Envi Engg PDF

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
University of the City of Manila

College of Engineering and Technology
Introduction to Ecology
Man has been interested in ecology in a practical sort of way since early
in his history. In primitive society every individual, to survive, need to have
definite knowledge of his environment, i.e., of the force of nature and of the
plants and animals around him.
Ecology is one of the popular areas of sciences in biology. It is a
pluralistic science in the sense that it depends on a wide variety of methods
and approaches rather than on a limited range of techniques and concepts.
Even if, it is thought as part of biology, one important way in which ecology
differs from most other branches of biology is that it can be properly
appreciated or studied only through a multidisciplinary approach involving
close cooperation from expertise in several disciplines.
The word 'Ecology' was coined from the Greek word 'oikos' meaning
'house' or ' a place to live' to designate the study of organisms in their natural
homes. Specially, it means the study of interactions of Introduction to Ecology
2 organisms with one another and with the physical and chemical
environment. The term logy is to mean study.
Another way of defining Ecology is to look at the levels of biological
organizations. The molecules of life are organized in specific ways to form cells;
cells are grouped in to tissues; and tissues are arranged to produce functional
organs. The body organs are integrated to produce organ system, and the
entire array of these systems constitutes an organism. Organisms exist not just
as a single individual, but in-groups called population. The various populations
of organisms that interact with one another to form a community;
interdependent communities of organisms interact with the physical
environment to compose an ecosystem. Finally, all the ecosystems of the planet
are combined to produce a level of organization known as the biosphere.
Ecology is concerned with the levels of organization beyond that of individual
organism; i.e. population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
1|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with their
environment. Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four specific
levels, sometimes discretely and sometimes with overlap. These levels are
organism, population, community, and ecosystem . In ecology, ecosystems are
composed of dynamically-interacting parts, which include organisms, the
communities they comprise, and the non-living (abiotic) components of their
environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis
(the formation of soil), nutrient cycling, and various niche construction
activities, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment.
These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life-history traits.
The variety of organisms, called biodiversity, which refer to the
differing species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.
A population is a group of individuals of the same species which can

freely interbreed and are found together in a particular place. A key feature of
populations is that members of a population are more likely to interact with
other members of the same population than they are with members of a
different population of the same species living in a different place.
An ecosystem is a more-or-less self contained ecological entity,
consisting of both organisms and their complete biotic and abiotic environment
found in a particular place. It is the smallest functional ecological unit within
the biosphere. An ecosystem is a relatively independent, relatively selfcontained, and more-or-less self sufficient unit. A key feature of ecosystems is
that members of a particular ecosystem are more likely to interact with other
members of the same ecosystem than they are with members of a different
ecosystem of the same or different type found in a different place.
A community may be thought of as the living (biotic) component of the
ecosystem. It consists of a number of populations of different species found in
a particular place. The term 'community' is sometimes used in another, entirely
different context; that of populations of similar organisms (e.g. the bird
community of a lake, seashore or forest). The concept of community, however it
is used, has as its main focus the study of biotic interactions.

A biome involves the linkage of ecosystems into regional classes, which
have similar characteristics. For example, grassland biomes in similar climatic
areas of the world have similar characteristics as pertains to temperature
regimes, rainfall, fire cycles, etc. The smallest biome in the world is the fynbos
biome, which is found only in the southwestern part of South Africa. The biome
concept has not been applied to groupings of ecosystems in aquatic
environments, although it is possible to make such groupings.
Trophic structures
The word trophic means to feed. The trophic structure in a community is the
feeding relationships between species. It determines how energy is passed from
organism to organism, like from plants to herbivores to carnivores. The
pyramid is a useful concept to think about how trophic interactions work, but
reality is always more complex. The organisms of the first trophic level are
called producers. They exist at the very bottom of the trophic structure and
they support all other trophic levels. In the marine environment, these are the
phytoplankton (algae). The first trophic level after the producers is the primary
consumer. These organisms are herbivores that eat plants, algae, or bacteria.
The next trophic level is composed of secondary consumers, which include
invertebrates (e.g., crabs) and small fish. The next level is composed of tertiary
consumers, which are larger carnivorous fish and mammals. Detritivores, or
organisms that derive energy from dead material like animal wastes, plant
litter, or dead organisms, fit in at the very bottom of the trophic structure, but
in reality, the food web is far more complex. Consumers at one level can eat at
multiple levels and even the prey of one consumer can eat the eggs and larvae
of their predators.

THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

A biogeochemical cycle is the complete path a chemical takes through
the four major components, or reservoirs, of Earths system: atmosphere,
hydrosphere (oceans, rivers, lakes, ground waters, and glaciers), lithosphere
(rocks and soils), and biosphere (plants and animals).
A biogeochemical cycle is chemical

because it is chemicals that are cycled,
bio- because the cycle involves life,
and geo- because a cycle may include
atmosphere, water, rocks, and soils.
All living things are made up of chemical elements, but of the more than
103 known chemical elements, only 24 are required by organisms. These 24
are divided into the macronutrients, elements required in large amounts by all
life, and micronutrients, elements required either in small amounts by all life
or in moderate amounts by some forms of life and not at all by others.
The macronutrients in turn include the big six elements that are the
fundamental building blocks of life:
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Phosphorus
Sulfur

Each one plays a special role in organisms. Carbon is the basic building
block of organic compounds; along with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon forms
carbohydrates. Nitrogen, along with these other three, makes proteins.
Phosphorus is the energy elementit occurs in compounds called ATP and
ADP, important in the transfer and use of energy within cells.
THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is the basic building block of life and the element that anchors
all organic substances, from coal and oil to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
compound that carries genetic information. Although of central importance to
life, carbon is not one of the most abundant elements in Earths crust. It
contributes only 0.032% of the weight of the crust, ranking far behind oxygen

(45.2%), silicon (29.5%), aluminum (8.0%), iron (5.8%), calcium (5.1%), and
magnesium (2.8%)
Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, and is
absolutely essential to life on Earth. In fact, carbon constitutes the very
definition of life, as its presence or absence helps define whether a molecule is
considered to be organic or inorganic. Every organism on Earth needs carbon
either for structure, energy, or, as is the case of humans, for both. Discounting
water, you are about half carbon. Additionally, carbon is found in forms as
diverse as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2), and in solids like limestone (CaCO3),
wood, plastic, diamonds, and graphite.
The movement of carbon, in its many forms, between the atmosphere,
oceans, biosphere, and geosphere is described by the carbon cycle. This cycle
consists of several storage carbon reservoirs and the processes by which the
carbon moves between reservoirs. Carbon reservoirs include the atmosphere,
the oceans, vegetation, rocks, and soil.

It can be useful to think of the carbon cycle in two sets of components:

the biological components and the geological components. The biological
components of the carbon cycle are photosynthesis, respiration, and
decomposition by microbes. The geological components of the carbon cycle are
weathering, erosion, subduction, and the formation of fossil fuels.
BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS
Carbon enters the atmosphere through the respiration of living things.
Virtually all multicellular life on Earth depends on the production of sugars
from sunlight and carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and the metabolic
breakdown (respiration) of those sugars to produce the energy needed for
movement, growth, and reproduction. Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO2) from
the atmosphere during photosynthesis, and release CO2 back into the
atmosphere during respiration through the following chemical reactions:
Respiration:
C6H12O6 (organic matter) + 6O2
6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
Photosynthesis:
energy (sunlight) + 6CO2 + H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
Through photosynthesis, green plants use solar energy to turn

atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars). Plants and animals
use these carbohydrates (and other products derived from them) through a
process called respiration, the reverse of photosynthesis. Respiration releases
the energy contained in sugars for use in metabolism and changes
carbohydrate "fuel" back into carbon dioxide, which is in turn released back to
the atmosphere.
On land, the major exchange of carbon with the atmosphere results
from photosynthesis and respiration. During daytime in the growing season,
leaves absorb sunlight and take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. At the
same time plants, animals, and soil microbes consume the carbon in organic
matter and return carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Photosynthesis stops at

night when the sun cannot provide the driving energy for the reaction, though
respiration continues.
GEOLOGICAL COMPONENTS
Sometimes, plant and animal remains are buried in the earth or sink to
the ocean floor and are protected from microbes. Over hundreds of millions of
years animal remains are compressed deeper and deeper into the earth. Tissue
and bone are destroyed but the carbon still remains, having formed
compounds called hydrocarbons, long chains of carbon atoms bound to each
other and to hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are the main component of coal
and petroleum .
Humans use fossil fuels to produce heat and electricity, and in doing so
the hydrocarbons in fossil fuels are converted into carbon dioxide and released
into the atmosphere. Atmospheric carbon dissolves into the oceans or is taken
up by plants and the cycle continues.
Rock in the earths crust is composed of carbon, formed over millions of
years when carbon binds to minerals. Carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean
forms bicarbonate, which combines with calcium to form limestone.
Weathering and erosion wash carbon compounds from rock in the
earths crust into the ocean. Carbon is also pulled beneath earths crust in a
process called subduction and volcanoes, hot springs and geysers spew carbon
dioxide and methane back into the atmosphere.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen (N) is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteins, the
building blocks of life. All organisms require nitrogen to live and grow.
Although the majority of the air we breathe is N2, most of the nitrogen in the
atmosphere is unavailable for use by organisms. This is because the strong
triple bond between the N atoms in N2 molecules makes it relatively inert, or
unreactive, whereas organisms need reactive nitrogen to be able to incorporate
it into cells. In order for plants and animals to be able to use nitrogen, N2 gas
must first be converted to more a chemically available form such as ammonium
(NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), or organic nitrogen (e.g., urea, which has the formula
(NH2)2CO). The inert nature of N2 means that biologically available nitrogen is
often in short supply in natural ecosystems, limiting plant growth.
The movement of nitrogen between the atmosphere, biosphere, and
geosphere in different forms is called the nitrogen cycle one of the major
biogeochemical cycles. Similar to the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle consists
of various reservoirs of nitrogen and processes by which those reservoirs
exchange nitrogen.

In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ )

Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)
Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)
Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3/NH4+)
Denitrification(NO3- to N2)
Nitrogen - Fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) is

converted to ammonia (NH3/NH4+) via biological fixation or nitrate (NO3-)
through high-energy physical processes. N2 is extremely stable and a great
deal of energy is required to break the bonds that join the two N atoms. N2 can
be converted directly into NO3- through processes that exert a tremendous
amount of heat, pressure, and energy. Such processes include combustion,
volcanic action, lightning discharges, and industrial means. However, a greater
amount of biologically available nitrogen is naturally generated via the
biological conversion of N2 to NH3/NH4+. A small group of bacteria and
cyanobacteria are capable using the enzyme nitrogenase to break the bonds
among the molecular nitrogen and combine it with hydrogen.
Nitrogenase only functions in the absence of oxygen. The exclusion of
oxygen is accomplished by many means. Some bacteria live beneath layers of
oxygen-excluding slime on the roots of certain plants. The most important soil
dwelling bacteria, Rhizobium, live in oxygen-free zones in nodules on the roots
of legumes and some other woody plants.
10 | E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d E c o l o g i c a l C o n c e p t s

Nitrification
Nitrification is a two-step process in which NH3/ NH4+ is converted to
NO3-. Ammonia is first converted to nitrites (NO2-) and then to nitrates. The
initial step of this process, known as nitritation, involves a type of bacteria
called nitrosomonas. The chemical equation is:
The second part of the nitrification process is called nitration. Another

soil bacterium, Nitrobacter, oxidizes NO2- to NO3-. These bacteria gain energy
through these conversions, both of which require oxygen to occur. The
chemical equation is:

Assimilation
Assimilation is the process by which plants and animals incorporate the
NO3- and ammonia formed through nitrogen fixation and nitrification. Plants
take up these forms of nitrogen through their roots, and incorporate them into
plant proteins and nucleic acids. Animals are then able to utilize nitrogen from
the plant tissues.
Ammonification
After nitrogen is incorporated into organic matter, it is often converted
back into inorganic nitrogen by a process called nitrogen mineralization,
otherwise known as decay. When organisms die, decomposers (such as
bacteria and fungi) consume the organic matter and lead to the process of
decomposition. During this process, a significant amount of the nitrogen
contained within the dead organism is converted to ammonium. Once in the
form of ammonium, nitrogen is available for use by plants or for further
transformation into nitrate (NO3-) through the process called nitrification.
Organic N
NH4+
Denitrification
NO3-
N2+ N2O
Through denitrification, oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (NO3-)

and nitrite (NO2-) are converted to dinitrogen (N2) and, to a lesser extent,
nitrous oxide gas (NO2). Denitrification is an anaerobic process that is carried
out by denitrifying bacteria, which convert nitrate to dinitrogen in the following
sequence:
NO3-
NO2-
NO
N2O
N2
Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are gases that have environmental
impacts. Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to smog, and nitrous oxide (N2O) is an
important greenhouse gas, thereby contributing to global climate change.

Once converted to dinitrogen, nitrogen is unlikely to be reconverted to a

biologically available form because it is a gas and is rapidly lost to the
atmosphere. Denitrification is the only nitrogen transformation that removes
nitrogen from ecosystems (essentially irreversibly), and it roughly balances the
amount of nitrogen fixed by the nitrogen fixers described above.
THE OXYGEN CYCLE
The biogeochemical cycle that describes about the movement of oxygen
in the atmosphere (air), the biological matter of the ecosystem biosphere (the
global sum of all ecosystems) and the lithosphere (earth's crust). The oxygen
cycle helps the movement of oxygen in the three main regions of the earth, the
atmosphere, biosphere and the lithosphere. It is the circulation of oxygen in
various forms of nature. Oxygen is free in the air and dissolved in water.

STEPS:
Atmosphere is the region of gases about the surface of the Earth and it is
one of the largest reservoirs of free oxygen. Biosphere is the total sum of all
ecosystems and has some free oxygen which is produced by the process of
photosynthesis and other life processes. Lithosphere is the largest reserve of
oxygen. Most of the oxygen in the lithosphere is free moving and is a part of
silicates and oxides of chemical compounds. The oxygen cycle describes about
the free and fixed oxygen of the major spheres.
In the atmosphere Oxygen is freed by the process called photolysis. This

is when high energy sunlight breaks apart oxygen bearing molecules to
produce free oxygen. One of the most well known photolysis it the ozone
cycle. O2 oxygen molecule is broken down to atomic oxygen by the ultra
violet radiation of sunlight. This free oxygen then recombines with
existing O2 molecules to make O3 or ozone. This cycle is important
because it helps to shield the Earth from the majority of harmful ultra
violet radiation turning it to harmless heat before it reaches the Earths
surface.
In the biosphere, oxygen undergoes cycles of respiration and

photosynthesis. Humans and animals breathe in oxygen. This oxygen is
used in metabolic processes and carbon dioxide given out. Plants and
phytoplanktons undergo process of photosynthesis where carbon dioxide
is used in the prescence of sunlight to form carbohydrates and oxygen.

The lithosphere mostly fixes oxygen in minerals such as silicates and

oxides. Most of the time the process is automatic all it takes is a pure
form of an element coming in contact with oxygen such as what happens
when iron rusts. A portion of oxygen is freed by chemical weathering.
When a oxygen bearing mineral is exposed to the elements a chemical
reaction occurs that wears it down and in the process produces free
oxygen.
THE SULFUR CYCLE

Sulfur Cycle, circulation of sulfur in various forms through nature.
Sulfur occurs in all living matter as a component of certain amino acids. It is
abundant in the soil in proteins and, through a series of microbial
transformations, ends up as sulfates usable by plants.

The sulfur cycle contains both atmospheric and terrestrial processes.

Within the terrestrial portion, the cycle begins with the weathering of rocks,
releasing the stored sulfur. The sulfur then comes into contact with air where it
is converted into sulfate (SO4). The sulfate is taken up by plants and
microorganisms and is converted into organic forms; animals then consume
these organic forms through foods they eat, thereby moving the sulfur through
the food chain. As organisms die and decompose, some of the sulfur is again
released as a sulfate and some enters the tissues of microorganisms. There are
also a variety of natural sources that emit sulfur directly into the atmosphere,
including volcanic eruptions, the breakdown of organic matter in swamps and
tidal flats, and the evaporation of water.
Sulfur eventually settles back into the Earth or comes down within
rainfall. A continuous loss of sulfur from terrestrial ecosystem runoff occurs
through drainage into lakes and streams, and eventually oceans. Sulfur also
enters the ocean through fallout from the Earths atmosphere. Within the
ocean, some sulfur cycles through marine communities, moving through the
food chain. A portion of this sulfur is emitted back into the atmosphere from
sea spray. The remaining sulfur is lost to the ocean depths, combining with
iron to form ferrous sulfide which is responsible for the black color of most
marine sediments.
THE PHOSPORUS CYCLE
Phosphorus is an important element for all forms of life. As phosphate
(PO4), it makes up an important part of the structural framework that holds
DNA and RNA together. Phosphates are also a critical component of ATPthe
cellular energy carrieras they serve as an energy release for organisms to use
in building proteins or contacting muscles. Like calcium, phosphorus is
important to vertebrates; in the human body, 80% of phosphorous is found in
teeth and bones.
The phosphorus cycle differs from the other major biogeochemical cycles
in that it does not include a gas phase; although small amounts of phosphoric
acid (H3PO4) may make their way into the atmosphere, contributingin some
casesto acid rain. The water, carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycles all include at
least one phase in which the element is in its gaseous state. Very little

phosphorus circulates in the atmosphere because at Earths normal
temperatures and pressures, phosphorus and its various compounds are not
gases. The largest reservoir of phosphorus is in sedimentary rock.
It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains,

phosphates are removed from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed
throughout both soils and water. Plants take up the phosphate ions from the
soil. The phosphates then moves from plants to animals when herbivores eat
plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores. The phosphates absorbed by
animal tissue through consumption eventually returns to the soil through the
excretion of urine and feces, as well as from the final decomposition of plants
and animals after death.
The same process occurs within the aquatic ecosystem. Phosphorus is
not highly soluble, binding tightly to molecules in soil, therefore it mostly
reaches waters by traveling with runoff soil particles. Phosphates also enter
waterways through fertilizer runoff, sewage seepage, natural mineral deposits,
and wastes from other industrial processes. These phosphates tend to settle on
ocean floors and lake bottoms. As sediments are stirred up, phosphates may
reenter the phosphorus cycle, but they are more commonly made available to
aquatic organisms by being exposed through erosion. Water plants take up the
waterborne phosphate which then travels up through successive stages of the
aquatic food chain.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The hydrologic cycle involves water moving from the surface (most
importantly the oceans) to the atmosphere, across the land, and everywhere in
between. Environmental scientists know that the hydrologic cycle includes
various processes that change water from solid to liquid to gas form and
transport it to every corner of earths surface (and below).
In terms of water, the earth is a closed system, so water isnt added or
removed from earth; its simply transformed, transported, and recycled.

Water in the oceans moves to the atmosphere through evaporation, a

process that changes the liquid water to vapor, or gas.
After the water vapor is in the atmosphere, processes of atmospheric circulation

transport it around the globe.
As the water vapor is carried over land, the atmosphere often releases it
in the form of precipitation (rain or snow).
The precipitation may stay on land in the form of snow (for a year or so)
or ice (for many years), or it may move across the land as rivers and
streams, and some of it will evaporate back into the atmosphere.
The water on the surface of the earth may end up in lakes for many
years, be absorbed into the soil and rocks and become groundwater, or
continue to flow as runoff until it reaches the ocean again.
Groundwater is water that flows underground toward the nearest ocean.
Plants release water into the atmosphere through a

transpiration. While plants lose water to the atmosphere
the time (sort of like sweating), transpiration is
photosynthesis, when plants release water into the
exchange for taking in carbon dioxide
process called
pretty much all
higher during
atmosphere in

Greenhouse gas effect and climate change

Greenhouse Effect: History
Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) was a Swedish scientist who was the first to
claim in 1896 that fossil fuel combustion may eventually result in enhanced
global warming. He proposed a relation between atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations and temperature. He and Thomas Chamberlin calculated that
human activities could warm the earth by adding carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. This was not actually verified until 1987; in 1988 it was finally
acknowledged that the climate was warmer than any period since 1880. The
greenhouse effect theory was named and the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) was founded by the United Nations Environmental
Programme and the World Meteorological Organization. This organization tries
to predict the impact of the greenhouse effect according to existing climate
models and literature information.
The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Some human activities also produce greenhouse gases and these gases
keep increasing in the atmosphere. The change in the balance of the
greenhouse gases has significant effects on the entire planet. Burning fossil
fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide. A group
of greenhouse gases called the chlorofluorocarbons have been used in aerosols,
such as hairspray cans, fridges and in making foam plastics.
Since there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
more heat is trapped, which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as global
warming. A lot of scientists agree that man's activities are making the natural
greenhouse effect stronger. If we carry on polluting the atmosphere with
greenhouse gases, it will have very dangerous effects on the Earth. Today, the
increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed.

To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider
that during the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased
by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit). Using
computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average
global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius
(approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).
Greenhouse Gases
Many greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment, such as
water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Others such
as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) are created and emitted solely through human activities.
Human activities also add significantly to the level of naturally occurring
greenhouse gases. The principal greenhouse gases that enter the atmosphere
because of human activities are:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through the
burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), solid waste, trees and wood
products, and also as a result of other chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of
cement). Carbon dioxide is also removed from the atmosphere (or
"sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon
cycle.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during various agricultural and
industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid
waste.
Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of

coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane is also emitted when organic waste
decomposes, whether in landfills or in connection with livestock farming.
Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur

hexafluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a
variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as
substitutes for ozone-depleting substances (i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons).
These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are
potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").
Greenhouse gases vary in their ability to absorb and hold heat in the
atmosphere. HFCs and PFCs are the most heat-absorbent, but there are also
wide differences between naturally occurring gases. For example, nitrous oxide
absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide, and methane
absorbs 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide. However,
carbon dioxide contributes the most, since its level in the athmosphere is the
highest.
Estimates of future emissions and removals depend in part on
assumptions about changes in underlying human activities. For example, the
demand for fossil fuels such as gasoline and coal is expected to increase greatly
with the predicted growth of the U.S. and global economies.
Many, but not all, human sources of greenhouse gas emissions are expected to
rise in the future. This growth may be reduced by ongoing efforts to increase
the use of newer, cleaner technologies and other measures. Additionally, our
everyday choices about such things as commuting, housing, electricity use,
and recycling can influence the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted.

The Effects of Global Warming

With more heat trapped on Earth, the planet will become warmer, which
means the weather all over Earth will change. Since the conditions we are
living in are perfect for life, a large rise in temperature could be disastrous for
us and for any other living creatures on Earth. At the moment, it is difficult for
scientists to say how big the changes will be and where the worst effects will
occur. These are some of the assumptions.
The Weather
The effects will vary in different parts of the world: some places will
become drier and others will become wetter. Although most areas will be
warmer, some areas will become cooler. There may be many storms, floods and
drought, but we do not know which areas of the world will be affected. All over
the world, these weather changes will affect the kinds of crop that can be
grown. Plants, animals, and even people may find it difficult to survive in
different conditions.
Sea Levels
Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand.
Ice melting in the Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea. All over the
world, sea levels may rise, perhaps by as much as 20 to 40 cm, by the
beginning of the next century. Higher sea levels will threaten the low-lying
coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh.
Throughout the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger
from flooding. Many people will have to leave their homes and large areas of
farmland will be ruined because of floods.
Farming
The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in
different parts of the world. Some crops, such as wheat and rice, grow better in
higher temperatures, but other plants, such as maize and sugarcane, do not.
Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many plants grow. The
effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries
not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, south-east Asia, and China will
be affected the most and many people could suffer from hunger.

Plants & Animals
It has taken million of years for life to become used to the conditions on
Earth. As weather and temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals
will be affected all over the world. For example, polar bears and seals will have
to find new land for hunting and living if the ice in the Arctic melts. Many
animals and plants may not be able to cope with these changes and could die.
This could cause the loss of some animal and plant species in certain or all
areas of the world.
People
The changes in climate will affect everyone, but some populations will be
at greater risk. For example, countries whose coastal regions have a large
population, such as Egypt and China, may see whole populations move inland
to avoid flood risk areas. The effect on people will depend on how well we can
adapt to the changes and how much we can do to reduce climate change in the
world.
Renewable Energy
There are many forms of renewable energy. Most of these renewable
energies depend in one way or another on sunlight. Wind and hydroelectric
power are the direct result of differential heating of the Earth's surface which
leads to air moving about (wind) and precipitation forming as the air is lifted.
Solar energy is the direct conversion of sunlight using panels or collectors.
Biomass energy is stored sunlight contained in plants. Other renewable
energies that do not depend on sunlight are geothermal energy, which is a
result of radioactive decay in the crust combined with the original heat of
accreting the Earth, and tidal energy, which is a conversion of gravitational
energy.
Solar. This form of energy relies on the nuclear fusion power from the core of
the Sun. This energy can be collected and converted in a few different ways.
The range is from solar water heating with solar collectors or attic cooling with
solar attic fans for domestic use to the complex technologies of direct
conversion of sunlight to electrical energy using mirrors and boilers or
photovoltaic cells. Unfortunately these are currently insufficient to fully power
our modern society.

Wind Power. The movement of the atmosphere is driven by differences of
temperature at the Earth's surface due to varying temperatures of the Earth's
surface when lit by sunlight. Wind energy can be used to pump water or
generate electricity, but requires extensive areal coverage to produce significant
amounts of energy.
Hydroelectric energy. This form uses the gravitational potential of elevated
water that was lifted from the oceans by sunlight. It is not strictly speaking
renewable since all reservoirs eventually fill up and require very expensive
excavation to become useful again. At this time, most of the available locations
for hydroelectric dams are already used in the developed world.
Biomass is the term for energy from plants. Energy in this form is very
commonly used throughout the world. Unfortunately the most popular is the
burning of trees for cooking and warmth. This process releases copious
amounts of carbon dioxide gases into the atmosphere and is a major
contributor to unhealthy air in many areas. Some of the more modern forms of
biomass energy are methane generation and production of alcohol for
automobile fuel and fuelling electric power plants.
Hydrogen and fuel cells. These are also not strictly renewable energy
resources but are very abundant in availability and are very low in pollution
when utilized. Hydrogen can be burned as a fuel, typically in a vehicle, with
only water as the combustion product. This clean burning fuel can mean a
significant reduction of pollution in cities. Or the hydrogen can be used in fuel
cells, which are similar to batteries, to power an electric motor. In either case
significant production of hydrogen requires abundant power. Due to the need
for energy to produce the initial hydrogen gas, the result is the relocation of
pollution from the cities to the power plants. There are several promising
methods to produce hydrogen, such as solar power, that may alter this picture
drastically.
Geothermal power. Energy left over from the original accretion of the planet
and augmented by heat from radioactive decay seeps out slowly everywhere,
everyday. In certain areas the geothermal gradient (increase in temperature
with depth) is high enough to exploit to generate electricity. This possibility is
limited to a few locations on Earth and many technical problems exist that
limit its utility. Another form of geothermal energy is Earth energy, a result of

the heat storage in the Earth's surface. Soil everywhere tends to stay at a
relatively constant temperature, the yearly average, and can be used with heat
pumps to heat a building in winter and cool a building in summer. This form of
energy can lessen the need for other power to maintain comfortable
temperatures in buildings, but cannot be used to produce electricity.
Other forms of energy. Energy from tides, the oceans and hot hydrogen fusion
are other forms that can be used to generate electricity. Each of these is
discussed in some detail with the final result being that each suffers from one
or another significant drawback and cannot be relied upon at this time to solve
the upcoming energy crunch.

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

University of the City of Manila

1|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

A population is a group of individuals of the same species which can

2|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

3|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

A biogeochemical cycle is chemical

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

THE CARBON CYCLE

5|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

6|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

It can be useful to think of the carbon cycle in two sets of components:

6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy

Through photosynthesis, green plants use solar energy to turn

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

8|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

9|Environmental and Ecological Concepts

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:

Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ )

Nitrogen fixation is the process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) is

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

The second part of the nitrification process is called nitration. Another

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Through denitrification, oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate (NO3-)

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Once converted to dinitrogen, nitrogen is unlikely to be reconverted to a

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

In the atmosphere Oxygen is freed by the process called photolysis. This

In the biosphere, oxygen undergoes cycles of respiration and

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

The lithosphere mostly fixes oxygen in minerals such as silicates and

THE SULFUR CYCLE

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

The sulfur cycle contains both atmospheric and terrestrial processes.

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains,

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Water in the oceans moves to the atmosphere through evaporation, a

After the water vapor is in the atmosphere, processes of atmospheric circulation

Plants release water into the atmosphere through a

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Greenhouse gas effect and climate change

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of

Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

The Effects of Global Warming

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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

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