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint (=
lLTB)
Warping constant
Torsional constant
Moment of inertia about the minor axis

See also Ref. 15, part 7 and in particular part 7.7 for channel sections.
Composed rail sections are considered as equivalent asymmetric I sections.

51

Diaphragms
When diaphragms (steel sheeting) are used, the torsional constant It is adapted for
symmetric/asymmetric I sections, channel sections, Z sections, cold formed U, C , Z
sections.
See Ref.[16], Chapter 10.1.5., Ref.17,3.5 and Ref.18,3.3.4.
The torsional constant It is adapted with the stiffness of the diaphragms:

l2
2G
1
1

C A ,k C P ,k

I t ,id I t vorhC
1
1

vorhC C M ,k
C M ,k k
C A ,k

EI eff
s

b
C100 a
100

b
C A ,k 1.25 C100 a
100
3 E Is
C P ,k
(h t)
s
Is
12
With:

l
G
vorhC
CM,k
CA,k
CP,k
k

EIeff
s
ba
C100
h
t
s

if b a 125
if 125 b a 200

LTB length
Shear modulus
Actual rotational stiffness of diaphragm
Rotational stiffness of the diaphragm
Rotational stiffness of the connection between the diaphragm and
the beam
Rotational stiffness due to the distortion of the beam
Numerical coefficient
= 2 for single or two spans of the diaphragm
= 4 for 3 or more spans of the diaphragm
Bending stiffness per unit width of the diaphragm
Spacing of the beam
Width of the beam flange (in mm)
Rotation coefficient - see table
Height of the beam
Thickness of the beam flange
Thickness of the beam web

52

53

Calculation of Moment factors for LTB

For determining the moment factors C1 and C2 for lateral torsional buckling, standard tables
are used which are defined in Ref.[19] Art.12.25.3 table 9.1.,10 and 11.
The current moment distribution is compared with several standard moment distributions.
These standard moment distributions are:
o

Moment line generated by a distributed q load

Moment line generated by a concentrated F load

Moment line which has a maximum at the start or at the end of the beam

The standard moment distribution which is closest to the current moment distribution is taken
for the calculation of the factors C1 and C2. These values are based on Ref.[14].
The factor C3 is taken out of the tables F.1.1. and F.1.2. from Ref.[14] - Annex F.

Moment distribution generated by q load

if M2 < 0
*

C1 = A (1.45 B + 1) 1.13 + B (-0.71 A + 1) E

D*
C2 = 0.45 A* [1 + C* e ( + )]
if M2 > 0
*

C1 = 1.13 A + B E
*
C2 = 0.45A
With:

A* =

q l2
8 | M2 | +q l2

B* =

8 | M2 |
8 | M2 | +q l2

D * = -72(

C* =

94 | M2 |

E* = 1.88 - 1.40 + 0.52

ql2

E* < 2.70

| M2 |
ql2

)2

54

Moment distribution generated by F load

F
M1 = Beta M2

M2

M2 < 0
**

**

**

**

**

C1 = A (2.75 B + 1) 1.35 + B (-1.62 A + 1) E

**
** D**
C2 = 0.55 A [1 + C e ( + )]
M2 > 0
**

**

**

C1 = 1.35 A + B E
**
C2 = 0.55 A

A ** =

With:

Fl
4 | M2 | +Fl

B** =

4 | M2 |
4 | M2 | +Fl

38 | M2 |
Fl
| M2 | 2
= -32(
)
Fl

C ** =
D **

**

The values for E can be taken as E from the previous paragraph.

Moment line with maximum at the start or at the end of the beam
M1 = Beta M2

M2

C2 = 0.0
C1 = 1.88 - 1.40 + 0.52 2
and C1 < 2.70

LTBII Eigenvalue solution

For calculation of Mcr using LTBII reference is made to chapter LTBII: Lateral Torsional
Buckling 2nd Order Analysis.

Combined bending and axial compression

The Combined bending and axial compression check is verified using art. 6.3.3.1 & 6.3.3.2.
55

Flexural buckling
For I sections formulas (6.59) and (6.60) are applied.
For solid sections formula (6.60) is applied for bending about either axis.
For hollow sections formula (6.62) is applied.
For all other supported sections formula (6.59) is applied for bending about either axis.

Lateral Torsional buckling

For all sections except circular hollow sections formula (6.63) is applied.
For circular hollow sections the check is ignored according to art. 6.3.3(1).
In case a cross-section is subject to torsional (-flexural) buckling, the reduction factor z is
taken as the minimum value of z for flexural buckling and TF for torsional (-flexural)
buckling.

Localised welds and factors for design section

The HAZ-softening factors are calculated according to art. 6.3.3.3. For sections without
localized welds the reduction factors are calculated according to art. 6.3.3.5.

Members containing localized welds

In case transverse welds are inputted, the extend of the HAZ is calculated as specified in
chapter Calculation of Reduction factor HAZ for HAZ effects and compared to the least
width of the cross-section.
The reduction factors 0, x, xLT are then calculated according to art. 6.3.3.3
When the width of a member cannot be determined (Numerical section, tube ) formula
(6.64) is applied.
The calculation of the distance xs is discussed further in this chapter.

Since the extend of the HAZ is defined along the member axis, it is important to specify
enough sections on average member in the Solver Setup when transverse welds are
used.

In the calculation of xLT the buckling length lc and distance xs are taken for buckling
around the z-z axis.

56

Unequal end moments and/or transverse loads

If the section under consideration is not located in a HAZ zone, the reduction factors x and
xLT are then calculated according to art. 6.3.3.5.
In this case 0 is taken equal to 1,00.
For the calculation of the distance xs reference is made to the following paragraph.

In the calculation of xLT the buckling length lc and distance xs are taken for buckling
around the z-z axis.

Calculation of xs
The distance xs is defined as the distance from the studied section to a simple support or
point of contra flexure of the deflection curve for elastic buckling of axial force only.
By default xs is taken as half of the buckling length for each section. This leads to a
denominator of 1,00 in the formulas of the reduction factors following Ref.[20] and [21].
Depending on how the buckling shape is defined, a more refined approach can be used for
the calculation of xs.
Known buckling shape
The buckling shape is assumed to be known in case the buckling ratio is calculated
according to the General Formula specified in chapter Calculation of Buckling ratio
General Formula. The basic assumption is that the deformations for the buckling load case
have an affinity with the buckling shape.
Since the buckling shape (deformed structure) is known, the distance from each section to
a simple support or point of contra flexure can be calculated. As such xs will be different in
each section. A simple support or point of contra flexure are in this case taken as the
positions where the bending moment diagram for the buckling load case reaches zero.

Since for a known buckling shape xs can be different in each section, accurate results
can be obtained by increasing the numbers of sections on average member in the
Solver Setup.

57

Unknown buckling shape

In case the buckling ratio is not calculated according to the General Formula specified in
chapter Calculation of Buckling ratio General Formula the buckling shape is taken as
unknown. This is thus the case for manual input or if the buckling ratio is calculated from
stability.
When the buckling shape is unknown, xs can be calculated according to formula (6.71):

With:

but xs 0

lc

Buckling length

MEd,1 and MEd,2

Design values of the end moments at the system length of the

member

NEd

Design value of the axial compression force

MRd

Bending moment capacity

NRd

Axial compression force capacity

Reduction factor for flexural buckling

The above specified formula contains the factor in the denominator of the right side of
the equation in accordance with addendum EN 1999-1-1:2007/A1:2009.

Since the formula returns only one value for xs, this value will be used in each section of the
member.
The application of the formula is however limited:
o

The formula is only valid in case the member has a linear moment diagram.

Since the left side of the equation concerns a cosine, the right side has to return a
value between -1,00 and +1,00
If one of the two above stated limitations occur, the formula is not applied and instead xs is taken
as half of the buckling length for each section.

58

Shear buckling
The shear buckling check is verified using art. 6.7.4 & 6.7.6.
Distinction is made between two separate cases:
o

No stiffeners are inputted on the member or stiffeners are inputted only at the
member ends.

Any other input of stiffeners (at intermediate positions, at the ends and intermediate
positions ).

The first case is verified according to art. 6.7.4.1. The second case is verified according to
art. 6.7.4.2.

For shear buckling only transverse stiffeners are supported. Longitudinal stiffeners are
not supported.
In all cases rigid end posts are assumed.

Plate girders with stiffeners at supports

No stiffeners are inputted on the member or stiffeners are inputted only at the member
ends. The verification is done according to art. 6.7.4.1.
The check is executed when the following condition is met:

hw 2,37

tw

With:

E
f0
hw

Web height

tw

Web thickness

Factor for shear buckling resistance in the plastic range

Modulus of Young

f0

0,2% proof strength

The design shear resistance VRd for shear buckling consists of one part: the contribution of
the web Vw,Rd.
The slenderness w is calculated as follows:

w 0,35

hw
tw

f0
E

Using the slenderness w the factor for shear buckling v is obtained from the following
table:

59

In this table, the value of is taken as follows:

With:

fuw Ultimate strength of the web material

f0w Yield strength of the web material

The contribution of the web Vw,Rd can then be calculated as follows:

For interaction see paragraph Interaction.

60

Plate girders with intermediate web stiffeners

Any other input of stiffeners (at intermediate positions, at the ends and intermediate
positions ). The verification is done according to art. 6.7.4.2.
The check is executed when the following condition is met:

With:

hw

Web height

tw

Web thickness

Factor for shear buckling resistance in the plastic range

Shear buckling coefficient for the web panel

Modulus of Young

f0

0,2% proof strength

The design shear resistance VRd for shear buckling consists of two parts: the contribution of
the web Vw,Rd and the contribution of the flanges Vf,Rd.

Contribution of the web

Using the distance a between the stiffeners and the height of the web hw the shear buckling
coefficient k can be calculated:

The value k can now be used to calculate the slenderness w.

61

Using the slenderness w the factor for shear buckling v is obtained from the following
table:

In this table, the value of is taken as follows:

With:
fuw Ultimate strength of the web material
f0w Yield strength of the web material
The contribution of the web Vw,Rd can then be calculated as follows:

Contribution of the flanges

First the design moment resistance of the cross-section considering only the flanges Mf,Rd is
calculated.

When

then Vf,Rd = 0

When

then Vf,Rd is calculated as follows:

With:

bf and tf the width and thickness of the flange leading to the lowest resistance.
On each side of the web.

62

With:

f0f Yield strength of the flange material

f0w Yield strength of the web material

If an axial force NEd is present, the value of Mf,Rd is be reduced by the following factor:

With:

Af1 and Af2 the areas of the top and bottom flanges.

The design shear resistance VRd is then calculated as follows:

For interaction see paragraph Interaction.

63

Interaction
If required, for both above cases the interaction between shear force, bending moment and
axial force is checked according to art. 6.7.6.1.
If

the following two expressions are checked:

With:
Mf,Rd design moment resistance of the cross-section
considering only the flanges
Mpl,Rd Plastic design bending moment resistance
If an axial force NEd is also applied, then Mpl,Rd is replaced by the reduced plastic moment
resistance MN,Rd given by:

With:

Af1 and Af2 the areas of the top and bottom flanges.

64

Scaffolding
The scaffolding member and coupler check are implemented according to EN 12811-1
Ref.[31].
The following paragraphs give detailed information on these checks.

Scaffolding member check for tubular members

The check is executed specifically for circular hollow sections (Form code 3) and
Numerical sections in case the proper setting is activated in the Aluminium Setup.
The check is executed according to Equation 9 given in EN 12811-1 article 10.3.3.2.
However, the EN 12811-1 only gives an interaction equation in case of a low shear force.
Since the EN 12811-1 is based entirely on DIN 4420-1 Teil 1 Ref.[34] the interaction
formulas according to Tabelle 7 of DIN 4420-1 Teil 1 are applied in case of a large shear
force.

The interaction equations are summarised as follows:

Conditions

Interaction for tubular member

and

and

and

and

65

With:

M
V

Npld
Vpld

Mpld
A

Area of the cross-section

Wel

Elastic section modulus

Wpl

Plastic section modulus

Normal force

Vy

Shear force in y direction

Vz

Shear force in z direction

My

Bending moment about the y axis

Mz

Bending moment about the z axis

fy

Yield strength of the material taken as f0 in

case the section is not located in a HAZ
zone and f0,HAZ otherwise.
Safety factor taken as M1 of EN 1999-1-1

As specified in EN 12810 Ref.[33] & 12811 Ref.[31] the scaffolding check for tubular
nd
members assumes the use of a 2 order analysis including imperfections.
In case these conditions are not set the default EN 1999-1-1 check should be applied
instead.

66

Scaffolding coupler check

The scaffolding couplers according to EN 12811-1 Annex C Ref.[31] are provided by
default within Scia Engineer.
The interaction check of the couplers is executed according to EN 12811-1 article 10.3.3.5.
The interaction equations are summarised as follows:
Coupler type

Interaction equation

Right angle coupler

Friction sleeve

With:

Fsk

Characteristic Slipping force

Taken as Nxk and Vzk of the coupler properties
2Fsk = Nxk + Vzk

Fpk

Characteristic Pull-apart force

Taken as Vyk of the coupler properties

MBk

Characteristic Bending moment

Taken as Myk of the coupler properties

Normal force

Vy

Shear force in y direction

Vz

Shear force in z direction

My

Bending moment about the y axis

Safety factor taken as M0 of EN 1993-1-1 for steel couplers
Safety factor taken as M1 of EN 1999-1-1 for aluminium couplers

67

Manufacturer couplers
In addition to the scaffolding couplers listed above, specific manufacturer couplers are
provided within Scia Engineer.
The interaction checks of these couplers are executed according to the respective
validation reports.
Cuplock
The cuplock coupler which connects a ledger and a standard is described in Zulassung Nr.
Z-8.22-208 Ref.[35].
The interaction equations are summarised as follows:
Cuplock Coupler

Interaction equation

Interaction 1

Interaction 2

With:

Nxk

Taken from the coupler properties

Myk

Taken from the coupler properties

Mxk

Taken from the coupler properties

Normal force in the ledger

My

Bending moment about the y axis

Mx

Torsional moment about the x axis

Nv

Normal force in a connecting vertical diagonal

Angle between connecting vertical diagonal and standard

Safety factor taken as M0 of EN 1993-1-1 for steel couplers
Safety factor taken as M1 of EN 1999-1-1 for aluminium
couplers

68

Layher Variante II & K2000+

The Layher coupler which connects a ledger and a standard is described in Zulassung Nr.
Z-8.22-64 Ref.[36]. Both Variante II and Variante K2000+ are provided.
Layher Coupler

Interaction equation

Interaction 1

Variante II:

Variante K2000+:

Interaction 2

With:

NR,d

= Nxk /
With Nxk taken from the coupler properties

My,R,d

= Myk /
With Myk taken from the coupler properties

MT,R,d

= Mxk /
With Mxk taken from the coupler properties

Vz,R,d

= Vzk /
With Vzk taken from the coupler properties

Normal force in the ledger

69

(+)

This index indicates a tensile force

Vy

Shear force in y direction

Vz

Shear force in z direction

My

Bending moment about the y axis

Mx

Torsional moment about the x axis

Nv

Normal force in a connecting vertical diagonal

Angle between connecting vertical diagonal and standard

= 2,75 cm for Variante II

= 3,30 cm for Variante K2000+

eD

= 5,7 cm for Variante II and Variante K2000+

= 1,26 cm for Variante II

= 1,41 cm for Variante K2000+
Safety factor taken as M0 of EN 1993-1-1 for steel couplers
Safety factor taken as M1 of EN 1999-1-1 for aluminium
couplers

70

LTBII: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis

Introduction to LTBII
For a detailed Lateral Torsional Buckling analysis, a link was made to the Friedrich +
Lochner LTBII application Ref.[22].
The Frilo LTBII solver can be used in 2 separate ways:
o

Calculation of Mcr through eigenvalue solution

2 Order calculation including torsional and warping effects

nd

For both methods, the member under consideration is sent to the Frilo LTBII solver and the
respective results are sent back to Scia Engineer.
A detailed overview of both methods is given in the following paragraphs.

Eigenvalue solution Mcr

The single element is taken out of the structure and considered as a single beam, with:
o

Appropriate end conditions for torsion and warping

End and begin forces

Loadings

Intermediate restraints (diaphragms, LTB restraints)

The end conditions for warping and torsion are defined as follows:
Cw_i
Cw_j
Ct_i
Ct_j

Warping condition at end i (beginning of the member)

Warping condition at end j (end of the member)
Torsion condition at end i (beginning of the member)
Torsion condition at end j (end of the member)

To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see paragraph Linked Beams.

71

For this system, the elastic critical moment Mcr for lateral torsional buckling can be analyzed
as the solution of an eigenvalue problem:

Ke Kg 0
With:

Ke
Kg

Critical load factor

Elastic linear stiffness matrix
Geometrical stiffness matrix

For members with arbitrary sections, the critical moment can be obtained in each section,
with: (See Ref.[24],pp.176)

M cr max M yy
M cr x M yy ( x )
With:

Myy
Myy(x)
Mcr(x)

Critical load factor

Bending moment around the strong axis
Bending moment around the strong axis at position x
Critical moment at position x

The calculated Mcr is then used in the Lateral Torsional Buckling check of Scia Engineer.
For more background information, reference is made to Ref.[23].

72

2nd Order analysis

The single element is taken out of the structure and considered as a single beam, with:
o

Appropriate end conditions for torsion and warping

End and begin forces

Loadings

Intermediate restraints (diaphragms, LTB restraints)

Imperfections

To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see paragraph Linked Beams.
For this system, the internal forces are calculated using a 2
calculation.

nd

Order 7 degrees of freedom

The calculated torsional and warping moments (St Venant torque Mxp, Warping torque Mxs
and Bimoment Mw) are then used in the Stress check of Scia Engineer (See chapter
Torsion with warping).
Specifically for this stress check, the following internal forces are used:
o

Normal force from Scia Engineer

Maximal shear forces from Scia Engineer / Frilo LTBII

Maximal bending moments from Scia Engineer / Frilo LTBII

Since Lateral Torsional Buckling has been taken into account in this 2
it is no more required to execute a Lateral Torsional Buckling Check.

nd

Order stress check,

For more background information, reference is made to Ref.[23].

73

Supported Sections
The following table shows which cross-section types are supported for which type of
analysis:
Scia Engineer CSS

Double T

I section from library

Thin walled geometric I
Sheet welded Iw
IPY from library
Thin walled geometric
asymmetric I
Haunched sections
Welded I+Tl
Sheet welded Iwn
HAT Section IFBA, IFBB
U section from library
Thin walled geometric U
Cold formed from library
Cold formed from graphical
input
Welded I+2L

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Sheet welded Iw+2L

Full rectangular from library
Full rectangular from thin walled
geometric
all other double symmetric CSS

x
x
x

all other single symmetric CSS

Double T unequal

U cross section
Thin walled

Double T with top flange

angle
Rectangle

Static values double

symmetric
Static values single
symmetric

Eigenvalue
analysis

nd

FRILO LTBII CSS

2 Order
analysis

The following picture illustrates the relation between the local coordinate system of Scia
Engineer and Frilo LTBII. Special attention is required for U sections due to the inversion of
the y and z-axis.

74

For more information, reference is made to Ref.[23]

Loadings
The following load impulses are supported:
o

Point force in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)

Point force on beam

Line force in beam

Moment in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)

Moment on beam

Line moment in beam (only for Mx in LCS)

The supported load impulses and their eccentricities are transformed into the local LCS of
the exported member.
The dead load is replaced by an equivalent line force on the beam.
Load eccentricities are replaced by torsional moments.
The forces in local x-direction are ignored, except for the torsional moments.

In Frilo LTBII a distinction is made between the centroid and the shear center of a
cross-section. Load impulses which do not pass through the shear center will cause
additional torsional moments.

75

Imperfections
nd

In the 2 Order LTB analysis the bow imperfections v0 (in local y direction) and w0 (in local
z direction) can be taken into account.

v0
y
z

y, v0

Initial bow imperfection v0 according to code

For EC-EN the imperfections can be calculated according to the code. The code indicates
nd
that for a 2 Order calculation which takes into account LTB, only the imperfection v0
needs to be considered.
The sign of the imperfection according to code depends on the sign of Mz in Scia Engineer.
The imperfection is calculated according to Ref.[1] art. 5.3.4(3)

v0 k e0
With

k
e0

Factor taken from National Annex

Bow imperfection of the weak axis

Manual input of Initial bow imperfections v0 and w0

In case the user specifies manual input, both the imperfections v0 and w0 can be inputted.

76

LTB Restraints
LTB restraints are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[23] p22), with horizontal elastic restraint
Cy:
Cy = 1e15 kN/m
The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the LTB restraint
(top/bottom).

The use of an elastic restraint allows the positioning of the restraint since this is not possible
for a fixed restraint. (Ref.[23] p23)
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the
rotation of U-sections in the Frilo LTBII solver (see paragraph Supported Sections).

77

Diaphragms
Diaphragms are transformed into 'Elastic Foundations' of type elastic restraint (Ref.[23]
p25). Both a horizontal restraint Cy and a rotational restraint C are used.

The elastic restraint Cy [kN/m^2] is calculated as follows (Ref.[23] p52 and Ref.26 p40):

Cy S
L
With:

S
L

Shear stiffness of the diaphragm

Diaphragm length along the member

The above formula for Cy is valid in case the bolt pitch of the diaphragm is set as br. For a
bolt pitch of 2br the shear stiffness S is replaced by 0,2 S (Ref.26 p22).

The shear stiffness S for a diaphragm is calculated as follows (Ref.28,3.5 and

Ref.29,3.3.4.):

S=

a. 104
K2
K1 +
Ls

With:

a
Ls
K1
K2

Frame distance
Length of the diaphragm
Factor K1 of the diaphragm
Factor K2 of the diaphragm

The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the diaphragm.
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the
rotation of U-sections in the Frilo LTBII solver (see paragraph Supported Sections).
The rotational restraint C [kNm/m] is taken as vorhC (see paragraph Calculation of Mcr
General Formula).

78

Linked Beams
Linked beams are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[23] p22), with elastic restraint.
The direction of the restraint is dependent on the direction of the linked beam:
If the linked beam has an angle less than 45 with the local y-axis of the beam under
consideration, the restraint is set as Cy. In all other cases the restraint is set as Cz.

The position of the restraint z(Cy) or y(Cz) is depending on the application point of the
linked beam (top/bottom).
The position is only taken into account in case of a flexible restraint (Ref.[23] p23).
The end forces of the linked beam are transformed to point loads on the considered 1D
member,
o

in z -direction for linked beams considered as y-restraint

in y- direction for linked beams considered as z-restraint

Specifically for U-sections, if the linked beam has an angle less than 45 with the local yaxis of the beam under consideration, the restraint is set as Cz. In all other cases the
restraint is set as Cy. This is due to the rotation of U-sections in the Frilo LTBII solver (see
paragraph Supported Sections).

79

Limitations and Warnings

The FRILO LTBII solver is used with following limitations:
o

Only straight members are supported

LTBII analysis is done for the whole 1D member, not for a part of the member, not
for more members together

When a LTB system length is inputted which differs from the member length, a
warning will be given.

Intermediate lateral restraints should be defined through LTB restraints, diaphragms

and linked beams.

During the analysis, the Frilo LTBII solver may return a warning message. The most
important causes of the warning message are listed here.

Eigenvalue solution Mcr

- Lateral Torsional Buckling is not governing relative slenderness < 0,4
Due to the low relative slenderness, no LTB check needs to be performed. In this case it is
not required to use the Frilo LTBII solver.
- Design Torsion! Simplified analysis of lateral torsional buckling is not possible.
Due to the torsion in the member it is advised to execute a 2
eigenvalue calculation.

nd

order analysis instead of an

- Bending of U-section about y-axis!

The program calculates the minimum bifurcation load only.

2nd Order Analysis

- Load is greater then minimum bifurcation load (Error at elastic calculation system is
instable in II.Order )
The loading on the member is too big, a 2

nd

order calculation cannot be executed.

- You want to calculate the structural safety with Elastic-Plastic method. This analytical
procedure cannot be used for this cross-section. It is recommended to use the ElasticElastic method.
Plastic calculation is not possible, use imperfection according to code elastic instead of
plastic.
For more information, reference is made to Ref.[22] and [23].

80

Profile conditions for code check

Introduction to profile characteristics
The standard profile sections have fixed sections properties and dimensions, which have to
be present in the profile library.
The section properties are described in chapter Data for general section stability check".
The required dimension properties are described in chapter "Data depending on the profile
shape.

Data for general section stability check

The following properties have to be present in the profile library for the execution of the
section and the stability check:

Iy

Description
moment of inertia yy

Property number
8

Wy

elastic section modulus yy

10

Sy

statical moment of area yy

Iz

moment of inertia zz

Wz

elastic section modulus zz

11

Sz

statical moment of area zz

It*

torsional constant

14

Wt*

torsional resistance

13

A0

sectional area

Iyz

centrifugal moment

12

iy

radius of gyration yy

iz

radius of gyration zz

Mpy

plastic moment yy

30

Mpz

plastic moment zz

31

fab

fabrication code
0=rolled section (default value)
1=welded section
2=cold formed section

105

The fabrication code is not obligatory.

81

When the section is made out of 1 plate, the properties marked with (*) can be calculated by
the calculation routine in the profile library. When this is not the case, these properties have
to be input by the user in the profile library.
The plastic moments are calculated with a yield strength of 240 N/mm.

Data depending on the profile shape

I section
Formcode
PSS Type

Property
49
48
44
47
66
74
140
61
146
109

1
.I.

Description
H
B
t
s
R
W
wm1
R1

B
t
R1
s
H

w
a

82

RHS
Formcode
PSS Type

2
.M.

Property
49
48
67
66

Description
H
B
s
R

109

H
s

83

CHS
Formcode
PSS Type

3
.RO.

Property
64
65

Description
D
s

109

84

Angle section
Formcode
PSS Type

4
.L.

Property
49
48
44
61
66

Description
H
B
t
R1
R

74
75
76

W1
W2
W3

109

R1

w2
w1

w2

w1

w3

85

Channel section
Formcode
PSS Type

5
.U.

Property
49
48
44
47
66

Description
H
B
t
s
R

68
41
61
146

R1

109

R1

H
s
a

R
t

86

T section
Formcode
PSS Type

6
.T.

Property
49
48
44
47
66
61
62
146
147

Description
H
B
t
s
R
R1
R2
1
2

109

R2
s
a2

H
t
R

R1
a1

87

Full rectangular section

Formcode
PSS Type

7
.B.

Property
48
67

Description
B
H

109

88

Full circular section

Formcode
PSS Type

11
.RU.

Property
64

Description
D

109

11

89

Asymmetric I section
Formcode
PSS Type

101

Property
49
48
44
47
42
43
45
46
66

Description
H

s
Bt
Bb
tt
tb
R

109

101

Bt
tt

H
tb
R

Bb

90

Z section
Formcode
PSS Type

102
.Z.

Property
49
48
44
47
67
61

Description
H
B
t
s
R
R1

109

102

H
s
R1

R
t

91

General cold formed section

Each section is considered as a composition of rectangular parts. Each part represents a

plate unit which is considered as element for defining the effective width. The start and end
parts are considered as un-stiffened elements, the intermediate parts are considered as
stiffened parts.
This way of definition of the section assumes that the area is concentrated at its centre line.
The rounding in the corners is ignored.
Description
form code
Dy*
Dz*
CM*
buckling curve around yy axis
buckling curve around zz axis
buckling curve for LTB

Property number
109
22
23
26
106
107
108

Value
110

(1)
(1)
(1)

(1) The values for the buckling curves are defined as follows :
1 = buckling curve a
2 = buckling curve b
3 = buckling curve c
4 = buckling curve d
The conditions are that the section is an open profile. Only the geometry commands O, L,
N, A may be used in the geometry description.
When the section is made out of 1 plate, the properties marked with (*) can be calculated by
the calculation routine in the profile library. The properties from the reduced section can be
calculated by the code check.
When the section is made out of more than 1 plate, the properties marked with (*) can NOT
be calculated by the calculation routine in the profile library. The properties from the

92

reduced section can be calculated, except for the marked properties. These properties have
to be input by the user in the profile library.
Formcode
PSS Type

110

Property
44
61
48
142
143
68

Description
s
r
B
sp
e2
H

109

110

Remark:
r is rounding, special for KLS section (Voest Alpine)
sp is number of shear planes
e2

s
H

93

Cold formed angle section

Formcode
PSS Type

111

Property
44
61
48

Description
s
r
B

68

109

111

H
s

94

Cold formed channel section

Formcode
PSS Type

112

Property
44
61
48

Description
s
r
B

49

109

112

H
s

95

Cold formed Z section

Formcode
PSS Type

113

Property
44
61
48

Description
s
r
B

49

109

113

H
s

96

Cold formed C section

Formcode
PSS Type

114

Property
44
61
48

Description
s
r
B

49
68

H
c

109

114

H
s

97

Cold formed Omega section

Formcode
PSS Type

115

Property
44
61
48

Description
s
r
B

49
42

H
c

109

115

H
s
R

98

Rail type KA
Formcode
PSS Type

150
.KA.

Property
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
61
62
63
158
159
160

Description
h1
h2
h3
b1
b2
b3
k
f1
f2
f3
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
a

109

150
k
r1

h2

h3
b3
r3

r2

h1
r4

f2
f3

f1

r5
b2
b1

99

Rail type KF
Formcode
PSS Type

151
.KF.

Property
48
154
49
153
155
157
148
149
61
62
63

Description
b
k
h
b3
f1
f3
h1
h2
r1
r2
r3

109

151

r1

h1

h2

r2

h
r2

f3
r2

r2

f1
r3
b3
b

100

Rail type KQ
Formcode
PSS Type

152
.KQ.

Property
48
154
49
153
155
149
150
61

Description
b
k
h
b3
f1
h2
h3
r1

109

152

k
r1
h3
h2

f1

b3
b

101

References
1

Eurocode 9
Design of aluminum structures
Part 1 - 1 : General structural rules
EN 1999-1-1:2007

[2]

TALAT Lecture 2301

Design of members
European Aluminium Association
T. Hglund, 1999.

[3]

Stahl im Hochbau
14. Auglage Band I/ Teil 2
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Dsseldorf 1986

[4]

Kaltprofile
3. Auflage
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Dsseldorf 1982

[5]

Dietrich von Berg

Krane und Kranbahnen Berechnung Konstruktion Ausfhrung
B.G. Teubner, Stuttgart 1988

[6]

C. Petersen
Stahlbau : Grundlagen der Berechnung und baulichen Ausbildung von
Stahlbauten
Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig 1988

[7]

Handleiding moduul STACO VGI

Staalbouwkundig Genootschap
Staalcentrum Nederland
5684/82

[8]

Newmark N.M. A simple approximate formula for effective end-fixity of

columns
J.Aero.Sc. Vol.16 Feb.1949 pp.116

[9]

Stabiliteit voor de staalconstructeur

uitgave Staalbouwkundig Genootschap

[10]

DIN18800 Teil 2
Stahlbauten : Stabilittsflle, Knicken von Stben und Stabwerken
November 1990

[11]

Rapportnr. BI-87-20/63.4.3360
Controleregels voor lijnvormige constructie-elementen
IBBC Maart 1987

[12]

Staalconstructies TGB 1990

Basiseisen en basisrekenregels voor overwegend statisch belaste
constructies
NEN 6770, december 1991

102

[13]

SN001a-EN-EU
NCCI: Critical axial load for torsional and flexural torsional buckling
modes
Access Steel, 2006
www.access-steel.com

[14]

Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
ENV 1993-1-1:1992

[15]

R. Maquoi
ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTIONS METALLIQUE
Ulg , Facult des Sciences Appliques, 1988

[16]

ENV 1993-1-3:1996
Eurocode 3 : Design of steel structures
Part 1-3 : General rules
Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
CEN 1996

[17]

E. Kahlmeyer
Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
Werner-Verlag, Dsseldorf

[18]

Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
Erluterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Kln 1993
Staalconstructies TGB 1990
Stabiliteit
NEN 6771 - 1991

[19]

[20]

A Gerhsi, R. Landolfo, F.M. Mazzolani (2002)

Design of Metallic cold formed thin-walled members
Spon Press, London, UK

[21]

G. Valtinat (2003)
Aluminium im Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau
Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Germany

[22]

Frilo LTBII software

nd
Friedrich + Lochner Lateral Torsional Buckling 2 Order Analysis
Biegetorsionstheorie II.Ordnung (BTII)
http://www.frilo.de

[23]

Friedrich + Lochner LTBII Manual

BTII Handbuch
Revision 1/2006

[24]

J. Meister
Nachweispraxis Biegeknicken und Biegedrillknicken
Ernst & Sohn, 2002

103

[25]

Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005

[26]

J. Schikowski
Stabilisierung von Hallenbauten unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der
Scheibenwirkung von Trapez- und Sandwichelementdeckungen, 1999
http://www.jschik.de/

[27]

DIN 18800 Teil 2

Stahlbauten
Stabilittsflle, Knicken von Stben und Stabwerken
November 1990

[28]

E. Kahlmeyer
Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
Werner-Verlag, Dsseldorf

[29]

Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
Erluterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Kln 1993

[30]

EN 1999-1-1:2007/A1:2009
Addendum to EN 1999-1-1:2007
Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium structures
Part 1-1: General structural rules
CEN, 2009

[31]

EN 12811-1
Temporary works equipment
Part 1: Scaffolds performance requirements and general design
2004

[32]

EN 12810-1
Faade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
Part 1: Products specifications
2004

[33]

EN 12810-2
Faade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
Part 2: Particular methods of structural design
2004

[34]

DIN 4420 Teil 1

Arbeits- und Schutzgerste
Allgemeine Regelungen, Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen,
Prfungen
Dezember 1990

[35]

Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-208

Modulsystem "CUPLOK"
Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik, 2006.

104

[36]

Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-64

Modulsystem "Layher-Allround"
Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik, 2008.

105