vol. 3 no.

SPORTS HEALTH

[ Sports Physical Therapy ]

Impact Forces of Plyometric Exercises

Performed on Land and in Water
Orna A. Donoghue, PhD* Hirofumi Shimojo, MSc and Hideki Takagi, PhD
Background: Aquatic plyometric programs are becoming increasingly popular because they provide a less stressful alternative to land-based programs. Buoyancy reduces the impact forces experienced in water.
Purpose: To quantify the landing kinetics during a range of typical lower limb plyometric exercises performed on land
and in water.
Study Design: Crossover design.
Methods: Eighteen male participants performed ankle hops, tuck jumps, a countermovement jump, a single-leg vertical jump, and a drop jump from 30 cm in a biomechanics laboratory and in a swimming pool. Land and underwater force
plates (Kistler) were used to obtain peak impact force, impulse, rate of force development, and time to reach peak force for
the landing phase of each jump.
Results: Significant reductions were observed in peak impact forces (33%-54%), impulse (19%-54%), and rate of force
development (33%-62%) in water compared with land for the majority of exercises in this study (P < 0.05).
Conclusions: The level of force reduction varies with landing technique, water depth, and participant height and body
composition.
Clinical Relevance: This information can be used to reintroduce athletes to the demands of plyometric exercises after
injury.
Keywords: aquatic; landing kinetics; jumping; ground reaction force; injury

ower extremity plyometric exercises are commonly used

by athletes to develop explosive speed, strength, and
power.3 They involve stretch-shortening cycle activity,
where eccentric muscle contraction is quickly followed by
concentric contraction of the same muscle (or muscles).
During the eccentric phase (prestretch), the musculotendinous
unit is stretched, which stores elastic energy, and the muscle
spindles activate the stretch reflex.32 Potach and Chu32 suggested
that both these mechanisms are responsible for increased
muscle recruitment, which allows force production to be
maximized during the concentric action. Plyometric training
can enhance jumping performance22 and improve balance and
neuromuscular control during landing.29,30
Plyometric drills may include jumps, hops, bounds, or shock
drills, which vary in intensity,26 and training often involves
repeated maximum efforts. The eccentric activity and high

forces generated in plyometric training are also associated with

injuries such as patellar tendinopathy.6,32 Typically, the intensity
of an exercise increases with greater ground reaction force
(GRF), when jumping up or down from a higher height, and
during single-leg exercises.7 Consequently, landing impacts, joint
reaction forces, eccentric rate of force development (RFD), and
muscle activity are important factors in assessing intensity.8,11,19,20
Only a limited number of studies have compared the intensities
of a range of plyometric exercises.19,20
The majority of plyometric training sessions take place on
land. However, there is increasing interest in aquatic-based
exercise because this environment provides both physiological
and psychological benefits,21 has similar performance effects as
land-based training,23,25,33 and may be useful in rehabilitation
and injury prevention. The effects of gravity are reduced in
water because of buoyancy of the body and the increased

From the Institute of Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom, and Institute of Health and Sports Sciences,
University of Tsukuba, Japan
*Address correspondence to Orna A. Donoghue, Moray House School of Education, University of Edinburgh, St Leonards Land, Holyrood Road, EH8 8AQ Edinburgh,
United Kingdom (e-mail: orna.donoghue@ed.ac.uk).
No potential conflict of interest declared.
DOI: 10.1177/1941738111403872
2011 The Author(s)
303

Donoghue et al

density of water compared to air.21 The percentage of

weightbearing decreases with greater immersion; an individual
standing in water to the level of the xiphoid process will bear
approximately 28% to 35% body weight (BW), depending on
sex.36,38 Percentage weightbearing will increase with activity
(walking) and increasing speed of movement.14,21
Research comparing GRF in water and on land has mainly
focused on walking.1,34 The reduced impact forces in water
are due to slower walking speeds and reduction in apparent
BW.1 Jumping is more dynamic, with substantial vertical
displacements and movement of the limbs in and above the
water. The buoyancy force controls the downward movement
of the body, thus reducing impact forces and joint loading
while assisting the upward concentric phase of a jump.
Previous studies have highlighted the need for research to
examine the landing kinetics of aquatic-based plyometric
exercises.25 To date, 2 studies have shown a reduction in
GRF during double-leg and single-leg squat jumps in water
compared to land.4,39 The reduction in impact loading can be
used to guide the design of training programs. The aim of
this study was to quantify the landing kinetics in a range of
plyometric exercises performed on land and in water.

Materials and Methods

Experimental Design
A repeated measures crossover design was used to determine
landing kinetics during jumping exercises on land and in
water. The dependent variables included normalized peak
GRF, impulse, RFD, and time to reach peak GRF for the
landing phase of each jump.
Participants
Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Tsukuba
ethics committee before commencement of this study. Eighteen
male national swimmers from the university swimming team
volunteered to take part in the study and provided written
informed consent before their participation (age, 23 1.9 years;
height, 1.76 0.06 m; weight, 71.7 6.9 kg; body fat, 20.8
2.5%). They completed a land-based familiarization session
within the week before data collection, during which jumping
exercises were demonstrated, teaching points were outlined,
and participants practiced the techniques.
Instrumentation
Land testing took place in a biomechanics lab, with room
temperature recorded as 30.4C. All jump landings (land
and water) used a piezoelectric force plate (9281E, Kistler,
Winterthur, Switzerland) with dimensions of 400 600 mm
and operating at 2000 Hz. Signals from each force plate
sensor were recorded and sent to the force plate amplifier
(9865E1Y28, Kistler). These analog voltage signals were
converted to digital data with a Powerlab 16/30 ML880 system
and Chart 5.5.6 (AD Instruments, Nagoya, Japan).
304

May Jun 2011

Kinetic data for the aquatic jumps were obtained with a

portable underwater force plate (9253B11, Kistler) operating
at 2000 Hz. The force plate was on the floor of the pool,
embedded into a specially designed platform to provide a
large area of uniform height (Figure 1). Water temperature and
water depth were maintained at 27.5C and 1.3 m. Based on
the average height of the participants and anthropometric data
provided by Drillis and Contini,41 this corresponded to a water
depth of approximately 3 cm below the xiphoid process when
participants were standing upright. Participants stood on a box
for drop jumps; therefore, initial water depth was lower.
Testing Procedures
Testing sessions. Testing took place on 2 separate days, with
a minimum of 4 days between sessions to avoid fatigue and
muscle soreness. Participants completed the land testing first,
followed by water testing. The intention was to randomize the
order in which testing was completed; however, because of
equipment availability, this was not possible. All participants
wore swimming shorts and Ryk Hydro Step aqua shoes
(Ryk, Aliso Viejo, California) for land and water testing. A
general warm-up (jogging, stretching) took place before each
session. Plyometric exercises included ankle hops, tuck jumps,
a countermovement jump, a single-leg vertical jump in place
with the dominant leg, and a drop jump from a height of 30 cm
(Table 1). Participants were instructed to maintain hands on hips
to control for arm contribution and to jump for maximum height
in all exercises. All participants were allowed several practice
trials before data were collected for 1 trial (with accurate foot
placement and correct technique). All exercises were singleeffort jumps, except ankle hops and tuck jumps, where the
average of 3 contacts were used for data analysis.
Data analysis. Force-time traces obtained from each jump
landing were analyzed with Chart software (AD Instruments).
For the drop jump, the second landing after the jump was
analyzed. Contact periods were defined by the frames in
which force exceeded 10 N. Initial contact on the underwater
force plate was more difficult to identify because there was a
prolonged and gradual increase in vertical force, followed by a
more definite increase (Figure 2). The slope of the force-time
trace was calculated for successive data points. A subjectively
chosen threshold value of 10 000 newtons (N) was used to
identify the point where this substantial increase in force and,
hence, landing occurred. This method was accurate to 0.02
seconds when compared to landing identified from video
recordings obtained at 50 Hz.
Several measures describe the landings, including peak GRF
during landing (normalized to BW), landing impulse, RFD, and
time to reach peak GRF. BW was obtained during stance on
the force plate before data collection. In water, this value was
called apparent BW (BW minus the upward effect of buoyancy).
All exercises except single-leg vertical jump involved landing
on both legs; therefore, GRF was absorbed by both legs. A

vol. 3 no. 3

SPORTS HEALTH

Figure 1. Force plate embedded in a platform on the floor of the swimming pool.

Table 1. Plyometric exercises, intensity, and instructions for performance.a

Plyometric
Exercise

Intensity
Level

Description

Ankle hops

Low

Stand with feet shoulder-width apart. Begin with a slight countermovement;

hop up with movement primarily at ankle joints; repeat immediately on
landing.

Countermovement
jumps

Low

Stand with feet shoulder-width apart. Begin with a countermovement;

explosively jump up for maximum height.

Tuck jumps

Medium

Stand with feet shoulder-width apart. Begin with a countermovement;

explosively jump up, pulling knees to the chest; repeat immediately on
landing.

Single-leg vertical
jump

High

Stand on 1 leg. Begin with a countermovement; explosively jump up for

maximum height.

Drop jump

High

Stand with feet shoulder-width apart on a box 30 cm high. Step off without
any upward movement. Upon landing, immediately jump up as high as
possible.

Adapted from Potach and Chu.32

rough estimation of load absorbed by each leg (assuming equal

distribution between the legs) can be obtained by dividing the
GRF by 2. Landing impulse was obtained by integrating the

normalized force-time curve from initial contact on landing

until vertical force returned to BW. RFD was calculated as peak
normalized GRF, divided by time from initial landing to this peak.
305

Donoghue et al

May Jun 2011

Figure 2. Force-time trace when performing a countermovement jump on land and in water.

Table 2. Peak ground reaction force during landing, normalized to body weight: Mean SD.
Land

Water

Difference, %
(Range)

Statistical Result

Ankle hops

5.50 0.94

3.68 0.58*

33 (19-51)

P < 0.01, d = 2.33

Tuck jumps

5.00 1.06

2.47 0.59*

51 (24-66)

P < 0.01, d = 3.28

Countermovement jump

6.77 1.40

4.04 1.52*

40 (7-77)

P < 0.01, d = 1.87

Single-leg vertical jump

4.32 0.55

1.99 0.54*

54 (25-83)

P < 0.01, d = 4.25

Drop jump

6.57 1.40

4.05 1.02*

38 (-12-57)

P < 0.01, d = 2.06

*Significant difference between land and water conditions (P < 0.05).

Statistical analysis. Statistical analysis used PASW Statistics 17.

data were checked for skewness and kurtosis while normality
was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilks test. Data that violated
these assumptions were transformed using square root and log
transformations. Data for each exercise were then analyzed
using separate repeated measures analyses of variance with 1
within-subjects factor (condition: 2 levels, land and
water). Significance level was set at P < 0.05. Effect sizes
(Cohens d) were calculated with the following formula: effect
size = (1 2) / SDpooled, where 1 and 2 represent the means
in each condition and where SDpooled was calculated as [(SD12
+ SD22)/2]. Interpretation of effect sizes was based on Hopkins
criteria, where 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, and > 2.0 represented small,
medium, large, and very large effect sizes, respectively.16
Data that remained in violation of the normality assumptions
after transformation were analyzed using nonparametric
statistics. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test was carried out for
landing impulse during countermovement jump and drop
jump landings and for RFD and time to peak GRF during
tuck jumps. Effect sizes were calculated as r = z /N, where
z represents the z score from the PASW output and where
N represents the number of observations.10,35
306

Results
Peak impact forces on land varied from 4.32 to 6.77 BW, whereas
aquatic values varied from 1.99 to 4.05 BW (Table 2). These
represented significant reductions in water (33%-54%) with large
or very large effect sizes (P < 0.05, d 1.87). Estimated GRF on
each leg was 2.50 to 4.32 BW on land and 1.24 to 2.02 BW in
water (Figure 3). On land, there were clear differences in GRF
among exercises, with the highest value observed for single-leg
vertical jump. However, during aquatic jumps, GRF was almost
identical for all exercises except tuck jumps (the lowest).
Impulse was significantly reduced (19%-54%) in water for all
exercises (P < 0.05) (Table 3). Effect sizes were large or very
large for all exercises except countermovement jump and drop
jump, which had moderate effect sizes. Variation in responses
was evident in 3 exercises (ankle hops, countermovement
jump, drop jump) with one participant displaying increased
landing impulse.
RFD was significantly reduced (33%-62%) in water for ankle
hops, tuck jumps, and the countermovement jump (Table 4).
Effect sizes were large for the countermovement jump and
moderate for ankle hops and tuck jumps.

vol. 3 no. 3

SPORTS HEALTH

Table 3. Landing impulses, N per second: Mean SD.

Land

Water

Difference, %
(Range)

Statistical Result

Ankle hop

273 33

224 47*

19 (21, 49)

P < 0.01, d = 1.21

Tuck jump

339 32

245 32*

29 (11, 45)

P < 0.01, d = 2.97

Countermovement jump

215 32

143 37*

34 (20, 69)

P < 0.01, r = 0.87

Single-leg vertical jump

161 20

75 29*

54 (25, 95)

P < 0.01, d = 3.48

Drop jump

195 24

134 24*

30 (10, 49)

P < 0.01, r = 0.86

*Significant difference between land and water conditions (P < 0.05).

Figure 3. Estimated normalized peak ground reaction force

absorbed on each leg (mean standard deviation).

Peak GRF occurred significantly later in tuck jumps and

countermovement jump but earlier in single-leg vertical jump
when jumping in water (Table 5). Effect sizes were moderate
for tuck jumps and the countermovement jump and large for
the single-leg vertical jump.

Discussion
When landing from plyometric jumps, the body is exposed to
high-impact loading, which leads to compression of the spine12
and lower extremities. This study confirmed that peak GRF and
impulse were significantly reduced (33%-54% and 19%-54%,
respectively) when performing these jumping exercises in water.
This is consistent with previous research that found reductions
of 45% and 59% in peak GRF during single- and double-leg
squat jumps in water at the level of the xiphoid process.4,39
During impact activities, the body is exposed to forces that
may have passive and active components. Passive impact
forces occur quickly, within the first 10 milliseconds during
jump landings.17 The muscles of the lower extremity need

approximately 50 to 75 milliseconds to respond to the landing

stimulus and absorb the energy associated with impact;
therefore, passive forces are not under neuromuscular control.
High-magnitude impact forces and high rates of loading
have been linked to injury.9,18 Active forces occur over a
longer period and represent the role of the muscles in force
development.31
In this study, peak landing GRF occurred after 50
milliseconds in all exercises except the single-leg vertical jump
in water; it also occurred significantly later in tuck jumps and
the countermovement jump in water compared to on land. In
addition, RFD was significantly reduced in ankle hops, tuck
jumps, and countermovement jump in water. The tuck jump
is the only jump where the knees and hips are flexed during
the flight phase, thereby requiring extension in preparation for
landing. In water, this less streamlined body position increases
the lower limb surface area before contact, which increases
drag forces as well as encountering buoyancy resistance.
Muscle preactivation is also possible during exercises that
involve single and repeated impacts24; it may have contributed
to the reduced impact forces by allowing the neuromuscular
system to prepare for landing. Peak GRF occurred quite early
during the single-leg vertical jump in water, which differs from
previous research.39 This was unexpected because buoyancy
and increased resistance should reduce the speed at which
impact forces develop.
Single-leg exercises tend to be sport specific but are high
intensity and consequently require a high level of lower limb
strength. The estimated loads absorbed on each leg during
double-leg exercises on land were less than those observed for
the single-leg vertical jump, which supports previous research
(R. Jensen et al, 2008).21 When performed in water, the singleleg vertical jump resulted in similar impact forces as other
exercises. The reductions in the majority of landing kinetic
measures support the lower impact aquatic environment as
being less stressful, thereby suggesting that single-leg exercises
may be tolerated in a water training program earlier than in a
land-based equivalent.
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Donoghue et al

May Jun 2011

Table 4. Rate of force development, body weight per second: Mean SD.
Land

Water

Difference, %
(Range)

Statistical Result

Ankle hops

81 32

54 24*

33 (19-51)

P < 0.01, d = 0.96

Tuck jumps

69 22

26 34*

62 (24-66)

P < 0.01, r = 0.76

Countermovement jump

134 48

68 30*

50 (7-77)

P < 0.01, d = 1.68

Single-leg vertical jump

88 24

123 88

26 (25-83)

P = 0.31, d = 0.36

120 43

101 43

20 (-12-57)

P = 0.06, d = 0.57

Drop jump

*Significant difference between land and water conditions (P < 0.05).

Table 5. Time to reach peak ground reaction forces, seconds: Mean SD.
Exercise

Land

Water

Statistical Result

Ankle hop

0.074 0.017

0.079 0.028

P = 0.30, d = 0.22

Tuck jump

0.077 0.026

0.201 0.114*;

P < 0.01, r = 0.76

Countermovement jump

0.054 0.011

0.064 0.013*

P = 0.04, d = 0.86

Single-leg vertical jump

0.051 0.009

0.029 0.021*

P < 0.01, d = 1.54

Drop jump

0.058 0.012

0.050 0.021

P = 0.12, d = 0.47

*Significant difference between land and water conditions (P < 0.05).

This has implications for how aquatic plyometrics can be

used in rehabilitation from injury. Land running (although
speed dependent) typically involves peak forces of 2 to 3 BW
absorbed on a single leg,2 which is comparable with forces
observed in these water-based exercises. Therefore, aquatic
plyometrics represent a logical progression that can be used
after running but before reintroducing full-effort land-based
plyometrics, which would allow the appropriate movement
patterns to be reestablished while using the cushioning
properties of water and reducing the risk of aggravating the
injury. As plyometric exercises involve repeated landings, the
number of foot contacts and sessions should be considered
when designing a training program.34
GRFs measured during land- and water-based exercises
in this study were higher than those obtained for similar
exercises in previous studies (R. Jensen et al, unpublished data,
2008).20,40,41 Despite clear reductions in peak GRF, impulse,
and RFD in most aquatic plyometric exercises, the level of
reduction showed substantial individual variation, partly
attributed to water depth, participant height, body composition,
and landing techniques. Koury22 and Miller27 recommended
water of waist height for aquatic plyometrics, suggesting that
308

deeper water may impair control and coordination, making

it more difficult to maintain stability in an upright position,
decreasing the stretch-shortening cycle reaction time, and
increasing drag due to arm swing through the water. Existing
research on water-based plyometric programs have used
approximate water depths of chest,24,28,34 waist,26,28,29 and knee
levels.38 In this study, water depth was fixed at 1.3 m, which
reduced the selected kinetic measures by as much as 62% of
that typically experienced during land-based plyometrics.
Previous studies used participants with plyometric
experience.4,20,40,41 Given the inexperience of the participants
in the current study, variation in jumping and landing
strategies was expected. Roesler et al35 found that positioning
the limbs above water during walking affected vertical GRF.
Therefore, arm position was standardized in this study (on
hips). Landing technique (eg, rearfoot, forefoot, or preferred)
can affect joint kinematics,5 and it may also alter loading. Stiff
landings have less joint flexion and typically present high
RFD, which is thought to place the individual at greater risk
of injury.11 Training that focuses on correct neuromuscular
control and appropriate sagittal and frontal plane alignment are
important factors in reducing injury risk5,15 and can decrease

vol. 3 no. 3

landing forces.15 Given the kinetic and kinematic differences

consistently observed between men and women during
landing tasks,13 it would be interesting to examine potential sex
differences between land- and water-based plyometrics.

Conclusions
Aquatic plyometric exercises are associated with reductions of
up to 62% in peak impact forces, impulse, and RFD compared
with their land-based equivalents. The level of reduction may
be influenced by jumping and landing technique, water depth,
and participant height and body composition.

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