DESIGN

OF AN AERODYNAMIC
SHELL ECO-MARATHON
VEHICLE BODY

Alessandra Miras Fernandez

HAN Faculty of Automotive Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As an international student in exchange for a year at the HAN University of Applied
Sciences, it is my pleasure to present this technical report as a demonstration of my
achievements during my stay in this school. However, more important than to
notice what I could accomplish is to notice that nothing would have been possible
without the help and advice of many special people.
Therefore, I would like to thank Mr. Voortman for his guidance as my student
counsellor, Mr. Horn for following closely my journey the whole year, helping me
several times and always showing me kindness and patience (specially patience!),
and Mr. Zwart for his valuable classes and always clever advisory during the
developing of this project.
I would also like to thank the always friendly and helpful members of the HAN
Hydromotive team, who received me in their group as an all-time member since the
first day, for making themselves available to answer all my questions, for trying
their best to make me comfortable all the time, and for allowing me to be part of a
great experience with them during the Shell Eco-marathon Europe 2015 in
Rotterdam.
My heartfelt thanks goes to my friends and fellow students Quintin Pet and Jelle Den
Blaauwen, who made this project possible by helping me in the critical times and
sharing their knowledge with me in the kindest way. A special thanks to my fellow
international students Matheus Alves and Carolina Bai, for all the support, incentive
and productive debates during this project.
Generally, I would like to thank all the staff working for the HAN, for the UFABC, and
for the Science Without Borders program, for giving me this amazing learning
opportunity.
Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues, friends and family, for supporting me on
the idea of coming to the Netherlands in an exchange program, and to Wayne
Tammer and his family, who received me so well and gave me a home away from
home.

PREFACE
The Shell Eco-Marathon is an annual competition held around the world, sponsored
and promoted by Shell, that embraces the challenges raised by energy use in the
personal transportation sector as it requires of its participants to be on the edge of
innovation to build vehicles capable of achieving the highest possible fuel efficiency.
The events history stretches back over seventy years: starting as a simple
scientists bet, now it is the environment for official world records.
Seeking to be part of this history, the faculty of automotive engineering of the
Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen founded the HAN Hydromotive: a highly
motivated team, with professors and students working together to develop and
research on hydrogen fuel cells and compete with a hydrogen vehicle in the Urbanconcept class of the Shell Eco-Marathon.
Along the years, different vehicles have been designed and built by the HAN
Automotive students in the team. One outstanding model is the Arval Inspire II,
which further than being 3rd place in the Shell Eco Marathon Europe 2014,
overcame the challenge of being road legal. To have a license plate is a great
achievement, specially performing so well during the competition, but it also brings
the downside of keeping the vehicle from performing its most as security items end
up compromising the lightweight and aerodynamic body design.
As the challenge of being road legal and also in the top 3 of most fuel efficient
vehicles in its class is achieved, the team now wants to build a new car for the
future Shell Eco-Marathon years. Free of the obligation of being road legal, this
vehicle will be developed thinking only on the highest possible performance for fuel
efficiency.
The focus of this project then is to design the new vehicles body thinking only on its
aerodynamic performance. Parameters as frontal area and drag coefficient will be
compared to the existing vehicle and other concepts to enhance the improvement
achieved.
A more aerodynamic body reflects in less fuel consumption as it lowers the forces
opposing to the vehicles movement. The tractive force supplied by the engine is
employed in overcoming these forces, which include the aerodynamic drag.
Therefore, less drag requires less power. Aerodynamic forces can contribute up to
near 40% of the total required power in normal driving conditions.
This project, when completed, will give other students the opportunity to work on
the vehicles body by validating the design through wind tunnel testing of a scale
model, evaluating the forces acting on the body through finite element analysis,
3

choosing its materials and productions methods and also integrating the vehicles
body to other vehicles systems.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements.................................................................................................... 2
Preface....................................................................................................................... 3
Table of contents........................................................................................................ 4
Introduction................................................................................................................ 6
1

Literature Review................................................................................................. 7
1.1

Basic fluid mechanics.................................................................................... 7

1.2

General principles of aerodynamics...............................................................9

1.3

Vehicle aerodynamics..................................................................................10

1.3.1

Aerodynamic drag................................................................................. 11

1.3.2

Drag area............................................................................................... 12

1.4
2

Body Structure................................................................................................... 14
2.1

Defining the vehicle architecture.................................................................14

2.2

Defining the target parameters...................................................................15

2.3

Design constraints....................................................................................... 16

2.4

The topological model..................................................................................17

Body Design....................................................................................................... 18
3.1

Preliminary Design Hard Points.................................................................18

3.2

Shape design A few concepts....................................................................19

3.3

Flow simulations.......................................................................................... 21

3.3.1

Tools...................................................................................................... 21

3.3.2

Settings................................................................................................. 22

3.3.3

Results................................................................................................... 22

3.4
4

Aerodynamics and fuel consumption...........................................................12

The optimum body shape............................................................................26

Body Detailing.................................................................................................... 28
4.1

Simulations settings..................................................................................... 28

4.2

Nose shape.................................................................................................. 31

4.3

Surface roughness and skin friction.............................................................33

4.4

Trailing-edge thickness................................................................................33

4.5

Junctions and interference drag...................................................................37

4.6

Ground clearance and camber.....................................................................38

4.7

Mirrors.......................................................................................................... 40

4.8

Openings and gaps...................................................................................... 40

4.9

Wheel fairings and floor............................................................................... 42

Final Body........................................................................................................... 45

Successful real world examples.........................................................................49

Future steps....................................................................................................... 50

Conclusion.......................................................................................................... 50

References................................................................................................................ 51
Appendices............................................................................................................... 52
A.

List of symbols and useful relationships......................................................52

B.

Shell Eco-marathon Europe 2015 Urban Class rules..................................52

C.

Plan of approach.......................................................................................... 52

D.

Simulation reports........................................................................................ 52

E.

Contact information..................................................................................... 52

INTRODUCTION
Along the years, different hydrogen-powered vehicles have been designed and built by the
HAN Automotive students in the HAN Hydromotive team to compete in the Urban Concept
class of the Shell Eco-marathon. The Urban Concept class requires that the vehicle shows,
besides efficiency, an architecture that look as much as possible as a real-world vehicle.
The previous built and current model, Arval Inspire II, conquered the 3 rd place in the Shell
Eco Marathon Europe 2014 while overcoming the challenge of being road legal, achieving its
goals. Even though its performance is remarkable, being road legal brings the downside of
keeping the vehicle from performing its most as meeting the authorities requirements
compromise the lightweight and aerodynamic body design.
The team now has a new goal: to build a new car for the future Shell Eco-Marathon years,
free of the obligation of being road legal, with the highest possible performance for fuel
efficiency.
In this new goal the vehicle aerodynamics is a driven part, as a streamlined body reflects in
less fuel consumption by lowering the forces opposing to the vehicles movement. The
power required from the engine is employed in overcoming these forces, therefore, less
aerodynamic drag requires less power from the engine, which is reflected in the lower fuel
consumption.
Having this relation into account, this project is settled to design a new vehicles body that
attends the requirements for low aerodynamic drag. What factors are influencing the bodys
drag and therefore how its shape should be are questions that this project wants to answer.
This report will show the design process and choices for the new vehicles body thinking only
on its aerodynamic performance and it is build up as the following:
Chapter 1 gives an overview of aerodynamics basics, searching the driven parameters to
have a well streamlined body. Chapter 2 determines the vehicles topology by defining its
targets characteristics and design constraints. The topological model is the basis for the
development of different body concepts.
Chapter 3 presents a few concepts that arise from the vehicle basic architecture and their
performance according to flow simulation. In this chapter the optimum body shape can be
found. Chapter 4 shows how the optimum body shape is detailed until the final body is
completed. In this chapter features as interference drag, mirrors, internal flow, windows and
driving stability are studied.
Chapter 5 presents the final model of the vehicles body and its aerodynamic performance
according to flow simulations. Here an overview of the final model can be found. In Chapter
6 parameters as frontal area, wetted area and drag coefficient will be compared to the
existing vehicle and other concepts to qualify the improvement achieved.
Chapter 7 shows the possibilities for future works on the vehicles body as validating the
design through wind tunnel testing of a scale model, evaluating the forces acting on the

body through finite element analysis, choosing its materials and productions methods and
also integrating the vehicles body to other vehicles systems.
Chapter 8 is the final chapter and contains the conclusion of the project. Following this
chapter, the Shell Eco-marathon rules, a list of symbols and relations used in the presented
calculations and some literature topics can be found in annex. Also, contact information is
available in annex D for any questions or further explanation.

1 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter introduces the fundamentals relevant to the body design of a fuel
efficient vehicle. As estate before, the aerodynamic features of the vehicles body
interfere in its fuel consumption, this chapter is dedicated to demonstrate how.
A deep lesson on the subject would require a lot more than a mere chapter to be
given. This chapters goal is just to give the common reader a context on the
matters that will be read further in this report, therefore making it more accessible
to a wider range of audiences.

1.1BASIC

FLUID MECHANICS

A fluid is a substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of flowing and that

changes its shape at a steady rate when acted upon by a force tending to change
its shape.
(Dictionary.com, n.d.)
According to the definition above, the dynamics of a fluid substance can be
explained as by the forces acting on it, determining not only its trajectory, but also
its velocity and behaviour. The following figures show how a given fluid behaves
according to this rule.

Figure 1: Flow behaviour under different pressure gradients due to compression

and expansion;

Figure 2: Flow behaviour under different pressure gradients due to geometry;

Flow separation influenced by type of boundary layer;

Figure 3: Detail on transition and separation;

Figures 1, 2 and 3 also show a very important characteristic of a fluid, the boundary
layer. Described by the German physicist and aerodynamics pioneer Ludwig Prandtl
in 1904, the boundary layer explains the fluid behaviour as influenced by its own
viscosity in a thin flow region near surfaces, bringing reconciliation between
experimental and theoretical discrepancies.

1.2GENERAL

PRINCIPLES OF AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamics is the way air moves around things. The rules of aerodynamics
explain how an airplane is able to fly. Anything that moves through air reacts to
aerodynamics. A rocket blasting off the launch pad and a kite in the sky react to
aerodynamics. Aerodynamics even acts on cars, since air flows around cars.
(Nasa.gov, n.d.)
As read above, aerodynamics is concerned about the interaction of a fluid (as air)
with a solid (as a car) when either one or the other is in motion. It measures the
interference caused by the geometry inserted on the originally free flow.
This measurements are made in terms of weight, lift, thrust and drag. [Ref 13]

10

Figure 4: Forces acting on a body due to fluid interaction;

On a conventional system, weight and lift are the forces acting on the body by
pulling it down or pushing it up and drag and thrust oppose each other by pulling
the body back or pushing it forward. An additional term very used in vehicle
aerodynamics is downforce, which is nothing but negative lift force (pushing the
body down).
Weight is a force related to the mass of the body, and therefore we can say by now
that its not an aerodynamic concern unless we aim to move the body up or down.
Thinking on a forward/backward orientation, weight is important when it comes to
the rolling resistance (friction between a body and a wall, as a car and the road)
which will not be discussed in great detail in this work.
Thrust can be generated by an enormous variety of sources, from rockets to
hydrogen fuel cells. It does affect the aerodynamics as fluids interact with bodies in
different ways depending on their speed, which is predicted by the dimensionless
constant Reynolds Number. [Ref. 13]
Lift and drag are geometry depending, since the geometry of the body will alter the
pressure field around itself and determine how the fluid behaves during their
interaction.

Figure 5: Pressure field around an

airfoil;

Figure 6: Flow stream around an airfoil;

Lift generation;

11

1.3VEHICLE

AERODYNAMICS

A vehicle, as anything else on Earth, can be understood as a body immersed in

fluid. In this case, the considered fluid is air.
To minimize the forces acting against the movement of a vehicle, its natural to
conclude that given vehicle should disturb as minimum as possible the fluid in its
surrounds. The role of aerodynamics is therefore to shape this vehicle in a flow
friendly way.

Figure 7: Pressure field around an airfoil

positioned at different angles relative to
the main flow direction;

Figure 8: Flow stream around an airfoil

positioned at different angles relative to
the main flow direction;

The most important aerodynamic force for a land vehicle moving forward is the
aerodynamic drag. Secondarily, lift/downforce has its role in driving stability by
keeping the vehicle from moving upwards or deviating from its desired trajectory
due to inertial forces. Downforce contributions are only beneficial above certain
speeds. Special attention should be paid to the floor or belly pan shape of the
vehicle since the proximity with the ground makes this area under the vehicle to
behave as a Venturi tube [Ref. 2 and 3]. This phenomena is also known as road
effect and can be counteracted with design measures explained in detail further in
this work.

12

1.3.1 Aerodynamic drag

For a land vehicle on cruise condition, aerodynamic drag is typically the dominating
retarding force along with the rolling resistance due to tires or bearings. This force is
composed by four components: the pressure drag, the viscous friction, the induced
drag and the interference drag. [Ref. 2 and 3]

C d V 2 Aref
Fd =
2
Fd :total drag force

C d : drag coefficient

:fluid density

V : flow speed

A ref :reference area

Equation 1: Drag force;;

The pressure drag is commonly the dominant term on the composition of

aerodynamic drag and its due to the vacuum effect on the rear of the vehicle
caused by the detachment of the air from the surface of the trailing edge,
generating vortices that consume energy and also a void that literally sucks the
vehicle backwards. This feature has a strong relation with the bodys frontal area.
[Ref. 2 and 3]
The viscous friction is the term referring to the effects of the boundary layer, as the
shearing of the fluid tangentially to the vehicles surface (skin friction) and the
pressure drag cause by the impossibility of full pressure restoration at the rear of
the vehicle due to the existence of a boundary layer with thickness. [Ref. 2 and 3] In
a very well streamlined body, i.e. a body with no flow separation, the viscous
friction is the dominant term of the aerodynamic drag. This feature is strongly
related to the bodys wetted surface area.
Induced drag is the effect caused by components of lift/downforce, created due to
the pressure differential on the geometry. This effect gains special importance in
land vehicles as it relates to ground effect, an additional force generated by the
proximity of the body with the ground that will be analysed in more detail further in
this work.
The last component of the aerodynamic drag is the interference drag. The
interference drag is resultant from the flow behaviour around junctions and holes,
as in a body made of two or more shapes assembled together. The interference
drag is in nature pressure drag and can be as much as half of a vehicle total drag.
[Ref. 2 and 3]

13

To design a vehicle with a great aerodynamic performance, the aerodynamic drag

should be minimized as much as possible. The designer can decide what
components of the aerodynamic drag are priorities according to production
limitations or design constraints. The approach adopted for this vehicle is explained
in detail at the end of Chapter 3.

1.3.2 Drag area

The product of the drag coefficient (Cd) and the reference area (Aref) of a shape is
called drag area (CdA). This product is useful in order to compare two different
bodies in a meaningful way.
For instance, when comparing two different bodies of same size but different
shapes, the drag coefficient itself is a measurement of the improvement or
advantage of one body over the other. However, if the bodies have also different
sizes, the relation of drag coefficient and reference area becomes much more
appropriate since the reference area works as a normalization factor.
For a body in which the drag coefficient is dominated by the pressure drag, the
appropriate reference area is the frontal area (Af) as the Cd changes proportionally
to it. When no separation occurs, the reference area can be the wetted area since
the Cd is now dominated by the viscous friction. [Ref. 2 and 3]
This method is applied in this work to control the evolution of the designed vehicle
by the designer and also to compare different final vehicles.

1.4AERODYNAMICS

AND FUEL CONSUMPTION

Some factors have to be taken into consideration in order to calculate the fuel
usage of a vehicle. The most important of them is the force opposing the movement
of the vehicle as it states the necessary power to keep moving forward at a certain
speed. This can be observed in the following equation. [Ref 16]

Equation 2: Improvement in fuel consumption due to aerodyamics;

14

On a land vehicle moving constantly forward, the rolling resistance of the tires and
the aerodynamic drag are the only two forces opposing its movement. According to
literature, this relation evolves with the cruise speed of the vehicle, as shown in the
figure bellow.

Figure 9: Aerodynamic drag evolution with driving speed;

In the scope of the Shell Eco-marathon, the cruise speed of the vehicle will be
maintained around 30 km/h, which assigns to aerodynamic drag around 38% of the
power required of the vehicle to move forward. [Ref. 4]
Since the teams is provided with special tires to minimize the rolling resistance [Ref
17] the remaining goal is to minimize the vehicles aerodynamic drag, and therefore
improve its fuel efficiency. To achieve this goal, the drag area (CdA) needs to be
minimized. As both drag coefficient and reference area are dependent on geometry,
it can be concluded that the vehicle needs to be well streamlined in order to
achieve its best performance.

15

2 BODY STRUCTURE
This chapter shows how the knowledge acquired from literature is brought together
with the Shell Eco-marathon rules in order to achieve a basic model of the new
vehicles body. Different existent concepts have been studied during this phase of
the development to bring inspiration and also a better understanding of the real
application of some rules as design constraints.

2.1DEFINING

THE VEHICLE ARCHITECTURE

The vehicle architecture is defined as a group of major decisions about how the
vehicle should be that are made during early stages of the project to avoid
forbidden or unrealistic solutions and set, along with the goals, the priority areas
where most effort should be employed. Besides controlling project resources, a
basic and strict vehicle architecture is also useful to give the designer a more
concrete vision of design possibilities by serving as input for the initial designing
cycles. It also controls the progression towards the target figures, verifying if they
are reachable and/or being reached.
The concern of this work is to design a vehicles body with low aerodynamic drag to
compete in the urban-concept class of the Shell Eco-marathon, accordingly some
design figures as drive wheels, brake wheels, and number of axles are of low
concern for the given goal and will not be developed in this report. However, the
figures number of wheels, track width, steer wheels, wheelbase, and ground
clearance are of importance and developed as follows.
Number of wheels: Urban Concept vehicles must have exactly four wheels,
which under normal running conditions must be all in continuous contact with the
road. A fifth wheel for any purpose is forbidden. [Ref. 1]
Track width: The track width must be at least 100 cm for the front axle and 80 cm
for the rear axle, measured between the midpoints where the tires touch the
ground. [Ref. 1]A larger track width increases the roll-over resistance of the
vehicle. On the other hand, it can also increase the frontal area of the vehicle. As
the goal of this work is to design the vehicles body around its aerodynamic
performance, minimizing the frontal area will be prioritized over maximizing rollover resistance and therefore the track width will be kept to the minimum allowed.
According to literature, bodies with reduced cross section area in the rear are more
likely to succeed on restoring the pressure around the tailing edge of the vehicle
and avoid flow separation, keeping the pressure drag low. Due to this fact, the rear

16

track width will be kept shorter than the front track width and also at the minimum
allowed.
Steer wheels: The Shell Eco-marathon rules determine that only front wheelsteering is allowed for prototype class vehicles. However, it makes no mention to
urban class vehicles leaving this choice to the designer. There are plenty of up and
downsides of different steering systems, and as explained above, the aerodynamic
performance is considered priority over other factors. Even so, some observance
must be kept to avoid excessive increase in complexity and/or weight in the future
stages of development of the vehicle.
The major figure is that a steer wheel inside the vehicle requires room to turn
without touching the vehicles body. The vehicle must comply with a minimum
turning radius, which implies in turning angles for each wheel. Turning the wheel by
a given angle will increase the room taken by it inside the vehicle's body and
therefore make it wider.
The Shell Eco-marathon rules determine that The turning radius must be less than
6 m. The turning radius is the distance between the center of the circle and the
external wheel of the vehicle. The external wheel of the vehicle must be able to
follow a 90 arc of 6 m radius in both directions. [Ref. 1]. To comply with this rule,
the necessary turning angle of each wheel needs to be calculated. These
calculations are influenced by the chosen steering system.
A four-wheel steering system decrease the necessary turning radius at low speeds
and can be used to improve driving stability in high speeds or manoeuvrability in
tight spaces. However, it increases the frontal area of the vehicle whilst turning and
require room at the back of the vehicle, which is not available due to the
aerodynamic considerations that suggest a gradual decrease of cross section area
towards the tail. A two-wheel steering system will be used instead.
Steer wheels located at the front increase frontal area while steer wheels located at
the rear require space not available in the vehicle. Some literature search shows
that the configuration with rear steer wheels also has some problems in maintaining
the correct heading and steering stability. Accounting all the above mentioned
reasons, a frontal two wheel-steering system is chosen as the best available option.
As a result of this choice, both scenarios in with all wheels or only the rear wheels
are contained inside the vehicles body are possible. The increase in frontal area
given by having the front wheels contained in the vehicles body is determined by
the minimum needed turning angle. On the other hand, the drag of an exposed
wheel system is difficult to model analytically, but literature presents relevant
empirical data that shows unneglectable contribution to the total drag [Ref 2]. Both
options will be analysed further in this work, being preferable to keep a model with
all wheels contained inside the vehicles body.

17

Ground-clearance: The ground-clearance is a critical component of the vehicle

architecture since its one of the measures that can be adopted to counteract the
downforce generated by the road effect. Literature research shows the development
of downforce related to different ground clearances, giving a curve in which a
minimum ground clearance can be found for different airfoil shapes and sizes. [Ref 2
and 3]
The sensibility of the ground clearance will be tested during flow simulations in this
work. At this stage, the ground clearance is initially defined as in between 10cm and
12cm, according to literature and the following rules. [Ref 1]
The total vehicle height must be between 100 cm and 130 cm.
The Drivers compartment must have a minimum height of 88 cm.
The ground clearance must be at least 10 cm with the driver (and necessary
ballast) in the vehicle.

2.2DEFINING

THE TARGET PARAMETERS

To consider the vehicle as a successful

existing winning vehicles.

model is necessary to overcome other

The following parameters are held by the Arval Inspire II, current model retiring in
2015, which drives 61.9 km/kWh. The new vehicle target parameters must lead to
an improved performance.

Weight without driver: 170kg;

Frontal Area(A): 0.94m2;
Drag coefficient (Cd): 0.20 (0.14*);
Drag area (CdA): 0.19 (0.13*);

(*) with wheel fairings and modified mirrors;

The current record on the urban concept class of the Shell Eco-marathon is
150km/kWh, set by the CityJoule car from team La Joliverie of Polytech Nantes. [Ref.
14] As a general guide, the target parameters of the new vehicle will also be the
following. [Ref. 10]

Weight without driver: 80kg;

Frontal Area(A): 0.88m2;
Drag coefficient (Cd): 0.11;
Drag area (CdA): 0.10;

18

2.3DESIGN

CONSTRAINTS

Two major sources are taken into consideration for design constraints in this work:
race regulations and aerodynamics.
From the race regulations all minimum and maximum sizes and forbidden shapes
for the vehicles body are provided. The vehicle must be in compliance with all Shell
Eco-marathon rules. For a detailed reading please go to Appendix B.
From aerodynamics the vehicles body should be shaped in order to disturb as
minimum as possible the flow around itself. It should not generate lift or downforce
as well as keep the aerodynamic drag the lowest. Starting from sketch can be a
difficult task for the designer since the possibilities are infinite. However, the
literature offers a great amount of reliable data to guide the sketch of initial shapes
and therefore have a reduced number of design cycles. A summing up of these data
can be found in the next section of this chapter.
Special attention is now given to the steer wheels since, as specified before, they
require room to turn without touching the vehicles body and thus are also a source
of design constraints. The following calculations show the biggest turning angle
required to follow the minimum turning radius specified by the Shell Eco-marathon
rules for the steering configuration chosen in section 2.1 of this chapter.

Figure 10: Calculated required turning angle;

2.4THE

TOPOLOGICAL MODEL

In this section a summarized list of the body desired characteristics, functions and

shapes is given to form a live document called in this work The Requirements List.
19

This documents purpose is to condensate the long literature review into a quick
consultation source to guide the designer during early design cycles and to enhance
the bodys target parameters. As the highly iterative design cycles evolve, this list
is updated to guide the next cycle and/or answer identified questions.

First target Cd: < 0.1359 (Arval Inspire II);

Ideal target Cd: prox. 0.075 (PAC II - prototype);
First target Af: < 0.94m2 (Arval Inspire II);
Ideal target Af: < 0.25m2 (PAC II - prototype);
Initial trailing edge angle: =10-12; =3;
Initial camber: 5%;
Sizes: all kept to minimum allowed, except maximum length (maximum
allowed);
Material thickness: 1cm;

Following the guidelines explicit above, the next figure shows the topological model
of the vehicles body. All sketches will be made around this topological model. An
anatomically correct human figure is included to give a perspective of how the real
pilot would fit in the car.

Figure 11: Topological model;

20

3 BODY DESIGN
3.1PRELIMINARY DESIGN HARD POINTS
Based on the information offered by the vehicles topological model, free-hand
sketches and clay models of different possible solutions were made. These
representations help the designer to evaluate the complexity of the shapes and
their feasibility. As mentioned before, time is the most valuable resource in this
work. The correct notion of what solutions are worth employing further effort on
development is not only helpful but mandatory.

Figure 12: Hand sketch;

Figure 13: Hand sketch;

Figure 14: Hand sketch;

Figure 15: Hand sketch;

21

The following sections present in more detail the development of some of the
shapes seem above.

3.2SHAPE

DESIGN

FEW CONCEPTS

A shape design is the result of several progressive steps. Once the preliminary
shape is established, consecutive model iterations based on that design are
developed and tested using CFD analysis. The results of the simulations are taken
into consideration in the subsequent iterations to support or modify the shape until
an optimum body shape is considered achieved. The criteria used to define what is
an optimum basic shape are explained in detail in section 3.4 of this chapter.
The translation of the preliminary design phase into the CAD application is showed
in the next paragraphs.
Shape 1
Shape 1 is inspired on the low Reynold numbers airfoil S8037. It contains
modifications on the early third to achieve smaller cross section area at the tailing
edge at the same time the minimum height required for the drivers compartment
and the maximum length of the vehicle are respected. The torpedo shape is
modified into a shouldered body in order to reduce the frontal area. The transition at
the shoulder line is meant to be as smooth as possible to minimize interference
drag. The body is designed as a single solid with smooth curved shapes and
continuous surface instead of a group of bodies. Further than acting on interference
drag, this design choice improves the surface quality of the model, allowing the
boundary layer to develop properly. After the highest point, the boundary layer is
induced into turbulent to resist the pressure gradient longer without separation. By
now, this model has no optimized belly-pan nor wheel fairings, which will be studied
in the detailing phase.

22

Figure 16: Shape 1 different views and measurements;

Shape 2
Shape 2 is composed of two different bodies acting together as a vehicle, in the
same way a motorcycle with a side pod would do, for example. Differently from
Shape 1, Shape 2 is not symmetrical. However it does follow the same shouldering
technique to reduce frontal area. The side pod body covers the wheels and
contains little space for voluminous loads. The main body meets the Shell Ecomarathon required dimensions for both drivers and loads compartments. This
model has a great advantage over others in terms of frontal area. On the other
hand, viscous drag and interference drag are expected to be bigger as we now have
more wetted area and a very likely Venturi tube effect between the bodies. This
design also does not have optimized belly pan and wheel fairings yet, as well as the
connection between the bodies, required to meet all Shell-Eco marathon rules.

23

Figure 17: Shape 2 different views and measurements;

Shape 3
Shape 3 is inspired on a fellow competitor of the Shell-Eco marathon. The Japanese
prototype class car attending by the name of Fancy Carol shows a non-conventional
solution for surfacing and also good results. [Ref 15] This concept has been
translated to the urban-concept class rules, resulting in the model seen below.

24

Figure 18: Shape 3 different views and measurements;

3.3FLOW

SIMULATIONS

3.3.1 Tools
SOLIDWORKS Flow Simulation is a class of CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics)
analysis software (called Concurrent CFD) that is fully embedded in the mechanical
design environment, for all general engineering applications.
(IVANOV, 2014)
The choice on the CFD software was made based on a few factors. The first factor is
that Solidworks Flow Simulation was used in the development of the Arval Inspire II.
Using the same solver would eliminate an extra layer of inconsistency when
comparing both models.
The second factor is that Solidworks Flow Simulation is already embed in the CAD
tool used for the development of the models, which guarantees that no
inconsistencies due to compatibility issues when importing and meshing the
geometry will occur.

25

The final factor is that Solidworks Flow Simulation provides, for the needed typed of
simulation, a satisfactory precision level with lower computational time, lower
computational resources and easy user-friendly interface. [Ref 12]
Due to the use of a Cartesian-based mesh coupled with some engineering
techniques and methods implemented in SOLIDWORKS Flow Simulation, numerical
calculations reach acceptable accuracy on far coarser meshes when compared with
traditional CFD codes. Due to this fact, users can make calculations of fluid flow and
heat transfer for very complex 3D cases with relatively modest computational
resources.
(IVANOV, 2014)
As the flow conditions to be simulated dont require any advanced boundary
condition, the simplicity of Solidworks Flow Simulations proves not to be a roadblock.
3.3.2 Settings
The settings report for all simulations can be found in Appendix C.
It is worth noticing that in this phase of the design the qualitative flow analysis is
more meaningful than quantitative results. As a consequence of short
computational time being preferred over great precision, no effort was employed on
detailed meshing manually. The computational domain was defined based on the
geometry size, guaranteeing that the flow is fully developed around the geometry
before interacting with it and bringing additional boundary influences.
3.3.3 Results
The following figures show the performance of the presented models in flow
simulations. An example of how flow simulation results contribute to the iterative
design is given in figure 26.

26

Figure 19: Shape 1 flow simulation results.

Figure 20: Shape 1 flow simulation results.

27

Figure 21: Shape 2 flow simulation results.

Figures 22 and 23: Shape 2 flow simulation results.

28

Figure 24: Shape 3 flow simulation results.

Figure 25: Shape 3 flow simulation results.

29

Figure 26: The pressure generated by the nose shape influences on flow
detachment and wake length.

3.4THE

OPTIMUM BODY SHAPE

Time is defined as the most valuable resource in this work. To avoid spending this
resource in activities that bring little added value to the final vehicles body, a
procedure of developing and optimizing the body for a basic optimum shape,
obtained from the simulated designs, is adopted. This can be done by choosing a
winner shape or by combining different winner features into an optimum shape.
The following table shows the key features of the models studied in this chapter.
30

Model
Shape 1
Shape 2
Shape 3

Frontal Area
Surface Area
0.97 m2
7.37 m2
2
0.83 m
11.11 m2
2
1.01 m
9.87 m2
Table 1: Summary;

Flow Attachment
Good
Good
Poor

The first and main goal is to minimize the pressure drag, therefore a model with
good flow attachment and smaller frontal area is preferred. Secondarily, a model
with less surface area is the best option, since it reduces the viscous drag. Next, a
model with less interference drag is advisable. No induced drag is desired.
Based on the fact that at this stage the models can yet be changed and improved,
the best model will be the one that can adapt to different approaches finding a
combination that results in lowest aerodynamic drag.
The results show that the optimum basic shape is Shape 1, as it has less
interference drag sources, a fair wetted area and at the same time requires less
modifications to improve its flow attachment and frontal area.

4 BODY DETAILING
Once the basic shape is achieved the efforts are put on improving this shape,
adding its secondary features, and gaining confidence on the results. This chapter is
dedicated to show this process.

4.1SIMULATIONS

SETTINGS

In this design phase modifications are even more sensitive to the input obtained
from flow simulations, therefore, special attention on how these simulations are held
is required.
Boundary conditions
Up to this point, the road was considered an Ideal Wall, acting as a symmetry
condition. From now on, the road is treated as a real wall in movement, simulating
the vehicles motion.
Computational domain
As previously stated, the computational domain has to be defined in the proper size
to fully develop the flow conditions and avoid bringing additional unwanted
boundary effects with it, without raising the computational time to unpractical
figures. [Ref 11]
31

In this stage, simulations are held with a computational domain sized as at least 2.5
times
the
vehicle
sizes
in
the
respective
direction.

Figure 27: Computational domain;.

Meshing
The literature provides us with several studies containing empirical data that shows
that simulations with a good quality fine mesh achieved results in accordance with
wind tunnel tests. [Ref 11]
A finer structured mesh was created manually in order to improve the accuracy and
reliability of the results. The refinement is focused around the geometry and on the
possible wake area since its desirable to have a mesh as fine as necessary but as
rough as possible to keep the computational time within reasonable time spams.
The quality of the mesh is controlled by the followings premises [Ref 11]:

The mesh density should be high enough to capture all relevant flow features.
The mesh adjacent to surfaces and wall should be fine enough to resolve the
boundary layer flow. Quadric cells are preferred.
Aspect ratio: 1 is ideal, less than 0.2 means that the cell is degenerated.
Where the flow is expected to be multidimensional an aspect ratio near to 1
is kept. In the areas where flow is fully developed and essentially onedimensional the cells can be stretched along the flow direction.
Smoothness: Adjacent cells can vary in size by no more than 20%.
The skewness of the cells will be maintained at 0 (best).

32

The mesh total size is kept between 10 5 (intermedium) and 106 (large) to
save computational time. Simulations with smaller and bigger meshes can be
held to test the results sensibility.

The following images show the initial mesh and the refined mesh. All settings can
be found in Annex C.

Figure 28: Initial meshing detail;

Figure 29: Refined meshing detail;

Figure 30: Refined meshing detail;

33

Figure 31: Refined meshing detail;

Figure 32: Refined meshing detail;

Figure 33: Refined meshing detail;

4.2NOSE

SHAPE

The shear forces are greater at the nose section and therefore, the nose shape is
critical to ensure that laminar flow is achieved on the belly-pan and the top of the
vehicle. Laminar flow is desirable since the friction created by turbulent flow can be
10 times greater than the friction created by laminar flow, minimizing drag. [Ref 2
34

and 3] The body contour should be gentle and its surface should be smooth and
seamless to help providing gentle acceleration of the boundary layer in this region.
However, at vehicles height peak the boundary layer should be forced into
turbulent flow to ensure greater length without separation due to adverse pressure
gradients. Turbulent flow is not only much less likely to suffer separation, as figure
34 shows, but can also be used to improve cooling as it transfers energy in all
directions (therefore hot components are advisable to be placed near this region of
the vehicle). [Ref 2 and 3]

Figure 34: Left Laminar boundary layer; Right Turbulent boundary layer;

35

Figure 35: Front view; Turned wheels in color;

Figure 36: Side view;

36

Figure 37: Top view;

The figures above show how the nose shape evolved from the basic shape to make
air flow easier. Changes include smoothing and rounding the contours and the
transition to the bellypan.

4.3SURFACE

ROUGHNESS AND SKIN FRICTION

Surface smoothness is a subject of maximum attention since it can provide or

destroy the possibility of running a laminar flow on roughly the first third of the
vehicle or provide separation on the remaining length.
The body seam should be located where laminar flow is not sought or at the
stagnation line where no boundary layer has yet developed. Gaps from wind shields
and doors should be sealed without creating steps or bumps for the air flowing
on them. Additionally, signal lights and stickers should be incorporated to the
vehicles body, as for example covering decals with a layer of clear-coat. [Ref 2]
Further suggestions are given in the next subsections.

4.4TRAILING-EDGE

THICKNESS

A thin trailing-edge results in smaller wake area, which is great for restoring the
pressure at the end of the vehicle and thus reduce pressure drag.
There are some different techniques in use to determine the maximum thickness of
the trailing-edge for given body sizes. For example, some assume that given the
ideal trailing edge as a perfectly sharp end, the maximum thickness of the real
trailing edge should impact the main-body drag in 1% or less. [Ref 2] Another way is
37

by approximating the maximum trailing edge thickness by several times smaller

than the thickness of the boundary layer at the trailing edge [Ref 2 and 3].
All different approaches result in milimetrical results that, although reasonable, are
hard to achieve in within the competition rules for the sizes of the vehicle. Thus, this
work focus on having the thinnest possible trailing edge within the rules of the
competition whilst maintaining smooth back-light angles for avoiding flow
separation.

Figure 38: Backlight angle versus drag coefficient;

The natural result of this decision is to have the vehicle in the longest possible
configuration. As a longer vehicle increases the friction drag, while a shorter vehicle
would increase the pressure drag, it comes to a matter of balance to decide how
long to keep the vehicle at the end. Simulations results are the main parameter
used to make this decision but the literature supports that, given the small
contribution of the friction drag in total drag, the vehicle should keep its maximum
length if it is necessary to reduce its trailing edge thickness.
Additional considerations should be made about weight. The increase in mass
caused by the length of the vehicle should be taken into account as well before
having a final decision about the vehicles maximum length. As weight estimation is
not in the scope of this work, the vehicle will be kept at the length that provides less
drag contribution to the main-body drag, but open to modifications before
production.
Another way of reducing trailing-edge thickness adopted in this work is to change
the evolution of the belly-pan into tail from a gentle angle to a more aggressive
38

angle. This allows the vehicle to be shorter if necessary with less impact in wake
area. On the other hand, it changes the cambering of the vehicle, which may create
induced drag. More details on this matter are given further in the next subsections.

Figure 39: Basic tail;

Figure 40: Detailed tail;

Figure 41: Basic tail and its vorticity;

39

Figure 42: Detailed tail and its vorticity;

Figure 43: Basic tail and wake;

Figure 44: Detailed tail and wake;

40

4.5JUNCTIONS

AND INTERFERENCE DRAG

The drag of a body is minimized if it is a single body with no appendages, however,

it is unpractical (and, in the case of ground vehicles, impossible) to have a single
body vehicle since, for example, the wheels themselves would be already
considered as appendages. Luckily, some techniques are available to minimize the
drag impact of the junctions between an appendage and the main body. The
following rules are followed [Ref 2 and 3]:

Minimize the number of junctions by incorporating the appendages to the

main-body;
Avoid separation (minimize pressure gradients)
o the optimum angle between the appendage and the main-body is 90;
o the optimum fillet radius along the side of the appendage is 5% of its
chord;
o find the optimum leading-edge geometry for the appendage;
o find the optimum trailing-edge geometry for the appendage;

A balance between reducing frontal area and creating interference drag is

necessary and attention must be kept on it during the design evolution;
During the process of reducing wake area, the tail is shaped with a cut in the main
body which results in some interference drag created by the junction with the side
of the vehicles body. This increase however was far outweighed by the decrease in
pressure drag.

4.6GROUND

CLEARANCE AND CAMBER

The competition rules state that a ground clearance of at least 10cm must be kept.
It also says that the drivers compartment should have at least 88cm of height,
while the whole vehicle should be between 100cm and 130cm. [Ref. 1]
The vehicles belly pan (or floor) along with the ground create a tunnel-like structure
that restrains the flow according to its shape and size. This effect is called Venturieffect and it states that as the stream tube gets thinner, the local velocities have to
increase to fulfil the laws of inviscid potential flow, mass conservation and the
assumption of air as a fluid of incompressible flow. According to Bernoullis principle
one can infer that if the local speed increases, than the local pressure has to
decrease. This pressure difference on the top and bottom of the vehicle create a
suction effect towards the ground, or negative lift, also known as downforce. [Ref 2,
3, 7]

41

As one may conclude, ground clearance is an important feature since it influences

the amount, or even presence, of induced drag. Induced drag is not desirable in this
work, neither in the form of lift or downforce, since it is produced at an energy
expense to create the vorticity necessary for its maintenance. [Ref 2 and 3]
The next figure shows how a body in free air behaves differently when close to the
ground. In the case of a symmetrical body that generates no lift in free air, when
put closer to the ground downforce can be observed. A simple solution to that is
cambering the body. A cambered body produces lift in free air, but no induced drag
at all when close to the ground.

Figure 45: Effect of ground proximity and cambering on induced drag;

Literature provides us with a rigorous investigation of cambered ground vehicles
guiding the development of streamlined bodies in the proximity of the ground. [Ref.
2] The balance between cambering and ground clearance is given by simulation
results, with an initial guess oriented by literature as it can be seen in the
requirements list presented in chapter 2.
This subject brings back the trailing edge design to highlight, once the tail shape
effectively modifies the camber of the body. It can be seen in figure XX that some
downforce is generated by the vehicle at 0 yaw and 0 pitch.

42

Figure 46: Effect of trailing edge attitude on lift generation;

Figure 47: Example of the effect of trailing edge according to simulations;

Some vehicles adopt bigger ground clearances to decrease the tricky induced drag
effect. Naturally, bigger ground clearances bring bigger frontal and surface areas
since a bigger portion of the wheels is not integrated anymore in the main-body.
This requires further development on wheel fairings and therefore also increases
junction drag.
As always, it is a matter of balance to choose what approach is the best for the
vehicle under development. In this work, the results show that even though some
induced drag can be observed, the gain in reduction of pressure drag outweigh the
effect. Thus, the design choices up to now are maintained.

4.7MIRRORS
The competition rules state that the driver must have access to a direct arc of
visibility ahead and to 90 on each side of the longitudinal axis of the vehicle
without aid of any optical (or electronic) devices such as mirrors, prisms, periscopes,
etc. Also, the vehicle must be equipped with a rear-view mirror on each side of the
vehicle, each with a minimum surface area of 25 cm (5cm x 5cm), to provide
indirect view of 60cm high poles spread out every 30 in a 4m radius half-circle
around the vehicle. This mirrors cannot be replaced by electronic devices. [Ref 1]

43

To attend these rules without adding appendages to the vehicle, the proposed
solution is to keep the wind shield as big as necessary to keep the mirrors inside the
drivers compartment. As visibility studies are out of the scope of this work, the
windshield design is yet to be developed and must be calculated taking into account
the compliance of visibility rules with inside mirrors to be produced.
There are available examples of teams using this same solution as it can be seen in
references [Ref. 2, 4 and 10].

4.8OPENINGS

AND GAPS

No detailed study related to windshield, wheel system, ventilation and door gaps
has been conducted. However, some advisory for the production is provided as
follows.
Gaps, bumps, and internal flow greatly increase the drag of a vehicle, maximum
attention must be paid on the design of these features.

Ventilation and internal flow

The drag due to internal flow is a necessary evil that can be lowered by
understanding how it is influenced by the air intake/exit, the internal design of the
vehicle and the distribution of its components, especially when it comes to
temperature.
If done properly, the drag due to ventilation opening can be very small. The
literature provides us with some useful information, summarized [Ref. 2]:

If a ventilation system is to be used, the cabin should be pressurized, so

pressure recovery can be maximized during expulsion of the hot air;
The velocity in the system should be minimized, this can be done by
maximizing the inlet-duct area. Also, the opening should be rounded and
curled in slightly;
The exit velocity should be maximized as much as possible, this can be done
by minimizing the exit-duct area. To achieve this, a smooth, nozzled passage
should be provided to accelerate the exhaust;
The body shape should be studied to place the inlet in a high pressure region
(stagnation point, usually at the nose) and the exit at a low pressure region;
The exit-duct should be located such that the exhaust is expelled as parallel
as possible to the freestream flow, along the path of the vehicles velocity;
Though the inlet location at the nose probably has the least external drag,
the overall drag of the ventilation system may be higher if the internal
passages end up circuitous;
Nose ducts can be less lossy over a wider range of incoming airflows. NACA
ducts are useful when a protruding duct or nose duct is not feasible, however,

44

a NACA duct has to be sized for the airflow for efficient performance. NACA
ducts can be also used for exit-duct.
Place the inlet in such position that it cant ingest the boundary layer or trip it
prematurely;
Existing gaps (such wheel-wells) can be also used both for inlet and outlet;

The Shell Eco-marathon has designated gaps in the rules for providing the drivers
compartment and the fuel cells compartment with ventilation. [Ref. 1]

Wind shield and door

The following figure shows how grooves can trip the laminar boundary layer into
turbulent boundary layer.

Figure 48: Effect of bumps or grooves on the boundary layer;

The solution for this kind of problem around windshields and windows is very simple
and can be achieved by making rounded neat and thin sealing. Around doors
however, the problem is more complicated since the driver has to be able of coming
out of the vehicle without help and within small time-window in case of any accident
[Ref. 1]. One possible solution for it is sealing the door gap with clay. At the same
time that it fills the groove up and smooth the surface, it has no strength to endure
force applied on the door in order to open it, therefore not harming the drivers
scape.

45

Figure 49: Effect of bumps or grooves on the drag coefficient;

Wheel system
The drag from the wheel system is formed by the following factors [Ref. 2]:

The exposed portion of the wheel;

The wheel-steer cut-out in the belly pan;
The wheel fairing;
The wheel well (housing that isolates the wheel form the cabin);
Windage losses due to spinning wheel;

An extended literature review was done on the subject and the following decisions
were made.
In this work the wheel wells and steer cut-outs are developed but a fully sealed
system is considered. This solution can be observed in the 1993 World Solar
Challenge champion cars system [ref solar]: integrating a rotating thin bely pan
plate that acts sealing the hourglass cut.
Literature suggests that a cover of around 60% of the wheels is appropriate to
minimize its drag contribution. [ref 6]
Windage lossess were not simulated as a simplified wheel system is used according
to guidance.

4.9WHEEL

FAIRINGS AND FLOOR

46

No optimum wheel fairing was found during the development of this work and
therefore not added; The following figures show how the adding of wheel fairings
conflicted with the main body geometry increasing the vortices generation under
the vehicle and therefore its drag. Theres room for improvement as appropriated
wheel fairings can still be researched and added.

Figure 50: (Speed) Example of the effect of non-optimum wheel fairings; Upper:
without fairings; Lower: with fairings; Bigger vortices can be observed with a nonoptimum wheel fairing influence.

47

Figure 51: (Vorticity) Example of the effect of non-optimum wheel fairings; Upper:
without fairings; Lower: with fairings; Higher vorticity can be seen for longer lengths
with a non-optimum wheel fairing influence.

The air under the floor encounters the wheel in an angle, disturbing the flow after
that point. The pressure differential created by the rotating wheel system might as
well disturb the flow under the vehicle increasing its induced drag. The natural
conclusion from these problems is that the vehicles floor (or belly pan) can yet be
improved according to the wheel fairing developed and the windage effect.

48

Figure 52: Example of the effect of non-optimum wheel fairings; Upper: without
fairings; Lower: with fairings; No significant improvement can be credited to the
non-optimum wheel fairing that justifies it increase in friction and interference
drag..

49

5 FINAL BODY
A summed up presentation of the final body achieved during this work, regarding all
the information given beforehand, is given below.

Figure 53: Top view;

Figure 54: Front view;

50

Figure 55: Side view;

Figure 56: Windshield suggestion;

51

Figure 57: Belly pan detail; Wheel well and sealing suggestions;

Figure 58: Driver clearance;

Figure 59: Simulation results;

52

Figure 60: Simulation results;

Figure 61: Simulation results;

Figure 62: Simulation results;

53

The results show that a total force of 4.02N is achieved and therefore, according
the equation 1, the drag coefficient of the vehicle is Cd = 0.12. Since the main
source of drag is the pressure drag, the reference area used in the calculations is
the frontal area and measures 0.79m2. The surface area is 10.36 m2.
The drag area, used to compare the vehicle to others in a meaningful way, is Cd x
A = 0.095.m2

6 SUCCESSFUL REAL WORLD EXAMPLES

In this chapter, a brief quantitative comparison between the results of this work and other
known models is provided. [Ref. 4, 8, 9, 10]
Model
Arval Insipire II
CityJoule
Pac II
New model

Cd
0.136
0.110.0750.120

Aref
0.95
0.880.2540.79

Drag area (CdA)

0.129
0.0970.0190.095

7 FUTURE STEPS
The completion of this work opens several opportunities for other students willing to work on
the development of the vehicle. Besides the already mentioned topics, during this work
some other issues concerning aerodynamics were noticed, as listed:

Development of windshield and doors through visibility and scape tests;

Development of the ventilation system along with the vehicles interior design;
Development of the wheel well sealing and optimum wheel fairings;
Integration of components such as lights, mirrors and stickers to the main body as
suggested in this work;

As the reader might notice, this report contains some orientation about all these subjects as
they were considered by the designer even if not detailed studied or developed.

8 CONCLUSION
This work was developed trying to answer the question: How a Shell Eco-marathon Urban
Concept class cars body should be to achieve its maximum aerodynamic performance?
Along the months of its completion, a full main-body basic design was achieved, followed by
a refined, detailed main-body which is the main final product of this work.

54

The success of the achieved design can be measure as its estimated generated drag is lower
than the designs used by the team and also its close competitors, however wind-tunnel test
validation is necessary for ensure the results.
The final Cd obtained for this model is 0.120 and the final drag area is 0.095m2 . This
means a 26.5% improvement over the current vehicle model and a 2.1% improvement
over its closer competitor.
The model is still open to modifications to better accommodate any changes that might be
necessary due to production choices or rules alterations.

55

REFERENCES
[1] Shell Eco-marathon 2015 Official Rules, Chapter 1;
[2] TAMAI, Goro;
The Leading Edge: Aerodynamic design of ultra-streamlined land vehicles;
ISBN 0-8376-0860-0
[3] HUCHO, Wolf-Heinrich;
Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles: From fluid dynamics to vehicle
engineering;
ISBN 0-7680-0029-7
[4] SANTIN; ONDER; BERNARD; ISLER; KOBLER; KOLB; WEIDMANN, GUZZELLA;
The Worlds Most Fuel Efficient Vehicle: Design and development of PAC-II
car;
ISBN 978-3-7281-3134-8
[5] OBIDI, T. Yomi;
Theory and application of aerodynamics for ground vehicles;
ISBN 978-0-7680-2111-0
[6] SCIBOR-RYLSKI, A. J.;
Road Vehicle Aerodynamics;
ISBN 0-7273-1802-0
[7] KATZ, Joseph;
Race car aerodynamics: Designing for speed;
ISBN 0-8376-0142-8
[8] KERSTEN; WEIJERS; van LUNTEREN; AUIER; KAISER; KAMPHOF; OTTENHOF;
GEORG;
Eindverslag ontwerp nieuwe body periode 2011-2012;
[9] BRUIJSTEN, Mike;
Verbetering van de aerodynamische eigenschappen aan de Arval Inspire II;
[10] http://www.cci-brest.fr/files/DossierpresseCityJoule.pdf
[11] AHAMAD; ABO-SERIE; GAYLARD;
Mesh optimization for ground vehicle aerodynamics;
Jaguar-Land Rover, Coventry Univerisity, UK; 2010;
[12] IVANOV; TREBUNSKIKH; PLATONOVICH;
Validation Methodology for Modern CAD-Embedded CFD Code: from
Fundamental Tests to Industrial Benchmarks;
Mentor Graphics Corporation, Dassault Systems; Russia; 2014;
[13] https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bga.html
[14] http://www.shell.com/global/environment-society/ecomarathon.html
[15] http://www.fc-design.jp/fancycarol/tec/1_car97.htm
[16] BROWAND, F.;
Reducing Aerodynamic Drag and Fuel Consumption;

56

University of South California; USA; 2011;

[17] http://thetiredigest.michelin.com/michelin-ultimate-energy-tire

APPENDICES

A. LIST

OF FIGURES

B. SHELL ECO-MARATHON EUROPE 2015 URBAN CLASS

C. PLAN

RULES

OF APPROACH

D. SIMULATION

REPORTS

57