Indian Highways Vol.41 12 Dec 13

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 41
Number 12
December 2013
Contents
ISSN 0376-7256
Page
2-3
4
5-39

40

52

59

70

75

93

96

102
103-105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117-118
119-120
121-122
From the Editors Desk - Can Roads Be Saviour to Environment

Important Announcement-74th Annual Session to be Held at Guwahati from 18th to 22nd January 2014
Highlights of International Seminar on Experience Gained in PPP Projects in Road Sector - the Way Forward Held at New Delhi on
11-12 November, 2013
A Laboratory Study on Short Term and Long Term Ageing of Bitumen Using Modifiers
Praveen Kumar, Shambhavi Mishra and Nikhil Saboo
Comparative Study of Wet and Dry Blending of Plastic Modified Bituminous Mix Used in Road Pavements
M. Veerendra Kumar, R. Muralidhara and Divya J. Nair
The Impact of Road Construction on Depletion of Natural Aggregates and Consequence of Delay in Recycling Pavements - Key Factors
in Sustainable Road Construction
Rajib B. Mallick, Michael Radzicki, Yamini V. Nanagiri and A. Veeraragavan
A Study on Response Spectrum and Time History Analysis Methods for Seismic Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Bridges
Saadat Zaki Mulla
How Safe are Indian Highways at Night
Partha Aich and M.K. Ganguly
Behaviour of Piles Under Loads
K.S. Agashe
Split Tensile Strength Test of Lime and Cement Stabilized Fly Ash
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay and Sunanda Bhattacharjee
Just Published
Circular Issued by MORT&H
Aasam Road Research and Training Institute
Tender Notice of NH Circle, Lucknow
Tender Notice of NH Circle, Allahabad
Tender Notice of NH Circle, Bareilly
Tender Notice of NH Circle, Chennai
Tender Notice of NH Circle, Kanpur
IRC Membership Form
74th Annual Session Registration Form
74th Annual Session Accommodation Form
The Indian Roads Congress

E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/indianhighways@irc.org.in
Founded : December 1934

IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
From the Editors Desk
CAN ROADS BE SAVIOUR TO ENVIRONMENT

Dear Readers,
Can roads be considered conducive to environment preservation & conservation? The issue is
debatable but when we see from the aspect of civilization and human inclusive growth, then many
options becomes visible which suggests that roads can be a savior of environment, environment
preservation and protection efforts.
It is commonly debated that the road construction requires lot of natural resources and, therefore,
how they can be considered conducive to environment preservation? Perhaps in the infrastructure
sector, roads sector have maximum possibilities of use of waste material, industrial by-products as
well as municipal waste. The need is to inculcate the concept of achieving higher carbon footprints
in the road construction and operation system. This require dedicated efforts of all the stakeholders
and more importantly the need to carryout dedicated research in a more intensive and extensive
manner. However, over the years the attention towards research in the road sector have taken a
backseat, which now requires a relook. It may not be appropriate to overlook the strength of some
good practices of the past especially on the aspect of principles of alignment fixation which use
to be finalized considering the ecological issues. This can be seen from the fact that some of the
national highways are having alignment fixed long back (some few centuries ago). This must
be the integral feature of a road sector project preparation especially for the new alignments or
re-alignments.
The optimization of land resources in spite of building activities taking place on either side of
the road is yet to be fully integrated and still the concept of by-passes is practiced as a normal
routine. Considering the life cycle cost analysis, it will be always be more environmental friendly
if we consider and implement the concept of multilevel highways/road facilities on the existing
alignment. This may also help in the resulted huge savings in land acquisition and rehabilitation
efforts. Hence economically high returns but doubted by finance minded people normally having
short term perspective/vision.
The issue of material requirement especially the sand, aggregates, etc. do have environmental
concerns but if proper integrated approach is followed by interlinking the various programs of
different Ministries/Departments/Organizations, to a larger extent the environmental concerns
may get translated into a system of environment preservation and conservation. This is a difficult
proposition but not impossible and pessimists will always criticize of such type of concept. However,
this is the need of the hour.
Do road constructions contribute towards climate change? Answer may be both in affirmative as
well as in negative sense. There are number of ways, techniques & technology which may allow
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013
EDITORIAL
road construction activity to transform into climate friendly process. The need is to transform the
narrow mind set to a more positive & pragmatic approach.
Do we really carry out value of return on the investment made in the road sector? And how it has
relevance on the environment conservation? A deeper thought is required to be given as most of the
time the right technical solutions having much higher economic returns are discarded on financial
considerations. The time has come when the financial decisions needs to be subjected to technical
audit and the road sector if it adopts the same may give much higher economic returns to the society
and the country.
Do the road accidents have environmental impacts? If we compromise the safety of road users
especially the pedestrians by just deleting the provisions of footpath or pedestrians cross over
facilities, etc. does it have impact on the environment? Why the roads especially in the urban areas
should not be made conducive and safe for the non-motorized vehicles/cyclists as well as pedestrians.
By doing so how much saving we can make in economic terms as well as from environmental
considerations. All these issues require a concerted approach as well as synergization of efforts
from all stakeholders.
The need is not to criticize and indulge in blame game but to learn from the failures and bring
in more ecological friendly processes, procedures, techniques and technology to not only reduce
degradation of the eco-system but to create a process of rehabilitation of eco-system that has been
degraded, damaged or destroyed. The road sector can play a pioneering role and in this direction
Indian Roads Congress has already taken some steps and have just published the Guidelines on Use
of Plastic Waste in Road Construction. More efforts by the fraternity of Indian Roads Congress
are underway for such process & technologies in the road sector which may ultimately prove to be
a savior sector to the environment among all the infrastructure sectors.
Do you want to know who you are? Do not ask. Act! Action will delineate and define you
Thomas Jefferson
Place: New Delhi

Dated: 21st November, 2013
Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General
Important Announcement
74 ANNUAL SESSION TO BE HELD AT GUWAHATI
from 18th to 22nd JANUARY 2014
th
On the invitation of Government of Assam, the 74th Annual Session of the Indian Roads Congress will be
held at Guwahati (Assam) from 18th to 22nd January, 2014. The Invitation Booklet containing the Tentative
Programme, Registration Form, Accommodation Form etc. is available in our website www.irc.org.in. The
Relevant Registration and Accommodation Forms are attached with this edition in the end.
The 74th Annual Session of the Indian Roads Congress is scheduled to be held at Guwahati. It is expected that
more than 3000 Highway Engineers from all over the country and abroad will attend this Session. During the
Annual Session of IRC, there has been a practice for various firms/organizations to make Technical Presentations
on their products/technologies & case studies (with innovative construction methods or technologies or having
special problems requiring out of the box thinking and special solutions). The presenters get an opportunity
to address a large gathering of highway professionals from Private Sector as well as decision makers in the
Govt. Sector. These presentations evoke lively interactions among the participants.
A time slot of about 15 minutes is normally allocated for each Technical Presentation to be made through
Power Point. Time is also given for floor interventions. Audio-visual equipment is made available at the
venue for these Presentations.
During Technical Presentation Session no other meetings will be held parallel so as to ensure maximum
attendance during the Technical Presentation Session. The stakeholders are, therefore, requested to
participate in the event and book the slots at the earliest.
Interested Organizations may write to IRC conveying their willingness for participation and send the topic
of their Technical Presentation by E-mail at journal@irc.org.in or through Speed Post alongwith a Demand
Draft for Rs.50,000/- (Rupees Fifty Thousand only) drawn in favour of Secretary General, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi latest by 20th December, 2013 so that necessary arrangements can be made by IRC.
Requests received after 20th December, 2013 will not be entertained. Since the time slot available is limited,
the interested firms/organizations may reserve the slots at the earliest instead of waiting for the last date.
Attention Invited
For any enquiry about the 74th Annual Session like Registration, Membership etc. please address to
Secretary General, (Kind Attn. Shri D. Sam Singh, Under Secretary) Indian Roads Congress,
Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022. Phone + 91 11 26185273, 26185315, 26185319,
E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in, or contact the following officers:
Registration
Membership
Technical Presentation
Accommodation and Technical

Exhibition
Shri S.K. Chadha

Under Secretary (I/C)
Phone: + 91 11 2338 7140
E-mail: annualsession@irc.org.in,
ircannualsession@gmail.com
Shri Mukesh Dubey

Section Officer
Phone: + 91 11 2338 7759
E-mail: membership@irc.org.in
Shri S.C. Pant

Section Officer
Phone: + 91 11 2618 5273
E-mail: journal@irc.org.in
Shri Suryya Kr. Baruah

Local Organizing Secretary &
SE, Building Circle -I, Highways,
Guwahati- 641 018 (Assam)
Phone: 0361-266 9873
M.: +91-98640 33268
E-mail: 74thircguwahati@gmail.com
HIGHLIGHTS OF INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR

ON
EXPERIENCE GAINED IN PPP PROJECTS IN
ROAD SECTOR THE WAY FORWARD HELD AT NEW DELHI
ON 11-12 NOVEMBER, 2013
Welcoming Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways being

welcomed by Shri C. Kandasamy, President, IRC and
Director General (Road Development) & SS, MoRTH
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways being

welcomed by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
Secretary General, IRC
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways meeting with

National & International Delegates
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways and other

Dignitaries on the way to Seminar Hall
The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in association

with the World Road Congress (PIARC) and Govt. of
France organized two days International Seminar on
"Experience Gained in PPP Projects in Road Sector
The Way Forward" from 11th to 12th November, 2013
at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi. The International
Seminar was attended by more than 300 Highway
Sector Engineers/Professionals representing various

facets of road sector fraternity all over the globe as
well as from Central/State Govt. Departments, PSUs,
Private Sector Orgnizations, Academic Institutes,
Banking and Financing Institutes, Legal Firms, etc.
and also from multilateral orgnization like World
Bank, Asian Development Bank, JICA, etc.
Highlights of International Seminar
Shri B.K.Chaturvedi Ji, Member (Power Energy & Transport),

Planning Commission, Govt. of India being welcomed by
Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India,

Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji with Shri B.K.Chaturvedi Ji and
Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad
Shri T.K.A. Nair Ji, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India

being welcomed by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
His Excellency Shri Francois Richier Ji, Ambassador of Govt. of

France to India being welcomed by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
Shri Arvind Mayaram Ji, Secretary, Department of Economic

Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India being welcomed by
Shri Gajendra Haldea Ji, Advisor to Deputy Chairman

(Infrastructure), Planning Commission, Govt. of India being
welcomed by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,

Inaugural Function
Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways inaugurated the International Seminar
by lighting the traditional lamp.
Lighting of Traditional Lamp during the International Seminar
Other dignitaries, Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary,

Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance,
Govt. of India; His Excellency Shri Francois Richier,
Ambassador of Govt. of France; Lt. Gen. A.T. Parnaik,
Director General (Border Roads); Shri C. Kandasamy,
Director General (Road Development) & SS, Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways, President of IRC,
Shri Gerardo L Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman of the

Technical Committee, PIARC; Shri P.N. Jain, Past
President, IRC; Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary
General, IRC and S/Shri K.K.Y. Mahindrakar and
Shri Swatantra Kumar Vice-Presidents of IRC also
graced the occasion.
7

Some Glimpses of Inaugural Function
Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji being welcomed in traditional manner with Shawl by
President IRC, Shri C. Kandasamy, DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH
Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary, Department of Economic

Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India being welcomed in
traditional manner with Shawl by President IRC
Shri C. Kandasamy, DG(RD)&SS, MoRTH
His Excellency Shri Francois Richier, Ambassador of Govt.

of France to India being welcomed in traditional manner with
Shawl by President IRC, Shri C. Kandasamy, DG(RD) & SS,
Shri Gerardo L. Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman, Technical

Committee of PIARC being welcomed in traditional manner with
Shawl by President IRC, Shri C. Kandasamy,
DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH
Lt. Gen. A.T. Parnaik, Director General (Border Roads) being

welcomed in traditional manner with Shawl by Shri P.N. Jain,
Immediate Past President of IRC
Shri C. Kandasamy, President, IRC and DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH

being welcomed in traditional manner with Shawl by
Shri P.N. Jain, Immediate Past President of IRC
Shri P.N. Jain, Immediate Past President of IRC being welcomed

in traditional manner with Shawl by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
Shri K.K.Y. Mahindrakar, Vice President, IRC being welcomed

in traditional manner with Shawl by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
Secretary General IRC
Shri Swatantra Kumar, Vice President, IRC being welcomed in

traditional manner with Shawl by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
Secretary General IRC
A view of the dais during Inaugural Function

Address by Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India
necessary for the Highway Engineers to provide world
class roads to our Citizens, facilitating their access to
education, health and well-being, within the context
of sustainable development. UPA Government has
given a thrust to all areas of infrastructure in the
country. It is no more a secret that the highway sector
in the country is witnessing a significant increase in
activities, in recent years. The Government has made
substantial efforts to tackle the road and shortcomings
of highways sector and to reform its transport
institutions. Perhaps India is the one country where
private sector financing is taking place on a big way in
the shape of Public Private Parternship (PPP) Projects.
Government is continuously making efforts to create a
conducive environment to channelized private sector
financing.
Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport &

Highways delivering Inaugural Address
Distinguished Dignitaries, Delegates from India

& Abroad, Invitees, Guest & Friends from the
Media
It is a matter of great pleasure to be amongst the galaxy
of experts gathered from all over the world on the
occasion of this International Seminar Experience
Gained in PPP Project in Road Sector The Way
Forward being organized jointly by the Indian Roads
Congress (IRC), Government of France & World
Road Association (PIARC). As you all know road
infrastructure contributes not only to the economic
growth of the nation but also help in poverty alleviation
and generation of employment. It is, therefore
10
With the growing road construction industry,

environmental burdens are not far behind because of
the use of resources, the emission of pollutants and
global warming, which affect society at large. Roads
have significant impacts on both nearby communities
and the natural environment. New roads bring
development to previously underdeveloped areas,
sometimes causing significant effects on sensitive
environments and the lifestyles of indigenous
people. Our UPA Government is committed to an allround development of road network in the country.
Strategically, adding lanes to existing highway and
upgrading existing roads in initial phase will reduce
greenhouse gas emissions by easing congestion. This
strategy is paying by reducing the amount of fuel that
vehicles waste in stop-and-go traffic, leading to lower
releases of greenhouse gases from vehicles. India is
soon going to have one of the worlds most extensive
National highway networks through various phases of
the National Highways Development Project planned
by the Government.
The one area of concern to which I would like to draw
the attention of all the Experts is the conservation of
the material. There is a need to save scarce physical
resource like aggregates, sand, earth, cement, bitumen,

etc. looking to huge programme of construction of
highways in the country. Construction of roads require
huge amount of soil and a great part of it is drawn
from fertile top soil suitable for agriculture purposes.
Here I feel that we need a convergence of various
efforts. To my mind it is not our department alone
should take up this task, we should have conversions
with Ministry of Railways, Ministry of Rural
Development where we have extensive programme
to provide employment to our people - hundred days
guaranteed employment in the country for every
household. Their main task is to create water bodies.
Whereas, in another government department of water
resources, we are planning to build 10,000 water
bodies, and spending money to create water bodies.
We in the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
are digging out earth for use in road building. Here
I say why dont we utilize that soil dug for creating
water bodies. We will be conserving rather than
we spending money and wasting our resources. Let
us interlink various departments - Water Resource
Ministry should be one, Ministry of Agriculture and
Ministry of Irrigation can also be associated. One of
our main concerns is to find money to maintain the
roads. What I say is along the highways we have
plenty of land where we plant saplings & make them
grow into trees. Somebody had planted a tree & we are
eating the fruits. Why dont we plant tree and leave
them there till they will grow up. After twenty, thirty,
forty, fifty years you cut them and use that income for
maintaining roads. Let us have thinking on these lines
so that, we not only draw from nature but we add to
the wealth of the nature.
On the other hand, we have problem of the disposal
& storage of industrial waste like fly-ash, copper slag,
marble slurry, etc. We should make sincere efforts
in utilizing these waste materials in construction of
roads through complete/partial replacement for subgrade, embankment construction to conserve the top
soil suitable for cultivation. Stabilization by use of
chemical, enzymes and modifiers should be attempted
to utilize the otherwise unsuitable soil. Our research
based activity should be conducted in such a manner
that there is proper integration and inter-linkages

between laboratory research and field requirements/
implementations. I would like to give the slogan field
to lab & lab to field and the private entrepreneurs
should not feel hesitate in associating and collaborating
with the government institutions to carry out people
oriented research activities in the road sector.
We are developing roads as a National asset at a huge
cost. These assets need to be preserved qualitatively
through asset management initiatives. We need to
work out appropriate maintenance strategies keeping
in view the available budget and the required demand.
This concept is having high relevance in the big ticket
long term projects of PPP segment. It also opens up
opportunity for usage of new materials, techniques
& technologies and I urge upon the Consultants,
Concessionaires as well as executing agencies
including officers of the government to develop suitable
mechanism for adoption of the best on continuous
basis. The system should be flexible enough for quick
adoption of the same but rigid enough to identify and
quantify the end product result/quality.
As it happens, over a period of time some
apprehensions gets developed about the suitability of
a system, which may be due to changed conditions
and scenarios or may be due to changed aspirations
of users/stakeholders. This is also true to PPP road
projects and the government is taking appropriate
measures to address those issues. In this year budget,
government have already announced setting up
a regulatory mechanism on which work is going
on besides the issues of debt management/debt
refinancing, institutional strengthening, restructuring
of projects, revision of MCA, etc. are being examined
and being regularity reviewed and revised. I am
happy that this International Seminar is taking place
at the most appropriate time and I compliment the
organizers especially the Indian Roads Congress for
this endeavor.
We are also planning for constructing green field
expressways and I am told that Indian Roads
Congress have developed a Manual in a record time
of nine months for Specifications and Standards
11

for Expressways which will be form the part of the
contract agreement. I am told it is going to be released
today. My special compliments for the same.
I am sure during the course of 2 days program highly
useful and meaningful discussion & deliberations will
be carried out by the experts which have come from
different parts of the world and different stakeholders.
I am sure the sharing of experience, expertise and
wisdom by the stalwarts in the road sector will lead to
new workable suggestions & recommendations. I am
eagerly awaiting the same.
I wish the International Seminar all the success.
Jai Hind
Address by Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary,
Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of
Finance, Govt. of India
Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary, Department of Economic

Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India, delivering address
Honble Minister for Road Transport & Highways,

Ladies and Gentlemen, Public Private Partnership
is here to stay. We have now the largest program in
all the sectors combined and road have always in the
forefront. I am going to speak very quickly only at three
important issues which I think will be discussed during
the deliberations in the Seminar. First important fact is
that we started PPP and we have not envisaged at that
point of time the integration of World economy and
Indian economy. The turmoil in the global economy
is being felt in India. Now we recognized that there
is a dynamic environment for PPP sector and this
12
needs to be recognized. There is a need for openness

and transparency in the contracts and concession
agreements. Once you have signed the contracts,
can you open it again without attracting criticism or
without attracting adverse attention? There is always
an issue of moral hazard. Therefore, it is necessary
to revisit the concession agreement keeping in view
the stressed PPP projects without failing into the
trap of moral hazard. How best we can address these
important issues keeping in view the sovereign and
the Concessionaire liability in a transparent manner.
The need is to develop a transparent framework for a
negotiable determination of the relief that can be given
to the stressed projects. In this context I am happy that
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways is finalizing a
framework for a road regulator who I believe in future
will act as an Independent arbitrator to determine
where the responsibility for stressed projects lies. The
other issue which I think is important for us in our
deliberations is developing private sector capabilities.
We have now realized that those who have come into
the PPP projects concession period of 25-30 years
do not have the capability of running concession for
such long period. They are having core competence
in the construction only and once they have done
construction, they want to move out of the same. So
we require the facilitating process of allowing them to
take out their equity stake and simultaneously we need
to develop the management companies seen in some of
the foreign countries like USA & France. The facility
management company in France take over the project
and operate & managed for next 20 to 25 years. We are
looking at important aspect of creating infrastructure
finance & management towards companies which will
step in after the PPP facility is successfully constructed
and then get new investors to manage the facilities
during the operation & maintenance period. Lastly, I
would like to speak which is about problem of getting
long term financing and transfer of debt. You might
have read in the newspapers how the banks in India
are engaged in stretching the loan period to say 10 to
15 years. The infrastructure debt funds will make the
projects more viable without attracting the regulatory
penalty while reconstructing the debt/loan of the

Concessionaires. This has been a major problem of
the Concessionaires and the Industry. I hope we will
be able to move in this direction and create framework
for long term financing. Thank you very much
Special Address by His Excellency Shri Francois
Richier, Ambassador of Govt. of France to India
His Excellency Shri Francois Richier, Ambassador of Govt. of

France to India delivering address
"Honble Minister for Road Transport and Highways

Shri Oscar Fernandes,
Shri Arvind Mayaram,
Secretary, Deptt. of Econimics Affairs, Ministry of
Finance, dignitaries from Indian Roads Congress,
distinguish delegates, ladies and gentlemen, I am very
happy to be here in the Inauguration of this Seminar.
It fits very well in the direction which were given few
month ago on the occasion of State visit of French
President Mr. Francois Hollande to India in February.
During this visit, of course, he highlighted strategic
pillars of Indo-French partnership in nuclear, defence,
tourism, space and others, but he also highlighted the
necessity for India to join hands in developing the
economic partnership and today I think we are on the
right track with 750 French companies present with
18 Billion stock of Investments which shows the
confidence we have in France in the future and the
growth of India as major economic partner in the World.
This has also of course, in this different dimensions
and one of course is infrastructure development with
urban or others and is definitely to keep priority of this
economic partnership that we are developing. There
is several reasons for that, the first one is that because
we have all these investments and we are keen to see

infrastructure developing in India because we need
them good for these companies which are currently
benefiting from 2.5 lakh Indian skilled personnel. And
we need also across the board strong India with strong
infrastructures and strong stand in the international
community. The latest bi-lateral development between
France and India is technological partnership and
flagship of that was recent India-France technology
summit which took place in Delhi and highlighted
number of sectors in which we find a great common
interest into joining hands and sharing technologies
for the betterment of two countries. And here also
in infrastructure component, I am sure the different
companies present here which all have very cutting
edge technology, are ready to contribute to Indian
growth and sharing those particular technology. In
this context the PPP model that we are going to look
into today is certainly the way forward. From the tests
some time before, we reached the conclusion that
we have best of law on PPP model in this sector. If
I recollect correctly in 2004 less than ten years ago,
since then it has developed quite well and there was
some good reason for that simply because when you
have such a growing demand, expectations are from
the people to have good roads. When you have such
difficulties to finance them. We found it absolutely
necessary to develop that model and I would like to
add other element from smaller countries other than
India, which we look at the grow question in Europe.
We have like most of the growth in India is generated
by the domestic consumption, therefore, I think this
seminar is very timely. I mention the French companies
some of them are present here. I have a list, before
I read the list, I hope I dont forget anybody that is
Sistha Engeineering, Facenemania Gohebja NAPC in
construction, Hindustan Colas in Bitumen equipment
supply & construction and Quasi group in waterways
constructions, I think they all are ready to participate
in competition in India to build roads. As many other
companies present in India they have some concern
and legitimate once which could be very well in the
future may become hurdles if not addressed now in
the development of infrastructure in India. I am very
13

happy that this International Seminar will contribute
to find solutions and few good reflections, new ideas
and innovative proposals to fix these concerns and I
am sure that we have great future together.
views between experts came from different countries.

I am sure that based on these deliberations innovative
ways and means will emerge for inclusive growth &
development in road sector.
Thank you very much".
Thank You
Address by Shri C. Kandasamy, President,

Indian Roads Congress and Director General (RD)
& Special Secretary, MoRT&H
Address by Shri Gerardo L. Gavilanes Gineres,

Chairman, Technical Committee of PIARC
Shri Gerardo L Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman of the Technical

Committee, PIARC (TC-2.1- Financing) delivering address
Shri C. Kandasamy, President, IRC and Director General
(Road Development) & SS, Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, delivering address
Distinguished dignitaries, delegates and invitees,

friends from the media, ladies and gentlemen. A very
good morning to you.
As we know, the road sector plays a vital role in the
development of the Nation and the Society. The
demand for rapid development needs the effort
of the government be supplemented with private
participation channelizing and utilizing private sector
efficiency. As we all know, Govt. of India has declared
this decade as the decade of innovation for inclusive
growth and the UN has declared this decade, the
decade of action for road safety. The Indian Roads
Congress in its Coimbatore Session in January, 2013
has adopted the resolution that the Roads be built
not only for the vehicles but for the people, safety
and services. This shift the focus on the people and
services for inclusive growth and road safety. The
ways and means of achieving these objectives will be
greatly benefitted from such Seminars and exchange of
14
Excellencys, Ladies and Gentlemen, I welcome to

you all to this International Seminar Experience
gained in PPP Project in Road Sector The Way
Forward organized by the Indian Roads Congress.
On behalf of PIARC International, Secretary General
I would like to give you a few words about what
PIARC is. Most of you already know it but Some
of you might not know. The Worlds Road Association
commonly known as PIARC, is a non-political nonprofitable organization, that was established in 1909.
So its a long history in its back of PIARC. It is known
as PIARC because PIARC stands for Permanent
International Association of Road Congresses and
was namely association is to have between 1909
and 1995. Now the name changed and is known as
World Roads Association but for a customary word it
is still known as PIARC. The mission of PIARC is to
organize International forums as this and to disseminate
best practices promote efficient tools for decision
makers and giving special emphasis for European
countries and countries with economic internships. In
this respect there are already 118 members from all

over the world, 31 in Asia, 32 in Africa, 33 in Europe
and 22 in America. 37 countries are participating in
the International Committees to PIARC, Committees
which are established in every country to promote
working of PIARC. The work of PIARC is established
every four years period depending on certain things
that have been selected before. For this period which is
already in 2012-2015, there are for statutory thingsmanagement of performance, efficient mobility, safety
in road infrastructure, etc. There are 18 technical
committees and 2 task forces. Apart from them, there
is a permanent committee on terminology which
is something that we found useful because most
of the countries are having different ways for the
same things, the work is to unify and come with a
uniform terminology which works of every one . The
Committee we belong to is committee 1.2 which is for
financing and management performance. This is one
of the issues & important aspects of PPP roads now
a days, where to find money to do the things better,
provide the better service to citizens. Our work mainly
consists of studying in different strategy of financing,
different approaches, different ways, PPP tradition
of procurement, etc. and finally at the end of this 4
years period, we will be able to produce technical
report that will be useful for everyone who wants to
do anything about the world roads finance. To give
the honoraria to the proforma cycle 2008-11, there
were 56 technical reports produced by the different
technical committees. All of them are available to
you all in www.piarc.org, which is a web page for
PIARC. You can find most of their services available
on knowledge base, virtual library, terminology
information about the association, if you want to have
more details about it. The next World Roads Congress
will take place in Seoul in 2015. I would like to finish
this introduction with special thanks to Indian Roads
Congress for organizing this PPP seminar which I
think will be useful for everyone. After this Seminar
which is of two days duration our committees will
take advantage of the occasion and will meet for

another two days. Thank you

delivering welcome address
Shri P.N. Jain, Immediate Past President, IRC

delivering vote of thanks
Vote of Thanks by Shri P.N. Jain, Immediate Past

President, IRC
Good morning every body. Honble Minister of
Road Transport and Highways Shri Oscar Fernandes
Ji, all other dignitaries on the dais, off the dais,
distinguished delegates from India and Abroad,
invitees, guests and friends from the media, On
behalf of the Indian Roads Congress it is my proud
privilege to propose vote of thanks on the occasion
of inaugural function of International Seminar on
Experience Gained in PPP Projects in Road Sector
15

The Way Forward. We are feeling blessed to
have our Honble Minister of Road Transport and
Highways with us today who has given his valuable
time from his extremely busy schedule and for giving
guidance to all of us. Today road sector and IRC have
attained greater heights, we would like to request
you for giving continuous support to IRC fraternity
as has been done in the past. I on behalf of Indian
Roads Congress thankful to the Secretary, Department
of Economic Affair Shri Arvind Mayaramji for his
thought provoking address and sharing his experience,
I express sincere thanks for his kind presence. I
express my sincere thanks to the Ambassador of the
Govt. of France to India his Excellency Shri Francois
Richer for his illuminating address and making
possible to grace this International event in spite of
other engagements, I express my sincere thanks to the
Director General (RD) & SS, MoRT&H and President,
IRC Shri C Kandasamy Ji for his able guidance in
organizing this International Seminar with all his
support, I express my sincere thanks to Lt. General
Shri A.T. Parnaik Ji Director General, Border Roads
for gracing this event and his support to the Indian
Roads Congress, I also express my sincere thanks
on behalf of Indian Roads Congress to Shri Girardo
Gavilanes Gineres and the entire fraternity of PIARC
who has made this event memorable and we are sure
to have very fruitful cooperation in the years to come.
I express my sincere thanks to the Vice President of
Indian Roads Congress Shri K.K.Y. Mahindrakar and
Shri Swantatra Kumar for gracing this inaugural
function and the cooperation in organizing this event.
My gratitude to this August gathering of eminent
scholars, professional, invitees, guests and all the
participants for giving us this privilege through
their graceful presence on this memorable event.
I sincerely thanks to our guests and delegates from
foreign countries who have accepted the invitation
16
and have come all the way to India today. I am

highly appreciative of the untiring efforts of technical
and managerial skills of IRC Secretariat under the
leadership of Secretary General Shri Vishnu Shankar
Prasad Ji, I extend my gratitude and special thanks
to him. I also thanks the sponsors and advertisers in
supporting this IRC event, I would like to express my
gratitude to the Press and Media for being with us on
this occasion and I hope they will adequately cover the
deliberations of this apex think tank of the road sector.
In the end again I extend my heartiest gratitude to the
dignitaries on the dais and off the dais, well wishers
and all who have come here from different parts of the
world for supporting and boosting the moral of IRC.
JAI HIND
Thank You
Release of IRC Publications:
Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister of Road
Transport & Highways released following five
important IRC documents:
i)
IRC:SP:99-2013 Manual of Specifications and

Standards for Expressways
ii)
First Revision of IRC:SP:87-2013 of Manual of

Specifications and Standards for Six Laning of
Highways through Public Private Partnership
iii)
IRC:SP:98-2013 Guidelines for the use of

Waste Plastic in Hot Bituminous Mixes (Dry
Process) in Wearing Courses
iv)
First Revision of IRC:107-2013 Specification

for Bitumen Mastic Wearing Courses
v)
Souvenir for International Seminar on

Experience Gained in PPP Projects in Road
Sector- the Way Forward containing technical
presentations delivered by experts during
Seminar
Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister of RT&H, Govt. of India releasing Souvenir of International Seminar on
Experience Gained in PPP Projects in Road Sector- the Way Forward
Release of IRC:SP:99-2013 Manual of Specifications and

Standards for Expressways by Hon'ble Minister of RT&H
First copy of IRC: SP: 99-2013 being presented to

Shri C. Kandasmy, DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH
This Manual has been prepared in a record time of 9 months.
17
Release of First Revision of IRC:SP:87-2013

Manual of Specifications and Standards for Six Laning of
Highways through Public Private Partnership
by Honble Minster of RT&H
First Copy of First Revision of IRC:SP:87-2013 being presented

to Lt. Gen A.T. Parnaik, SM, VSM, Director General
Border Roads
Release of IRC: SP: 98-2013 Guidelines for the use of Waste

Plastic in Hot Bituminous Mixes (Dry Process) in Wearing
Courses by Honble Minister of RT&H
First copy of IRC: SP: 98-2013 being presented to

His Excellency Shri Francois Richier, Ambassador of
Govt. of France to India
Release of First Revision of IRC:107-2013 Specification for

Bitumen Mastic Wearing Courses by Hon'ble Minister of RT&H
First copy of First Revision of IRC:107-2013 being presented

to Shri Gerardo L. Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman, Technical
Committee of PIARC
18
View of Audience during Inaugural Functions
Another view of Audience during Inaugural Function
Glimpses of Some lighter moments
Technical Sessions :
After the inaugural function Technical Session-1
Overview in Developing and Managing Road
Infrastructure in India and Other Countries was
Chaired by Shri B.K. Chaturvedi, Member (Power
Energy & Transport), Planning Commission, Govt.
of India and Co-chaired by Shri D.P. Gupta, Member,
National Transport & Development Committee &
Former DG (RD), MORTH.
Chairman in his opening remark said that
Distinguished panellists, invitees, the Session
deals with Overview in developing and managing
road infrastructure in India and other countries,
here presented in different areas for giving good
point of view. Let me highlight three areas which

form important components of this strategy. The
first and the foremost is that it is being realised that
in all developing countries infrastructure is key to
growth. All the infrastructure, road infrastructure
is very important for us. Both rural roads as well as
highways which form the arteries for movement of
goods, these are very critical. While rural roads there
is no way, states have to spent their own money. It is
being realised that we cannot spent large amount of
resources on developing the arteries, the highway, from
the State exchequer. And therefore, we must involve
for private players. These private players have to be
involved not only in terms of construction but also
in terms of their finance participation. So the private
19

sector participation comes both in terms of financing
and in terms of construction. We have tried two major
model of financing in India. The first is being public
private partnership based on the BOT Model and the
other public private partnership based on the Annuity
model. We have other models like what is known as the
engineering construction model but there we need the
Govt. resources which are used and not the resources
of the private players. So practically, a large number
of states now are going to adopt this model because
it is being realised that in this way they are able to
develop faster.
The second component of this strategy has been
levying of toll in most of these roads where the
traffic can bear. So there is a whole body of experts
which have developed these experts deal with the
various legal terms. We have RFQ, RFP documents
and the Model Concession Agreements and there are
questions being raised in terms of model concession
agreement what will apply and what will not apply,
what is appropriate and what is not appropriate. So
there is a whole body of literature now coming up in
this form. Developing countries have realised that
it is important that concession agreement are of the
best standards and really transparent and fair. Risk
allocation is appropriate. Suitable to the govt. as well
as to the developer. And this way only they will take a
good response. So, therefore, the second point I would
like to say is that there is a whole body of literature
coming up now and there are issues which are seen
during the course of this conference on public private
partnership, the model concession agreements, various
terms of it, the RFP & the RFQ. The terms for qualifying
firms should have tough standards, in case we have
tough standards, no domestic firms, comes, with the
results that the domestic capacity building does not
take place. In case we have very loose standards, then
international firms are not interested. You dont get
any experience of international construction industry
with the result that you dont really improve methods
in this regards. There are various types of issues which
need to be seen. This is the second set of issues which
is important for this development.
20
The third set of issues is the question that as the road

is get made, what about its maintenance and what
about during the operation period. The construction
agreement, how do we go about and for that whole
body of literature has come. We have tried what is
known as operation maintenance contracts and their
again it has been experienced that you can bid them
separately and these are persons who have experienced
in this. So, today the development of the road sector,
which are used to be simple Govt. funded is now more
be on different pattern. The pattern is that the Govt.
wants more private financing. And for that various
models are being developed. But most of them are
model based on PPP. Govt. also then has to take care
of many of the issues as this model comes because
often people bid in order to grab contracts, sometimes
they bid very aggressively. For the time, things have
changed. How do we negotiate and renegotiate such
contracts, is another question which is now being
raised and become very important particularly in
the context of India. Recently, we find that a large
number of contracts are such which are not getting
implemented because the developers are finding
difficulties in terms and conditions. In some cases, the
situations which they had expected have changed and
economy has slowed down and therefore they cannot
implement and in other cases where they say it can be
implemented the environmental and other clearances
are yet to be given.
There are other sets of issues as you will see relating
to implementing the contracts. What is the Govts
responsibility in this regard, in respect of providing
land and providing environmental clearances and
how far should this go before we award this contract.
Issues which we have various points of view. I noticed
that we have very good list of presenters who will
give different points of view. I am sure that during
the course of the deliberations here today, they will
come forward and give their ideas and suggestions on
how some of these issues need to be tackled and how
if there are another related issues which need to be
addressed so that this process of development of road
which is so critical for the development of the economy,

becomes very vital, very vibrant and succeeds and if it
succeeds to that extent then Indias growth will have
very positive impact on the road model. With these
opening words and highlighting some of the issues, I
would like to invite the speakers
During this session following four very lucurative and
informative presentations were made by presenters of
India and Abroad:
i)
Overview
of
Road
Infrastructure
Development World Bank Perspective by
Shri Ben Eijbergen, Lead Transport Specialist
& India Infrastructure Coordinator, World
Bank & Shri Arnab Bandopadhyay, Transport
Specialist, World Bank
ii)
Overview of Road Infrastructure Development

in India by Shri C. Kandasamy, Director General
(Road Development) & Special Secretary to the
Govt. of India & President, IRC
iii)
Private Sector view on Operating Roads in

India by Shri Geoffrey GUILLY (France)
iv)
Overview in Developing and Managing Road

Infrastructure in Japan- Key Challenges by
Shri Kiyoshi Dachiku, JICA Expert to India
At the end Chairman said that I want to thank

all the presenters. I would like specially thank
the participants who have been absolutely firstly
discipline and secondly raised very limited number of
questions but very focused one. Three points I would
like to make in respect of this session. First it is quite
clear that Govt. resources alone cannot really meet
the requirements of the road sector. And we have to
therefore, think of some other ways. We have been
thinking of PPP. Mr. Kandasamy gave some very fine
out of the box solutions. How we can use aerospace
on the road to further get more money and make the
project more viable in some of these areas. I think we
need to look at these things. We are also looking at
it in the context of railways is also need to look at
it in context of roads. Because the facts remains that
when roads close down, it has two impacts, first, the
revenues of govt. of go down and the revenue of Govt.

go down to that extent, the availability of funds for
Govt. projects gets limited. And therefore, availability
to spend Govt. funds on roads and road projects or
any other Govts. spending projects will go down. So,
therefore, we have to use other resources. So these are
some out of the box solutions which are required and
we will have to think in that manner.
Second it is important that whatever roads are made,
are they in accordance with the norms and standards
laid down under the agreement. They confirm to it, so
that for the maintenance and for the OMT contract,
it becomes easy. If these are not going in accordance
with that, then to that extent for the OMT contractors,
it is going to be extremely difficult. Besides people will
say that look how can we come in because the roads
are not being built really as per the standards. It is
therefore important that our system in this respect gets
further strengthening and this is an area of weakness I
will say and we need to work in this.
Third, I will say that it is important that we do
undertake R&D and other activities in this sector
continuously today. Roads are getting modernized and
new technologies are coming in and because of which
these are continue to last long. India has a wide variety
of climate. You take north east, you take south, you
take Rajasthan. Such different variety of climate and
it is important that the roads that we make last long. So
therefore, we must continue with the R&D work. And
in this R&D works, we must also take into account
the fact that India has also some difficult areas, which
needs to be appropriately taken care of. And this must
also be shared under the model concession agreement
and the clauses must be so designed. If the clauses
are so designed that you will make roads only in abc
manner and not use any other technology then the
benefit of use of new technology for the contractors
goes down. So, to that extent I think we must have
appropriate changes in the clauses. I think this has been
a very useful session as far as I have concern. I would
once again like to thanks the presenters. And come to
the close up of this session with my observations.
21

Glimpses of Technical Session-1
View of the dais during Technical Session-1 Overview in Developing and Managing Road
Infrastructure in India and other Countries
Shri Ben Eijbergen, Lead Transport Specialist & India

Infrastructure Coordinator, World Bank making presentation
22
Shri C. Kandasamy, DG (RD) &SS, and President, IRC

making presentation
Shri Geoffrey GUILLY (France) making presentation
Shri Kiyoshi Dachiku, JICA Expert making presentation
Shri B.K.Chaturvedi, Chairman of Seesion-1 being honored by

A view of dais during Technical Session-1
Technical Session -2
ii)
Technical Session-2 PPP Policy Framework was

Chaired by Shri G. Sharan, Former DG (RD), MoRTH.
Govt. of India. During this session following four very
lucurative and informative presentations were made
by presenters from India and Abroad:
Experienc Sharing in Developing PPP Projects

by Shri S.V. Patwardhan, Advisor, Madhucon
Projects Limited
iii)
PPP Policy Framework by Shri Sri Kumar

Tadimalla, South Asia Sustainable Development
Dept., World Bank
i)
iv)
Overview of PPP Policy Framework in India

by Shri Rahul Gupta, Superintending Engineer,
MoRTH
Budget versus User Based Financing - A

Successful Change Over in Austria by
Shri Friedrich SCHWARZ-HERDA (Austria)
23

View of Dias during Technical Session-2 PPP Policy Framework
Shri Friedrich SCHWARZ-HERDA (Austria) making

presentation
24
Shri S.V. Patwardhan, Advisor, Madhucon Projects Limited

making presentation
Shri Sri Kumar Tadimalla, South Asia Sustainable Development

Dept., World Bank making presentation
Technical Session -3
Technical Session-3 Overview of Development in
Financing for Road Infrastructure Programme in
different Countries was Chaired by Shri Gajendra
Haldea, Advisor to Deputy Chairman (Infrastructure),
Planning Commission, Govt. of India and Co-chaired
by Shri Nirmaljit Singh, Former DG (RD) & SS,
MORTH.
Chairman in his opening remarks said that When we
began economic liberalization in the early 1990s, it
was thought that we should get private investment,
private participation in roads and the infrastructure
sector like power, airports, ports and so on. So, from
1995 or so we set about in the Govt. of India to invite
private participation. Well it is a long winded road,
time does not permit the detailed explanation but as I
say the first project was awarded only, first worthwhile
project, there were some small experiments here and
there like NOIDA Expressway Toll Way and so on but
they were very small and significantly flawed but a
proper exercise was done only in the late nineties and
first major project was awarded in 2002 which got
completed in 2005. First PPP road project came about
in 2005. So, we have really speaking about 8, 9 or 10
years of experience in PPP Projects in roads. Now of
course this activity has picked up very fast and we
have made a lot of progress. When this whole
framework was being written, I have great privilege
Shri Rahul Gupta, Superintending Engineer, MoRTH making

presentation
of being in the middle of it and I was writing the

Model Concession Agreement myself and it was a
very complicated exercise because there is no
experience in this in India here at that point of time in
a matter like this so, we set about finding out what had
happened in different countries. We studied what had
happened in Canada and in US and several Latin
American countries, in France, in Italy and south east
Asia and so on. And we learned from their strength,
we also learned from their mistakes, we learnt how
many countries had to renegotiate, how some of their
projects failed and fell apart mid-way. So, based on all
those learnings we prepared our framework. So, it can
be said that whatever the world had learnt and whatever
literature was available till about say 2000 or 2001
was actually brought out to bear in our framework and
when we started in the early 2000 then we brought
about a framework being working in last decade or so
and during this period we do not know of too many
developments at least I dont know many developments
having taken place in different countries which are of
a different nature and which give us reason to change
our strategy. Of course there will be learning from our
own experience and also from other countries and
some of our colleagues here on the dais, will inform
us of the learning in their countries based on that we
can take a relook at what we are doing but during the
past six-seven years what we have implemented has
actually led India to the World global rank one.
25

According to World Bank India has been the top
recipient of PPP investment in the World for the last 3
or 4 years and we are quite ahead of most other
countries in attracting private investment specially in
highways. The experience with the MCA has been
somewhat mixed not because we have discovered
many problems with the MCA, you can discount part
of it because people may think I am biased in favour
of MCA but as a matter of fact I want to mention to
you that I havent come across a serious people which
says these are the four or five area or these are 5, 10 or
15 clauses which need to be revised or modified or
improved. I havent come across that kind of
discussion. Some changes has been made in the
National Highway document but soon after the
changes were made there were some reservations by
the Committee. The Chairman of the Committee who
actually made them that is Mr. Chaturvedi and he
asked for review for more provisions thats one part
and those changes actually changes the basic substance
of the theory of the MCA. On the other hand there are
about 11 or 12 states which have adopted the MCA
without any change. They have not made the changes
as the Centrtal Govt., the NHAI had made and they
have not reported any problems so far. That is so far as
the report back or feed back as far as MCA is concerned.
On the other hand there is quite serious problem, my
perception about the MCA as one of the speaker in the
previous Session pointed out that problem is
implementation and enforcement. I dont think we
have as yet created the specialization of the capacity
or real mindset that is necessary for successful
implementation of PPP projects . So, I think what has
happened there on one side. We have adopted a fare
and advanced framework taking note of the all that
happened in rest of the world. On the other side while
this was proceeding and gone quite a lot on the other
side we did not trained our mind, we did not trained
our people, we did not understand the MCA, we did
not change from the old civil engineering practices of
road building to public private participation and
therefore, there have been serious problems in
implementation and enforcement of the MCA so
much. Many other provisions actually are remain on
26
paper and are in violation. Different types of problems

are rising, so if you do not implement PPP contract
seriously and the way it is mend then you are bound to
have few problems you go along and we have to take
a serious look at that as well. may be you cant
implement some thing. It need simplification we
should look at that. So either, we should modify to
make it more simpler what the stake holders feel or
we should figure out ways how to implement the MCA
more rigorously because one should enter the world of
contracts which is what PPP is. The contract become
sour and you have to follow the terms of the contract,
if you take it lightly, you will have serious untended
consequences. Now, none of these documents should
be regarded as cast in stone, there is going to be
learning, there is going to be hope for improvement,
there is going to be hope for review. As a result of this
belief we have actually started review of the MCA if
that apply to the states, we have not done it for centre,
we have left it to NHAI to decide but the state look up
to Planning Commission for MCA and they follow
MCA without change. We are now in dialogue with
the states that whether we can further improve the
MCA to meet some emerging concerns that we noticed
in the last six or seven years and those of you who are
interested in the MCA as a document. In the theory
behind the MCA how it should be improved discovering
the flaws, in making improvements. We have organized
the big seminar where we have invited major stake
holders, experts and several people from State
Government to come and talk to us about revise
document, we have circulated revised document
strengthening some of the provision of the MCA to
make them more financeable and more effective and
those of you who are interested you can either get in
touch with me, send me an email or contact IRC, and
they will let us know and we will be happy to invite
you on 22nd November meeting few days from now
and also give you the revise document. Now so much
for MCA etc. I think the entire business of PPP is quite
an international exercise, there is lot of international
literature, lot of international experience and I presume
the idea of this particular session is to share the
experience and learn from the each other how we can

do better, incidentally the ADB had commissioned the
economist EIU to do a study on PPP framework and I
am very happy to report to you that they have treated,
and have weighted Indian infrastructure framework
and PPP framework or Model Concession Agreement
RFQ, RFP among top in the world just next to UK and
Australia who were much more mature because they
have many many more years of experience but we are
right at the top so far as international rating and
assessment is concerned. There is always more to
learn and always room for improvement that what we
should do. These are some very brief remarks. Time is
short so would not take more of your time and I know
you keen to hear the international participants to figure
out how they are doing and what we can learn from
them. I am slightly changing the order with the
permission of all the key speakers here. What I
proposed to do to put an Indian experience in the end
and learn the International experience from our guest
first. My broad understanding is that there are number
of PPP, I mean Toll Roads in Italy so, may I request
Mr. Fabio Pasquali to first began his presentation on
the Italian experience and what we can learn from

you
During this session following five very lucrative and
informative presentations were made by presenters
from India and Abroad:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Financing of PPP Road Projects in India by

Shri S.K. Agarwal, Sr. Vice President, SBI
Caps
The funding of Roads and Toll Highway
Network - Japanese Experience by Shri Takaaki
NAMBU, Expectative Managing Director,
Hanshin Expressways Co. Ltd., Japan
Public-Private Partnership in the Road
Transport Sector-New Treads in Italy by
Shri Fabio PasQuali, Head of Economic
Assessment (Italy)
Different PPP Approaches for Indian Roads by
Shri Rik JOOSTEN, The Netherlands
The Australian Experience - Lessons Learned
and New Approaches to Road Financing by
Shri Richard. A. Lowe, Principal PPP Specialist,
Asian Development Bank (ADB).
View of dais during Technical Session-3 Overview of Developments in Financing for Road Infrastructure Programme in
different Countries
27
Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor to Deputy Chairman

(Infrastructure), Planning Commission making
Opening Remarks
Shri S.K. Gupta, Sr. Vice President, SBI

Caps making presentation
Shri Takaaki NAMBU, Executive Managing Director, Hanshin

Expressways Co. Ltd., Japan making presentation
Shri Fabio PasQuali, Head of Economic Assessment, Italy

making presentation
Shri Rik JOOSTEN, The Netherlands making presentation
Shri Richard A. Lowe, PPP Specialist, ADB making presentation
28

Technical Session-4 Experience Sharing in
Contractual Model Choices, Analysis, Risk Allocation,
Government Support Mechanisms' was Chaired by
Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor to Deputy Chairman
(Infrastructure), Planning Commission, Govt. of India
and Co-chaired by Shri Mahesh Kumar, Engineer-inChief, R&B Department, Haryana PWD.
Opening remarks by Chairman Shri Gajendra Haldea:
First of all I want to thank the IRC again for giving me
this opportunity to be here and to share experience and
learn from various participants across the world. Now
I believe that in the session yesterday there was some
discussion on the MCA and that probably the kind of
subject that we are going to discuss today because we
are going to talk about contractual model choices and
that is all about contracts. Before I begin, I want to
congratulate in particular the Secretary General of the
IRC. He has taken a great deal of trouble and initiative
in organizing this Seminar like this. It is much needed
and I would suggest to him to make this an annual
feature because it provides a forum for airing peoples
views and understanding each others perspective and
I can see a number of people here, people like Mr. D.P.
Gupta, Mr. S.C. Sharma and of course many others
the some of whom I know and some I did not have the
benefit of meeting, who have had a lot of experience.
Mr. Sharan is here, they have a lot of experience of
contracts relating to roads with PPP contracts relating
to highways and I think in the fitness of thing it might
be better if we leave more time for floor interaction
because we will then get good flavor of the views
across this hall. Because well I agreed that there is lot
of expertise residing here in the panel but there is a lot
of expertise residing on the other side as well. So what
I propose to do is, I will cut down time. I am supposed
to have been allocated five minutes so I am cutting
them down to 2 or 3 minutes and I will conclude here
and I would urge the panel members to try and finish
in about nine to ten minutes so that when questions

come you can cover the areas which actually concern
or bother many of the participants here. So if thats
Ok with the presenters then lets begin, let Mr. Rajesh
Rohatgi Sr. Transport Specialist from World Bank,
please make the first presentation.
During this session following four very lucrative and
i)
Output & Performance Based Road Contract

An Alternate PPP Model by Shri Rajesh
Rohtagi, Senior Transport Specialist, World
Bank.
ii)
Experience Sharing in Contractual Model

Choices: Analysis, Risk Allocation, Government
Support Mechanisms The French Model by
Ms Anne PLUVINAGE, Project Manager,
Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development
and Energy, France.
iii)
Contractual Model Analysis from Banks

Perspective by Shri Kamal Verma, CEO, SREI
Infrastructure Finance Limited.
iv)
PPP Contract Choices- Examples of

ADBs
Experience
with
Performance
Based Maintenance Contracts (PBMC) by
Ms. Lise Weidner, Senior PPP Specialist, Asian
Development Bank (ADB)
At the end Chairman said that I just want to confine

myself to few issues. First I, as in other conferences
noticed that there are lots of issues that people want to
raise about MCAs and its various provisions and how
they can be different. But before I come to the MCAs,
I have to just first say that why do we need PPPs. Well
across sectors, we find that where incumbent players
do not welcome PPPs easily. Incumbent players like
cash contracts because there it is in their control, they
29

are in control of the asset, that is fine, that is human
nature. If I were you, I have done in the same way.
The problem is that increasingly govt. budgets dont
have the money, so the choice is between shrinking
your respective sector whether Ports, Airports,
Highways or any other sector or let it be opened and
let the people of India and your own sector benefited
by PPP participation. There are problems with PPPs,
as there are problems with NHAI, we need to resolve
those problems in a constructive manner. Now,
there are lots of issues with MCA. There are MCAs
issues which I am hearing about and quite often
some of them are arising from different stakeholder
perspective. Some of them also arise because they
think that some provisions are not properly written,
some are imbalance because some of them are written
in some other way. Well, in a lighter vein let me tell
you that we have written in number of MCAs and
every MCA I write I lose more friends because when
I started people welcome the exercise. When you
have done, everybody thinks that it looks that 95% is
OK and that the balance 5% is not that is important.
For me these fellows have not understood. They are
rigid and they dont understand that particular point
as they are not addressed it. So at the end of the day
most people have dissatisfaction about that 5%. The
truth is about that 5%. If that 5% is given to you,
then the other stakeholder who will walk out and if I
give him that 5%, which he is wanted then you will
walk out. MCA is all about balances in equilibrium
and that is why I would reiterate the suggestions to
Secretary General, IRC, please organize free flowing
brain storming sessions on MCA. What that does is,
that certain stakeholders with their perceptions and
most of them actually balance out because some of
the people are pulling in different direction and they
neutralize and arrive at some balance. It is possible
30
that the balance is already reflected in MCA and it

is also possible the balance needs to be changed or
reviewed. We know that MCA is not cast in stones
but there must be consensus building. We should not
write MCA on the basis of your or my belief because I
believe this MCA was written after lot of deliberation
with stakeholder consultations and after trying to
build, as much consensus as possible, so I leave this
request with IRC. As regard to the long term debt is
concerned, we have set up infrastructure debt funds
which will refinance bank loan that provide long
term debt. We hope this initiative taken last year will
stabilize and as it grows we hope to largely resolve
the financing problem. Some points were made about
lending, etc. by you as well. We had taken it with the
Reserve Bank about six months ago. Earlier the banks
said this is not secured loan, we want this charge or that
charge etc. Now the reserve bank has categorically
said that loan given on the basis of Model Concession
Agreement are secured loans. that problem is really
behind us. There is always this discussion about TPC,
I am not clear about why so many discussions takes
place because it is between the lender engineers and
it is between the NHAI engineers. I dont see why
they cant resolve this, why they cant find the way of
establishing a correct project cost. There are issues
on both sides some time these costs are not reasonable.
In these cases NHAI need to look at them again. The
need is to have check and balance in place. This is
primarily a cost estimation exercise, which is in the
domain of the engineers and finance experts and it is
not clear to me yet why this issue keeps going on and
no efforts are made either in NHAI or Ministry or any
other forum to find out how to address this problem of
TPC and how to make it reasonable and apt. Hope
the deliberations in this Seminar may show the way
forward.

A view of the dais
Ms. Lise Weidner, Senior PPP Specialist, ADB

making presentation
Shri Rajesh Rohtagi, Senior Transport Specialist, World Bank

making presentatin
31
Ms Anne PLUVINAGE, Project Manager, Ministry of Ecology,

Sustainable Development and Energy,
France making presentation
Shri Kamal Verma, CEO, SREI Infrastructure Finance Limited

making presentation
Shri Gajendra Haldea being presented memento by

Another view of dais
Technical Session-5
Technical Session-5 Experience Sharing in Tendering
for Road Infrastructure Contracts & Pre-construction
Activities was Chaired by Shri V.L. Patankar,
Additional Director General, Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways and Co-chaired by
Shri Manoj Kumar, Chief Engineer, R&B Dept.,
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
During this session following four very lucrative and
32
i)
Comprehensive Bidding Practices in Japan by

Shri Keita Nakasu, JICA Expert
ii)
Tendering Procedure in Austrian PPP Project, A

Negotiation Procedure by Shri VOLKER Rux
(Austria)
iii)
Challenges in Pre-construction Activites in PPP

Projects in India by Ms Neha Vyas, World Bank
and Ms Sangeeta Kumari, World Bank.
iv)
PPP in Road Development in India- Government

Support Mechanism by Shri Sudhir Hoshing,
CEO, Reliance Infrastructure Ltd.

A view of the dais
Shri Keita Nakasu, JICA Expert making presentation
Shri Volker Rux (Austria) making presentation
33
Ms Neha Vyas, World Bank making presentation
Ms Sangeeta Kumari, World Bank making presentation
Shri Sudhir Hoshing, CEO, Reliance Infrastructure Ltd. making

presentation
Technical Session-6
Technical Session-6 Legal Aspects for Road
Infrastructure
Projects,
Including
Contract
Management Aspects was Chaired by Shri Adesh Jain,
Chairman of I2P2M & Honorary President, PMA and
Co-chaired by Shri S.C. Sharma, Former DG (RD) &
SS, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
During this session following three very lucrative and
34
i)
Legal Aspects Including From feedback by

Shri EU. Sabine LASSERRE (France)
ii)
Coping with Court Sentences The Case

of Radial Toll Highways in Madrid by
Shri Gerardo L. GAVILANES Gineres (Spain)
iii)
User Perceptions & Perspectives for PPP Road

Infrastructure Projects by Shri D.P. Gupta,
Former DG (RD), MORTH & National Expert
on Transport

A view of the dais
Ms. EU. Sabine LASSERRE (France) making presentation
Shri Gerardo L. GAVILANES Gineres (Spain)

making presentation
35
Shri D.P. Gupta, Former DG (RD), MORTH & National Expert

on Transport making presentation
Session: 7-Panel Discussion

Panel Discussion on Recap on Key Strategies for
Way Forward for PPP Road Projects was Co-chaired
by Dr. Henri Chua, United Kingdom & Shri C.
Kandasamy, Director General (Road Development) &
Special Secretary, MoRTH. The other panelists were
Shri S.K. Puri, Convenor, G-1 Committee of IRC &

Former DG (RD), MoRTH; Shri Nirmal Jit Singh,
Convenor, G-8 Committee of IRC & Former DG
(RD) & SS, MoRTH Shri B. Seenaiah, MD, BSCPL
Infrastructure Ltd. and Maj. V.C. Verma, Presendent,
National Highway Building Federation.
View of dais during Panel Discussion Session
36

Valedictory Session:
The Valedictory Session was Chaired by Shri T.K.A.
Nair, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India.
This Session was also graced by Shri C. Kandasamy,
President IRC and DG (RD) & Special Secretary,
MoRT&H, Dr. Henri Chua, United Kingdom, Shri
Vishnu Shankar Prasad, Secretary General, IRC,
and Shri Gerardo L. Gavilanes, Chairman Technical
Committee, Piarc.
Shri T.K.A. Nair, in his Valedictory Address said
Mr. Kandasamy, other colleagues and friends
including distinguished participants who represent
international institutions of other Countries, Well, first
of all let me begin with a word of apology for not
being able to join the preliminary inaugural session, a
bit of unforeseen development I had to excuse myself,
forgive me for that lapse. Well I had the privilege
of opportunity of listening to the last five minutes
of the last session I would get a flavor of what would
have been the subjects of discussions in the previous
sessions. Well talking to you at this point of time
particularly about the challenges which India faces
in the road sector, I would be like carrying call to
new chasm you would have been by now thoroughly
briefed about the Indian Road Sector of our progress
during the last few years, what is its current status and
what are the challenges and the prospects before us
in the coming years. Well I had a look at the various
themes which you have discussed and the different
panels and I find that practically various aspects
which is of concern to all the stake holders have been
touched upon. The last about financing is the most
crucial part of any economic activity - the financing
of those activities, the problems which are involved
in securing the finances and then how we utilize that.
Well I have some sporadic acquaintance with the road
sector and many of the road projects which the country
has been taking it for implementation through various
methods, through various mechanisms during the last
few years and my information is not up-to-date, my
knowledge is also not up to date but let me say that
the expectations with which we started these very
very ambitious road programmes are moving forward
but the pace of development we believe could have
been better & faster because developments in the road

sector affect every other sector of our economy. Well
one of the casual observations I may make with your
permission is: In many instances when the projects are
progressing well they are not noted but when the delay
is taking place they became very glaring i.e. Perhaps
the assessment that the preparation of the project could
have been better, more rigorous methods of assessing
from day from point one onwards i.e. the demand and
then various other aspects concerning the project are
not perhaps or perhaps could get better attention are
some issues which crops up. These become evident
not when a project is clear, when a project gets cleared.
In India many of these large projects get cleared at
the very highest level of a Cabinet Committee. At
that point of time, you know we are all anxious to
see that project is cleared and the work gets started
but as we go along, we find that perhaps on account
of inadequate preparatory work problems come up
starting with land acquisition, environmental clearance
and the rest of it, and many projects get delayed on
that account and again forgive my saying most of us
are for good reasons very optimistic, if we can get a
work done in ten months twelve months, you know we
wont take into the account the fact that there will be
unforeseen developments and therefore the target date
of completion could be longer. We tend to be fairly
optimistic. This is my laymans observations. Two
observations: One preparation of the project could be
through a more rigorous process and our optimism in
projecting the completion of the projects would also
land us into perhaps avoidable problems later on.
These all based on what one has read, what one has
seen with respect to different projects which you get
approval from the govt. of India and which quite often
come back for revised costs, and all and unfortunately
you know in our process of governance if we decide
on some thing some parameters some costs etc. at one
point of time, get it cleared at very high level, any
minor changes and that will have to go all the way up
again for revised approach and in terms of time and in
terms of effort we lose a lot. I mean, what I said, I dont
speak with reference to any particular project, this is
37

a general observation based on some of the projects
which one had at the opportunity to look at. Well, as
well as financing is concerned, I heard concerns which
have been raised they are most genuine but here again
you may have gone through it in detail. I do not know,
I may be saying something which need not be said
because it has already been discussed, that is a proper
understanding of the issues by all the stakeholders
together and then based on that you evolve your norms
and practices and PPP models and what not. That PPP
model is a new thing in road sector it has been there
for some time, by now we would had have enough
of experience of various kinds in different parts of
the Country, again it need not be repeated, I mean its
common knowledge that conditions in different parts
of the country are quite different. If we try to apply the
standards applicable in the Central Indian states to the
North Eastern states, we are stuck. So that one size fits
all kind of approach would land us into difficulties,
very avoidable difficulties which will result in the
so-called time & cost overruns. I say with so much
of experience gathered, the concessionaires or those
who are willing to take up this kind of activity in the

private sector, the financial institutions, you know
the Ministry, the Planning Commission and all the
people who are concerned with these kind of things,
if they get together periodically, evolve you know
certain acceptable models, may be models, policies,
guidelines, parameters, etc. which are subject to
review from time to time. Perhaps you know we can
do better in terms of achieving the targets which are
very ambitious targets which the Country has set for
itself in the road sector.
Friends this is the end of your discussion of
different panels and I am sure the conclusions and
recommendations of the various panels would be
recorded and taken on with government at different
levels Mr. Kandasamy is sitting here he is the right
man to take these things forward well with these
words I thank the organizers especially Indian Roads
Congress for giving me this opportunity to be with
you and more than speaking to you. I am happy that
I could listen to a part of your discussion towards the
end of the last session. Thank you very much.
Shri T.K.A. Nair, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India delivering Valedictory Address
38
Shri T.K.A. Nair, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India

being Honoured by Shri C. Kandasamy, DG (RD) & SS
A view of the dais during Valedictory Session
Shri T.K.A. Nair Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India
Shri T.K.A. Nair, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India

being presented Memento by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad,
39
A LABORATORY STUDY ON SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM

AGEING OF BITUMEN USING MODIFIERS
Praveen Kumar*, Shambhavi Mishra** and Nikhil Saboo***
ABSTRACT
The ageing of bitumen binder has an influence on how long is
in service a road coating. Thus, it is important to have reliable
methods to predict pavement behaviour with time. During its
service period, bitumen suffers a gradual loss of its desirable
properties due to continuous exposure of bitumen to environment
and traffic. To determine changes of binder characteristics with
respect to time, one must expose bitumen to the influence of
external factors which results in oxidation, evaporation and
exudation of bitumen components thus hardening of the bitumen.
In the present study two modifiers i.e. Styrene Butadiene
Styrene (SBS), an elastomer and Crumb Rubber, obtained from
discarded tyres are used, to modify VG30 bitumen. The changes
in conventional and rheological properties of VG30 modified with
different percentages of SBS(5% to 7%) and Crumb Rubber(7% to
9%) before and after ageing are studied. The rheological properties
of binders in terms of their complex modulus (G*) which depicts
stiffness and overall resistance to deformation, storage modulus
(G = G*cos) which measures energy stored during a loading
cycle, loss modulus (G = G* sin) which measures the energy
dissipated during a loading cycle and phase angle (), measures
the viscoelastic character of bitumen are studied using Physica
Smart Pave Asphalt Rheometer. The properties are tested at
different temperature varying from 58C till failure at frequency
10 rad/sec. Short and Long Term ageing is simulated by Rolling
Thin Film Oven Test and Pressure Ageing Vessel respectively.
Conventional tests shows hardening of bitumen due to ageing and
increase in viscosity and temperature susceptibility characteristics
due to addition of modifiers. Complex Modulus G* increases
with increase in % of modifier and test temperature, G* values
are greater after RTFOT ageing which indicated hardening
of bitumen and considerably greater after PAV ageing due to
prolonged ageing. Rutting resistance (G*/sin) values are greater
for modified bitumen indicating better rutting resistance. The third
rheometer measurement Loss modulus (G* sin) is carried out
on PAV aged residue, to evaluate fatigue cracking property of
binder.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the roads in India are constructed as flexible

pavement with bitumen surfacing, due to lower initial
*
Professor,
**
Ph.D Research Scholar,
*** Ph.D Research Scholar,
40
cost, possibility of stage construction, repairing

of underground utility services and maintenance
techniques. The roads in India are mainly affected
by increasing traffic volumes, increasing axle
loads due to increase in commercial vehicles and
significant variations in daily and seasonal climate.
Major distresses are rutting, fatigue cracking,
ravelling, undulations bleeding shoving and potholes
in bituminous surface. As a viscoelastic material, it
should be flexible enough at low service temperatures
to arrest pavement cracking and to be stiff enough at
high service temperatures to prevent rutting (Khosla
and Zahran, 1989).
1.1
Ageing of Bitumen Binder
Bitumen ageing is one amongst the major factors

causing the deterioration of bituminous pavement
(Xiaohu and Isacsson, 2001. Bitumen suffers a gradual
loss of its required properties like adhesion, cohesion,
self-healing, waterproofing, and resistance to abrasion,
due to the continuous access of bitumen to traffic heat,
light, air and moisture of the environment.
Based on hardening and stiffening of bitumen material
ageing are of two types:
1.
Short Term Ageing
2.
Long Term Ageing
The short term ageing is earlier age hardening in

pavement, its simulation is done in laboratory under
controlled conditions of temperature and is commonly
used for studying binder response to hot plant mixing
and paving operations. The ageing is expected to start
from the very first exposure of the bituminous binder
to the plant burner and hot aggregates and continues
Transportation Engineering Group, Civil Engineering Department,

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India
TECHNICAL PAPERS
to hauling and laying till the final compaction. It is
simulated by Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT)
in present study. Long term ageing is slow ageing to
which bituminous pavement is exposed during its life
cycle, its effects in pavement depends on the prevailing
environmental and traffic situations, simulated by
Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV).
conducted related to mechanical properties of these

polymers, but time related changes in properties i.e.
ageing is not fully explored. The characteristics of
PMBs are dependent on polymer characteristics and
their percentage in mix, bitumen nature, and also on
blending process (Isacsson and Lu, 1999).
Bitumen ages by two types of mechanisms (Xiaohu

and Isacsson, 2002)-
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The main ageing mechanism is an

irreversible process associated with
chemical changes in the binder affecting
its rheological properties. Irreversible
ageing occurs due to oxidation, loss of
volatile components and exudation i.e.
migration of oily components from the
bituminous binder into the aggregate.
The second ageing mechanism is a

reversible process caused due to physical
hardening, due to the molecular structurereorganisation of bitumen molecules to
approach a more stable and optimum
thermodynamic state under a specific set
of conditions.
1.2
Bituminous Binder and Modified Bitumen
Bitumen is a viscoelastic material, which depicts

either elastic or viscous behaviour, depending on
temperature and time of loading (Xiaohu and Isacsson,
2002). At sufficiently low temperatures and less
loading times, bitumen is completely elastic, but if
temperature and loading time increases, the viscousity
of bitumen becomes more obvious. The complex
modulus (G*) is a physical function, describing the
mechanical response of the material when submitted
to harmonic load, which is used to study visco-elastic
characteristics of bitumen. It is the ratio of total shear
stress to total shear strain thus the samples total
resistance to deformation when repeatedly sheared.
Increase in the volume of traffic in recent years has
raised a need of using Polymer Modified Bitumen in
road construction. Previously many studies have been
The tests used in present study are Penetration Point,

Softening Point and Ductility tests to evaluate the
flow properties of conventional and modified bitumen.
These tests have been carried out at conventional and
modified bitumen before after both short and long term
ageing. The rheological properties of conventional
and modified bitumen are evaluated using Physica
Smart Pave Asphalt Rheometer. The rheological
characteristics of binders are accessed using complex
modulus (G*), storage modulus (G), loss modulus
(G) and phase angle ().
2.1
Bitumen and Modifier
In present study VG30 bitumen is used and modifiers

used are Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS) and Crumb
Rubber (CR). Both the modifiers come in elastomer
category of polymers. Percentage of mix selected on
the basis of previous studies is 5 to 7 for SBS and 7
to 9 for CR because effect of modifier get pronounced
and is optimum in this range only.
2.2
Dynamic Shear Rheometer
The tests were conducted according to the AASHTO

TP5-1994 and the instrument was operated by computer
using Rheoplus Software. The testing procedure
includes application of a sinusoidal oscillating shear
stress, controlled by frequency and temperature, to the
bitumen sample placed between two parallel plates.
Various rheological parameters can be obtained at
different temperatures and loading frequencies based
on the stress strain measurements made by rheometer.
In standard test oscillation speed of 10 rad/s
(1.59 Hz) and shear strain value varying from
1-12% is maintained depending upon the stiffness of
material. The complex modulus (G*) and phase angle
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
() define the resistance to deformation of the binder
in viscoelastic range. In present study binder grading
tests are carried out which are basically temperature
sweep test and standard frequency tests are carried out
to determine the zero shear viscosity which is used as
indicator to rutting now days.
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1
Conventional Properties
from Figs. 1 to 6. The penetration and ductility values

are decreasing, softening point increases significantly
for VG30 bitumen mixed with SBS and CR, indicating
the improvement in their temperature susceptibility
resistant characteristics. After ageing similar trends in
value are obtained due to hardening of bitumen. The
binders having high ductility have good cementing
qualities. The minimum ductility value at 27C is
10 cm for Indian Paving Bitumen as per IS 73:1992.
After RTFOT and PAV ageing ductility value become
too less in high percentage of modifier, which is not
appropriate for cementing qualities of bitumen.
The variation of conventional properties of modified

bitumen before and after ageing is graphically shown

Figs. 1 and 2 Penetration Value wrt % SBS and CR Before and After Ageing
Figs. 3 and 4 Softening Point wrt % SBS and CR Before and After Ageing.
42
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Figs. 5 and 6 Ductility Value wrt % SBS and CR Before and After Ageing
3.2
The variation of shear modulus G*/sin with

temperature at different percentage of modifiers is
shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The rutting resistance increases
with increase in % of modifier. Higher the value of
G* stiffer the bituminous binder is and lower phase
angle value indicate better elastic characteristics thus
better resistance to rutting because binder will be able
to rebound to its original shape after being deformed
by the load.
Temperature Sweep Tests for Unaged Binder
The rheological properties of neat and modified

bitumen are given in Table 1. Phase angle decreases
with percentage of modifier and increases with
temperature. Lower the phase angle more elastic
will be the behaviour. Complex Modulus G*
decreases with increase test temperature and
increases with % modifier, this increase is more
dominant at low temperatures than high ones.
This may be due to the reason that at high temperatures
the complex network structure of polymer is
degraded.
As per specifications for acceptable performance of

bitumen binder at hot-mix plant and during laying
operation the value of shear modulus of original
binder must be greater than 1.0 kPa.

Figs. 7 and 8 Variation in G*/sin at Different % SBS and % CR wrt Temperature Before Ageing
43
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Rheological Properties of Bitumen Before Ageing
Bituminous
Binder
Temperature
C
Complex
Modulus G*
Shear Modulus
(G*/sin)kPa
Phase angle ()
Degree
VG30
58
4.9
4.93
83.3
64
2.26
2.268
85.2
70
1.08
1.081
86.7
76
0.541
0.542
87.9
Pass/Fail Temperature = 70.7C

VG30 + 5% SBS
58
20.92
22.69
67.2
64
11.46
12.26
69.1
70
5.83
6.09
72.9
76
2.96
3.06
75.6
82
1.56
1.59
78.7
88
0.82
0.83
81.2

VG30 + 6% SBS
58
23.88
26.05
66.4
64
12.14
13.03
68.6
70
6.27
6.63
70.8
76
3.33
3.48
73.1
82
1.68
1.73
75.5
88
0.9
0.92
78.3

VG30 + 7% SBS
58
25.42
28.02
65.1
64
12.91
14
67.2
70
6.54
6.97
69.7
76
3.39
3.55
72.6
82
1.78
1.84
74.9
88
0.94
0.96
77.1

VG30 + 7% CR
58
15.1
15.7
73.8
64
7.83
8.09
75.2
70
3.85
3.94
77.1
76
2.02
2.05
79.6
82
1.09
1.1
81.9
88
0.6
0.6
84.3
Pass/Fail temperature = 83.1C

VG30 + 8% CR
58
17.16
18.07
71.7
64
9.61
10.04
73.2
70
5.25
5.41
75.9
44
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Shear Modulus
(G*/sin)kPa
Phase angle ()
Degree
Bituminous
Binder
Temperature
C
Complex
Modulus G*
76
2.748
2.8
78.6
82
1.435
1.45
80.6
88
0.74
0.75
81.5

VG30 + 9% CR
58
22.22
23.56
70.6
64
11.48
12.02
72.8
70
6.04
6.22
75.9
76
3.18
3.25
78.2
82
1.76
1.78
80.5
88
0.975
0.984
82.5
3.3
Temperature Sweep Tests for Aged Binder

After Short Term Ageing (RTFOT)
The complex modulus, shear modulus and phase

angle after short term ageing for neat and modified
bitumen is given in Table 2. The variation of shear
modulus G*/sin with temperature at different

percentage of modifiers is shown in Figs. 9 and 10. To
evaluate bitumens ability to resist rutting the binder
is aged and the residues should have a shear modulus
G*/sin value greater than 2.2 KPa according to
current specifications at highest service temperature.
Table 2 Rheological Properties of Bitumen After Short Term Ageing i.e. RTFOT
Bituminous Binder
Temperature C
Complex
Modulus (G*)kPa
Shear Modulus
(G*/sin)kPa
Phase angle ()
Degree
VG30
58
11.2
11.4
80.2
64
5.02
5.06
82.8
70
2.35
2.36
84.9
76
1.16
1.16
86.5
VG30 + 5% SBS
58
26.9
29.4
66.1
64
13.56
14.64
67.8
70
6.88
7.33
69.7
76
3.52
3.7
71.9
82
1.86
1.93
74.1
Pass/Fail Tempearture = 70.6C

VG30 + 6% SBS
58
27.8
30.62
65.2
64
14.01
15.21
67.1
70
7.22
7.71
69.3
76
3.73
3.93
71.5
82
1.94
2.02
73.7
45
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Bituminous Binder
Temperature C
Complex
Modulus (G*)kPa
Shear Modulus
(G*/sin)kPa
Phase angle ()
Degree
VG30 + 7% SBS
58
31.18
34.72
63.9
64
15.68
17.19
65.8
70
7.92
8.54
67.9
76
3.92
4.16
70.1
82
2.08
2.18
72.3
19.43
20.32
72.9

VG30 + 7% CR
58
64
9.92
10.24
75.5
70
5.12
5.23
78.1
76
2.63
2.67
80.4
82
1.39
1.4
82.5
Pass/Fail temperature = 77.8C

VG30 + 8% CR
58
22.02
23.23
71.4
64
11.16
11.65
73.3
70
5.7
5.88
75.6
76
3.12
3.19
77.5
82
1.62
1.65
79.4

VG30 + 9% CR
58
22.66
24.12
70
64
11.7
12.3
72.1
70
6.06
6.28
74.6
76
3.18
3.26
77.2
82
1.76
1.79
79.5
Figs. 9 and 10 Variation in G*/sin at Different % SBS and % CR wrt Temperature After RTFOT
46
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.4
Temperature Sweep Tests for Aged Binder

after Long Term Ageing (PAV)
The third rheometer measurement is carried out

on PAV aged residue, to evaluate fatigue cracking
property of binder. G*.sin also called loss modulus is
an indicative measure of fatigue resistance according
to current specifications; it should be small in order to
arrest the cracking and impart elastic characteristics
to bitumen. The rheological measurements are carried
out at temperatures 19 to 28C which is similar
to the normal field temperature at which fatigue
cracking becomes dominant. The values of complex
modulus, loss modulus and phase angle are shown in
Table 3. Figs. 11 and 12 depict variation in value of

Loss Modulus G* sin with temperature at different
% modifiers.
The G* is considerable greater values are obtained
due to prolonged ageing. According to specifications
G* values should be greater than 5000 KPa. As
temperature is increasing the G*.sin values are
decreasing that is potential of fatigue cracking is also
decreasing, thus there is a threat to fatigue cracking at
low temperatures. However, by addition of modifiers
the phase angle value is decreasing at a particular
temperature by increase in content of modifier, this
signifies increase in elastic characteristics.
Table 3 Rheological Properties After Long Term Ageing i.e. PAV
Bituminous Binder
Temperature C
Complex Modulus Loss Shear Modulus

(G*) KPa
(G=G* sin)
5160
3641
3890
2811
2610
1933
1950
1482
Pass/Fail Temperature = 19.37 C
7910
5061
5950
3925
3950
2688
2990
2098
9910
5947
7640
4785
4950
3291
3820
2604
12400
7180
8270
4940
6210
3898
4130
2741
7890
5164
5930
4050
VG30
19
22
25
28
VG30 + 5% SBS
19
22
25
28
VG30 + 6% SBS
19
22
25
28
VG30 + 7% SBS
19
22
25
28
VG30 + 7% CR
19
22
Phase Angle
(Delta)
44.9
46.3
47.8
49.5
39.8
41.3
42.9
44.6
36.9
38.8
41.7
43
35.4
36.7
38.9
41.6
40.9
43.1
47
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Bituminous Binder
Temperature C
25
28
VG30 + 8% CR
19
22
25
28
VG30 + 9% CR
19
22
25
28
Complex Modulus Loss Shear Modulus

(G*) KPa
(G=G* sin)
4430
3153
2970
2204
9140
5958
6610
4447
4590
3181
3280
2326
9750
6290
7100
4786
4780
3325
3440
2502
Phase Angle
(Delta)
45.4
47.9
40.7
42.3
43.9
45.2
40.2
42.4
44.1
46.7
Figs. 11 and 12 Variation in G* sin at Different % CR wrt Temperature After PAV
3.5
Zero Shear Viscosity

Frequency Tests
from
Standard
SHRP specifications suggested the use of G* and at

a fixed frequency and temperature. As the viscosity of
the binder changes with change in temperature, and
the elastic properties changes with the frequency of
loading, the above parameters have been suggested
to be ineffective in capturing the rutting of asphalt
pavements, especially when modified asphalt binders
48
are used. Due to this drawback, Zero Shear Viscosity

(ZSV) has been found effective in predicting the
rutting behaviour of asphalt binders. ZSV is a measure
of the viscosity of a material, when a shear load is
acting on it at a shear rate of nearly zero. At this less
shear rates, the binders undergo deformation so slowly,
that it can adapt to maintain equilibrium, despite of
the total amount of shear applied being large. The
ZSV is said to be an indicator of two rutting related
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Zero Shear Viscosity of Binder Before and
After Ageing
binder properties i.e. the stiffness of the binder, and its

resistance to permanent deformation under long term
loading. The results of Zero Shear Viscosity are given
in Table 4 and shown separately for SBS and Crumb
Rubber in Figs. 13 and 14 respectively. The results
shows that SBS modified binder have better rutting
resistance than Crumb Rubber modified binder which
is in accordance with the results obtained from Shear
modulus parameter.
Binder
VG30
VG30+5% SBS
VG30+6% SBS
VG30+7% SBS
VG30+7% CR
VG30+8% CR
VG30+9% CR
Zero Shear Viscosity (Complex Viscosity

at 0.01Hz Frequency)
Unaged
After RTFOT After PAV
922
6855
21900
10540
15816
23670
11490
18280
29975
14070
24150
32240
5460
22190
25800
5740
22990
28040
6200
24560
30710

Figs. 13 and 14 Variation in Zero Shear Viscosity for SBS and Crumb Rubber
3.6
Improvement of the Rheological Properties
In general binder should have a high G* values at

higher temperature for better deformation resistance
characteristics. Modified binders have higher G*
values than neat bitumen at same temperature.
The improvements in terms of deformation
resistance (G*Modified/G*Unmodified) of SBS and Crumb
Rubber is shown in Figs. 15 and 16 before and after
both short and long term ageing. The value of G* is
increased 5.18 times and 3.08 time by addition of 7%
of SBS and CR respectively. This shows that at same
percent of modification SBS has better improved the

properties of bitumen as compared to CR. But by
increase in percent of CR the increase in G* values
are comparable to SBS at low percentage, thus CR at
higher percentages to some extent produce same result
as produced by SBS at low percentages. The increase
in value of G* is quite less after RTFOT ageing as
compared to Unaged binder. There is further reduction
after long term PAV ageing, this shows that effect
of modifier is diminishing with respect to ageing,
this may be due to damage of network structure of
Polymers after ageing.
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Figs. 15 and 16 Variation in G*Modified/G*Unmodified for SBS and CR
CONCLUSIONS
ageing as ductility and penetration values

becomes quite less with high softening
point, because in case of modified binder the
degradation of the modifier and the oxidation
of base bitumen occur at same time and role of
former is more pronounced that is why effect of
modifier addition diminishes.
The following conclusions are drawn based on the

results obtained from present study
1.
2.
3.
50
The physical properties of bitumen are improved

with addition of modifiers. Penetration value of
bitumen before ageing is decreased from 66 to
25 and 28 before ageing by SBS and Crumb
Rubber respectively, similar are the trends after
ageing. However the effect modifier becomes
less after PAV ageing the decrease in penetration
value is only from 23 to 11 and 9 by SBS and
CR this is due to prolonged oxidation leading to
increase in viscosity.
The softening point of SBS modified bitumen
is higher than CR modified bitumen i.e. 70C
for 7% SBS in comparison to 65C for 9%
percent of CR, its penetration value is lower
than CR modified binder and ductility values
of SBS modified binder are higher than CR.
This indicates SBS adds more flexibility and
good cementing properties to pavement, due to
better network structure present in SBS as it is
formulated in laboratory on the contrary to CR
which is waste from scrap tyres.
The improvement in physical properties due
to modifier diminishes after Long Term PAV
4.
The complex modulus G* increases with

percent of modifier. For instance G* has been
increased from 4.9 KPa to 25.2 KPa and 22.2
KPa by addition of mere 7% SBS and 9% CR
respectively. Similar trend has been obtained
after RTFOT and PAV ageing. This is due to the
improved stiffness characteristics by addition
of polymers because of network structure of
rubber added. Also there is a decrease in G*
values with increase in temperature is due to
increasing fluidity and also at high temperature
effect of polymer is weaken.
5.
The phase angle values decreases with increase

in percentage of modifier and increases with
increase in temperature. The lower phase
angle value by addition of modifier is due to
improved elastic characteristics of binder. The
SBS modified bitumen resulted in lower phase
angles than Crumb Rubber i.e. it is 65.1C at
7% SBS content in comparison to 70.6C even
TECHNICAL PAPERS
at higher 9% CR content in case of uaged binder
with similar trend after ageing. Thus SBS
impart better elastic characteristics to pavement
in comparison to CR.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The rheological properties of bitumen

change significantly after ageing. There is a
considerable variation in values of G* before
and after short term ageing. After the long term
ageing the G* values increases exceptionally
due to hardening. These changes in rheological
properties after ageing can be due to chemical
changes and breaking of complex structure of
polymers.
In present study G* values of SBS modified
bitumen are higher than CR modified bitumen
even at lower percent of modification, thus
SBS can be used at High temperatures and
traffic conditions. It can also be used in low
temperature areas as ductility values are
acceptable. But CR can be used as a substitute
to SBS to some extent.
Addition of modifier to bitumen improves its
rutting resistance. By addition of CR and SBS
G*/sin values are greater than original binder.
By increase in percentage of modifier G* is
increasing and is decreasing which implies
stiffer binder with more elastic properties thus
ability to recover deformation on removal of
load is increased.
After the processes of ageing the increase in
G*/sin values are satisfactory i.e. G*/ sin
value increase from 4.93 to 28.2 KPa by 7%
of SBS at 58C and after RTFOT ageing the
increase 11.4 to 34.72KPa at same temperature
and content modifier. Thus after ageing also the
improved characteristics due modifier prevails.
Based on the values of rutting resistance the
optimum content of modifier for SBS is 7% and
for CR is 9% because increase in G*/sin is
maximum. If Crumb Rubber is used it is more
economical and also it can produce results
equivalent to SBS at higher percentages.
REFERENCES
1.
Bahia HU, Hanson DI, Zeng M, Zhai H, Khatri MA,

Anderson RM. (2001), Characterization of modified
asphalt binders in Superpave mix design, National
Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 459.
Washington:DC.
2.
Hagos, E. T. (2008), The effect of ageing on binder

properties of porous asphalt concrete, Masters of Science
in road transportation engineering, TU-Delf, pp. 343.
3.
Henglong Zhang, Jianying Yu and Dongliang Kuang

(2011), Effect of expanded vermiculite on aging properties
of bitumen, Construction and Building Materials 26,
Elsevier, pp. 244248.
4.
IRC:SP:53 (2002), Guidelines on Use of Polymer and

Rubber Modified Bitumen in Road Construction, Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi, pp 4-9.
5.
IS:1201 to 1220 (1978), Methods for Testing Tar and

Bituminous Materials, Indian Standards Institution, New
Delhi.
6.
IS:73 (2006), Paving Bitumen Specifications, Bereau of

Indian standards, New Delhi.
7.
Isacsson Ulf, Xiaohu Lu (1999), Characterization of

bitumens modified with SEBS, EVA and EBA polymers.
Material Structure, pp.28:13959.
8.
Khosla NP, Zahran SZ. (1989), A mechanistic

evaluation of mixes containing conventional and polymer
modified asphalts. Proc Assoc Asphalt Paving Technol,
pp.58:274302.
9.
Kumar Praveen, Mehndiratta H. C., and Singh K.

Lakshman (2010) , Comparative Study of Rheological
Behavior of Modified Binders for High-Temperature
Areas ASCE,
10.
Sengoz B, Topal A (2005), Use of asphalt roofing

shingle waste in HMA.J. Constr. Build. Material-19,
pp 337-346.
11.
Siddiqui, M. N., and Ali, M. F. (1999), Studies on the

aging behaviour of the Arabian asphalts. Fuel Vol.78,
pp. 10051015.
12.
Srivastava Anil and Ronald Van Rooijen (2000),

Bituminous Performance in Hot and Arid Climate,
prepared for Pavement Seminar for the Middle East and
North Africa Region, Innovative Road Rehabilitation and
Recycling Technologies.
13.
Xiaohu Lu. and Isacsson Ulf. (2002), Effect of ageing

on bitumen chemistry and rheology, Construction and
Building Materials, Elsevier, Vol.16, pp. 15-22.
14.
Zoorob, S.E., Collop, A.C., and Stephen, F. (2001),

Performance of bituminous and hydraulic materials
in pavements, Proceedings of the Fourth European
Symposium, Bitmat4, Nottingham, UK, pp. 331.
51
Comparative Study of Wet and Dry Blending of

Plastic Modified Bituminous Mix Used
In Road Pavements
M. Veerendra Kumar*, R. Muralidhara* and Divya J. Nair***
ABSTRACT
Utilisation of waste plastics in bituminous road pavement have been
investigated currently under two type of blending, namely: Wet
Mix (WM) and Dry Mix (DM). Previously research investigations
have been carried out on these two mixes individually. Hence
in this investigation, an effort has been made to compare the
performance evaluation of WM and DM in terms of engineering
properties.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental issues now a day is of great

importance. Plastic wastes, for instance, possess
great threat to the environment. Recent researches
on Road Pavement shows that waste plastic can be
mixed with Bituminous mix for construction of road
pavements, which can actually enhance the qualities
of road pavement in terms of Strength, Resistance,
Shelf Life and Economy, along with a better way
of Waste Management. The research work done by
Dr. R. Vasudevan et al.[1] have concluded that dry
blending of plastic with the aggregates in the
bituminous mix has better binding property along
with improvement in engineering properties as
compared to plain bituminous mix. The research
work done by Dr. S.S. Verma[2] has concluded that
blending 3 to 4% of waste plastic with bitumen will
increase the melting point of bitumen and improve the
strength, life and durability of road pavement.
2 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
It has been found that various Researches are going on
around the world in the topic of use of waste plastic
in the bituminous mix for the flexible pavements. The
available information on the numerical data related to

WM and DM of waste plastic with bituminous mix
used for road pavement is limited. The comparative
study of WM and DM has not been carried out yet,
which will help us in finding the better option to
improve the quality of road pavement. Hence, we
have undertaken this investigation where a detailed
experimental comparative study has been initiated by
partially replacing the optimum bitumen content of
conventional bituminous mix with waste plastics.
3 METHODOLOGY ADOPTED
The Investigation is carried out under the following
heads.
3.1
Determination of Individual Engineering

Properties of Materials Used as Listed
Below:
Bitumen:
As per the revised standards IS:73:2006, Viscosity
Graded Bitumen VG-30 is selected. Based on climatic
condition, VG-30 pavement bitumen is used for
lowest daily air temperature greater than -10C and
highest daily temperature greater than 30C which is
prevalent in most part of Indian terrain.
Properties of bitumen used are furnished in Table 1.
Aggregates:
In this investigation, as per MoSRTH-2001
Specification, we have selected mix designation as
bituminous concrete used in wearing and profile
corrective courses of Grading-2 with nominal
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, K.S. School of Engineering & Management, Bangalore
E-mail: mveerendrakumar@rediffmail.com
**
Assistant Professor, E-mail: rm_dhar64@yahoo.co.in
*** Lecturer, E-mail: divya.n.j@gmail.com
52
Civil Engineering Department, M.V.J. College of Engineering,

Bangalore
TECHNICAL PAPERS
aggregate size of 13.2 mm and layer thickness of
25 to 40 mm.
The gradation of the aggregates with specified limits
and as adopted nearer to middle range is shown in
Table 2.
The properties of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate
is determined using ASTM C 127 and ASTM C
128 standards, respectively, and cross verified with
MoRTH Specifications.
Properties of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates
used are furnished in Table 3.
Waste Plastics:
Waste plastic which is available in the shredded form
consists of Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) which
is obtained from littered plastic bags, plastic sheets
and sacks.
Properties of waste plastic are presented in Table 4.
3.2 Mix Design:
All bituminous mixes are designed as per Asphalt
Institute MS-2 Manual, compacted by 75 blows on
both top and bottom of specimen.
3.3
Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content

of the Conventional Mix (CM):
CM was prepared using aggregates as adopted in

Table 2, VG-30 bitumen and cement as filler material
with bitumen content varying from (4% to 6.5% at
steps of 0.5%). The optimum bitumen content of the
CM was determined as per Asphalt Institute MS-2
method and cross verified by indirect tensile strength
and repeated load test.
3.4 Method of Blending Waste Plastic in Both
Wet Mix (WM) and Dry Mix (DM):
For the determined optimum bitumen content of CM,
we partially replaced the bitumen with waste plastic
in proportions of (4%, 6%, 8% and 10%) to obtain the
blend of WM and DM.
Wet Mix:
Determined quantity of waste plastic is added to the pre
heated bitumen at a temperature of 150C and mixed
thoroughly followed by increasing the temperature
to 170C in 10 minutes and the process is extended
for 5 more minutes at which a homogenous blended
mix is obtained. This plastic blended bitumen is then
added to the preheated aggregates at 170C and mixed
thoroughly to obtain the Wet Mix (WM).
Dry Mix:
Determined quantity of waste plastic is added to
preheated aggregates at 170C and mixed thoroughly
followed by maintaining temperature at 170C for
15 minutes until the waste plastic gets coated over
the aggregates uniformly until a uniform colour is
obtained. The plastic coated hot aggregates are mixed
thoroughly with pre heated bitumen at 150C to obtain
the Dry Mix (DM).
3.5
A Comparative Study of WM and DM:
Comparative study of blend of waste plastic in both

WM and DM was made in terms of its Marshall
stability test, indirect tensile strength and Repeated
Load Test.
From the experimental data, a comparative study of
engineering characteristics of WM and DM is carried
out to find the better option to improve the quality and
performance of CM used in pavement construction.
4 LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
4.1 Engineering Properties of Materials:
The engineering properties of individual materials,
such as, Bitumen, Aggregates and Waste Plastic are
determined and is detailed below:
Bitumen:
The following tests were conducted for the Viscosity
Graded Bitumen VG-30 namely: Absolute viscosity,
Penetration Value, Softening Point, Ductility, Specific
Gravity, Flash Point. The results of the test are
presented in Table 1.
53
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Properties of Bitumen
Property
Final
Value
Specification
IS:73-2006
BIS Code for

Testing
Absolute
Viscosity @
60C in Poises
2516
Min 2400
IS:1206 (Part 2)
Penetration at
25C, 100 g,
5 s , 0.1 mm
59
50-70
IS:1203
Softening
point (R&B)
in C.
51
Ductility in cm
at 25C,
after thin film
test
90
Gravity of Fine Aggregate, Water absorption of Coarse

Aggregate, Impact Value, Crushing Value, Los Angles
Abrasion Value, Flakiness Index, Elongation Index
and stripping value. The results of the above tests are
presented in Table 3 as shown below.
Table 3 Physical Properties of Aggregates
Properties Tested
Test Results
MoSRTH
Specification
Specific gravity of
coarse aggregate
2.63
2.5-3.0
Specific gravity of
fine aggregate
2.60
2.5-3.0
Water Absorption of
Coarse aggregate
0.671%
Max 2%
Impact value of
Coarse aggregate
16.36%
Max 24%
Los Angeles
abrasion value of
Coarse aggregate
23.63%
Max 30%
The gradation of the aggregates for bituminous

concrete of grading 2 with specified limits and adopted
nearer to middle range is shown in Table 2.
Combined
Flakiness Index and
Elongation Index of
Coarse aggregate
22.94%
Max 25%
Table 2 Aggregate Gradations Selected
Stripping value
Min retained coating
98%
Min 95%
Min 47
Min 40
IS:1205
IS:1208
Specific
gravity
1.00
Min 0.99
IS:1202
Flash point
(COC) in C
225
Min 220
IS:1209
Aggregates:
Specified Limits ( MoSRTH-2001)
Sieve Size
(mm)
Percent Cumulative Passing
Adopted
19
100
100
13.2
79 - 100
89
9.5
70 88
79
4.75
53 71
62
2.36
42-58
50
1.18
34-48
40
0.6
26 - 38
31
0.3
18 - 28
22
0.15
12-20
15
0.075
4 - 10
The following tests were done on the aggregates

namely: Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate, Specific
54
Waste Plastic:
Waste Plastic which is available in the shredded form
is tested for its softening , decomposition and ignition
temperature and is reported in Table 4.
Table 4 Properties of Waste Plastics
Properties Tested
Tested Value
Softening Temperature
in C
120 - 140
Decomposition
Temperature in C
270 - 350
Ignition Temperature
in C
> 700
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.2
Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content

(OBC) for CM:
The optimum bitumen content is determined as per

Asphalt Institute MS-2 in terms of Marshall Stability
test and cross verified with Indirect Tensile Test
and Fatigue behaviour using Repeated Load Test.
The specimens were prepared with bitumen content
ranging from 4 to 6.5% in steps of 0.5%.
In Marshall Stability Test (ASTM D 1559 & MS-2),
specimens were immersed in water bath at 60C for
40 min before testing. The test was performed with
varying binder contents and the Marshall Stability
values, flow values and Bulk specific gravity
of the compacted mix (Gmb) were determined.
Theoretical Maximum specific gravity (Gmm) of the

un-compacted mix was evaluated as per ASTM
D 2041. Marshall Stability test results along with
physical properties of the bituminous mix are presented
in Table 5.
Optimum bitumen content is determined as the average
value of the bitumen content at maximum bulk specific
gravity (B1), Maximum Marshall stability (B2) and
at 4.0% voids content (B3). From the test data, we
have B1 = 5.11%, B2 = 5.00% and B3 = 4.84%. Hence
Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) is determined as
average of B1, B2 and B3 which is 4.98% and is
rounded of to 5.00%.
Table 5 Marshall Test Results for CM

% of
Bitumen
Content
Theoretical Maximum
Specific Gravity
(Gmm)
Bulk Specific
Gravity (Gmb)
% of Air
Voids (Vv)
% of Voids
Filled with
Bitumen (VFB)
Marshall
Stability
Values kN
Flow
Values
mm
2.360
2.236
5.25
62.99
16.88
7.65
4.5
2.382
2.276
4.45
69.71
18.62
4.55
2.422
2.328
3.88
74.99
19.83
3.20
5.5
2.407
2.321
3.57
78.13
18.23
3.55
2.394
2.304
3.76
78.62
17.92
4.17
6.5
2.378
2.296
3.45
81.23
17.22
4.47
Static Indirect Tensile Strength Test: The Indirect

Tensile Test (ITS) was carried out as per ASTM:
D-4123-82.
Results of Indirect Tensile Strength test on specimens
of CM are given in Table 6.
Table 6 ITS Test Results for CM
% Bitumen Content I.T.S N
Compaction were subjected to repeated Indirect

Tensile Load Test with rest as per ASTM D 4123.
Haversine shaped pulsating loads of magnitude 20%
as that of maximum indirect tensile strength, at a
frequency of 1Hz were applied diametrically to the
specimens through the loading shaft with the help of
personal computer. A loading period of 0.1s and rest
period of 0.9s was applied during the test to simulate
high vehicle speeds. The load repetitions were
continued till the specimen failed. The temperature of
the specimen at the start of the test was 35C.
2943.00
Tensile Stress N/
mm2
0.295
4.5
3286.35
0.329
7651.80
0.767
5.5
5395.50
0.541
The parameters used to evaluate the fatigue

characteristics of the mixes are:
5199.30
0.521
a.
The number of cycles to failure (Nf)
6.5
4120.20
0.413
b.
Initial tensile strain (i)
c.
Resilient modulus (Mr)
Repeated Indirect Tensile Load Test: Cylindrical

specimens of diameter 100 mm prepared by Marshall
55
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 7 Repeated Load Test Results for CM
Resilient Modulus:
The following expression as per ASTM: D-4123 was
used for the computation of resilient modulus.
Mr =
% Bitumen
Content
P (0.27 + r )
Hr * h
Fatigue Life
(Number of
Cycles, N)
604
Resilient
Modulus
(M Pa)
1175.65
Initial Tensile
Strain
(Micro Strains)
364.43
4.5
840
1604.23
297.21
1065
1704.72
277.11
5.5
995
1689.91
364.43
460
751.17
376.91
6.5
474
729.32
406.01
where,
P is the repeated load applied, r = Resilient Poisson
ratio which was taken as 0.45 at 35C test temperature
as recommended by Transportation Research
Laboratory (TRL), Crowthrone, U.K (Nunn 1995),
h = height of specimen (mm) Hr = resilient horizontal
deformation (mm)
Initial Tensile Strain:
The initial tensile strain is a recoverable tensile strain
determined after 200 load cycles (ASTM: D-4123).
This is an indicator of the performance of bituminous
mix under repeated load.
i =
(1 + 3 r )
Mr
where,
= maximum tensile stress at the centre of

specimen.
Results of Repeated load test on specimens of CM are
given in Table 7.
From the Marshall Stability Test and further

confirmation from Indirect Tensile Test and Repeated
Load Test results as furnished in Tables (5, 6, 7), the
optimum bitumen content for conventional bituminous
mix is obtained as 5%.
4.3
Comparative Study of Wet and Dry Blending

of Plastic Modified Bituminous Mix
The enhancement in the performance of conventional
mix with optimum bitumen content of 5% by partialy
replacing the bitumen with waste plastic in wet and
dry blending is determined in terms of Marshall
Stability test, Indirect Tensile Strength and Fatigue
parameters using Repeated Load test. The specimens
were prepared by partially replacing bitumen with
waste plastic ranging from 4 to 10% in Wet Mix (WM)
and Dry Mix (DM).
Results of Marshall Stability Test for WM & DM are
given in Table 8.
Table 8 Marshall Test Results for WM & DM

Partial Replacement
of OBC of CM
By Waste Plastic-%
Theoretical
Maximum Specific
Gravity (Gmm)
Bulk Specific
Gravity (Gmb)
2.430
2.330
4.12
73.90
17.79
4.02
2.429
2.331
4.03
74.28
18.78
3.32
% of Air
Voids (Vv)
% of Voids Filled
Marshall
with BitumenStability Values
Plastic (VFB)
kN
Flow
Values
mm
Wet Mix
2.427
2.332
3.91
74.87
25.54
2.34
10
2.424
2.330
3.88
75.03
19.67
2.97
Dry Mix
56
2.429
2.331
4.03
74.28
22.22
3.38
2.428
2.332
3.95
74.68
25.77
3.12
2.415
2.333
3.40
77.45
28.92
2.28
10
2.408
2.332
3.16
78.70
19.96
1.99
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Results of Static Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) Test
for WM & DM are given in Table 9.
out to find the better option to improve the quality

of the road pavement and the same is presented in
Table 11.
Table 9 ITS Test Results for WM & DM

Table 11 Comparative Study of WM and DM
Partial
Replacement of
Bitumen with
Waste Plastic-%
I.T.S
N
Tensile
Stress N/mm2
ITS for WM
Properties
CM at
OBC of
5%
WM
DM
Partial replacement of
optimum bitumen of
CM with waste plastic
8%
8%
Marshall Stability
Value (KN)
19.83
25.54
28.92
5806.9
0.572
7512.6
0.725
8610.7
0.830
6727.8
0.664
Indirect Tensile
Strength (N/mm2)
0.77
0.83
0.94
Fatigue Life
(cycles- N)
1065
1523
1986
1704.72
1752.47
1995.60
10
ITS for DM
4
7749.9
0.777
8142.3
0.816
9338.5
0.936
10
6375.5
0.639
Results of repeated load test on specimens of WM and

DM are presented in Table 10.
Table 10 Repeated Load Test on WM & DM
Partial
Replacement
of Bitumen
with
Plastic-%
Fatigue Life
(Number of
Cycles, N)
Resilient
Modulus
(M Pa)
Initial
Tensile
Strain
Resilient Modulus
(M Pa)
Flow Value (mm)
3.20
2.34
2.28
% Air Voids
3.88
3.91
3.40
% Voids filled with

Binder
74.99
74.87
77.45
CONCLUSION
1.
The Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC)

determined in terms of Marshall Stability test
for CM was found to be 4.98% which is rounded
of to 5%. This was further substantiated by flow
value, Indirect Tensile Strength and Fatigue
Parameters using Repeated Load Test.
2.
The comparative studies for WM and DM were

made with reference to CM in terms of Marshall
Stability Test, Indirect Tensile Test and Repeated
Load Test by partial replacement of OBC of
CM with waste plastic. The enhancement in the
performance as compared to CM was obtained
at 8% partial replacement by waste plastic in
both WM and DM. Refer Table 11.
3.
The enhancement in WM with 8% partial

replacement of OBC of CM with Waste plastic
resulted in increase of Marshall stability by
28.79%, Decrease in flow value by 26.88%,
(Micro
Strains)
Repeated Load Test on WM

4
969
1630.75
317.21
1473
1660.22
277.22
1523
1752.47
269.44
10
1534
1839.80
253.32
Repeated Load Test on DM
952
1667.18
291.38
1346
1870.27
208.43
1986
1995.60
203.11
10
1980
1901.81
269.43
DISCUSSION OF TEST RESULTS
From the experimental details, a comparative study of

engineering characteristics of WM and DM is carried
57
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.
5.
6.
Increase in Indirect Tensile Strength by

7.79%, Increase in fatigue life cycle by 43%
and Increase in Resilient Modulus by 2.80%.
How ever there is slight increase in percentage
air voids by 0.77% but the values are within
permissible range and there is no appreciable
change in percentage voids filled with bitumenplastic binder.
The enhancement in DM with 8% partial
replacement of OBC of CM with Waste Plastic
resulted in increase of Marshall Stability by
45.84%, Decrease in flow value by 28.75%,
Increase in Indirect Tensile Strength by 22.08%,
Increase in fatigue life cycle by 86.48%, increase
in Resilient Modulus by 17.06%, Decrease in
percentage air voids by 0.77% and increase in
percentage voids filled with bitumen-plastic
binder by 3.28%.
In comparative study of WM and DM from
Table 11, DM is a better option to improve the
performance of the road pavements in terms of
its fatigue, strength and stiffness by utilization
of waste plastics.
Utilisation of waste plastics in construction of
road pavements is found to be an eco-friendly
solution for waste disposal and economy in
pavement construction.
10.
IS:1205-1978 Determination of Softening point of

Bitumen
11.
IS:1208-1978 Determination of ductility of Bitumen
12.
IS:1209-1978 Determination of Flash and Fit\re Point of

Bitumen
13.
ASTM C127-12 Standard Test Method for Density,

Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of
Coarse Aggregate.
14.
ASTM C128-12 Standard Test Method for Density,

Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of
Fine Aggregate.
15.
Manual of Asphalt Institute MS-2 Designing of Asphalt

Mixes
16.
ASTM D 1559 & MS - 2 Standard Test Method for

Marshall Stability and Flow of Bituminous Mixtures
17.
ASTM D 2041M-11 Standard Test Method for

Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity & Density of
Paving Mixtures.
18.
ASTM D 4123-82 Standard Test Method for Determining

Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures by Indirect
Tension Test
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
58
Dr. R. Vasudevan, S.Rajashekaran and Susanta Samanta

Utilization of Waste Plastics in Construction of Flexible.
Pavenents GPEC (2005), Vol-13, Paper abstract No 27.
Dr. S.S. Verma Roads from Plastics, Indian Concrete
Journal, November 2008.
Dr. M.V.L.R. Anjaneyulu, Polymer Modified Bituminous
Mixes M.Tech., thesis 2009, NIT Calicut.
E.J. Yoder, M.Witezak Principles of Pavement Design
2nd Edition, (2007), Publisher: John Wiley & sons.
Shivangi Gupta & A.Veereragavan Fatigue Behaviour
of Polymer Modified Bituminous Concrete Mixtures
journal of Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2009.
MoSRTH-2001 Specifications for Road and Bridge
Works
4th revision, Published by Indian Roads
Congress.
IS:73-2006 Specifications for Paving Bitumen
IS:1202-1978 Determination of Specific Gravity of
Bitumen
IS:1203-1978 Determination of Penetration Value of
Bitumen
THE IMPACT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION ON DEPLETION OF

NATURAL AGGREGATES AND CONSEQUENCE OF DELAY
IN RECYCLING PAVEMENTS - KEY FACTORS IN
SUSTAINABLE ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Rajib B. Mallick*, Michael Radzicki**, Yamini V. Nanagiri*** and A. Veeraragavan****
ABSTRACT
Pavement construction is the single largest market of natural
aggregates. Aggregates constitute about 100% of base and subbase
courses, 87% of Portland cement concrete pavements and 95%
of bituminous pavements. The amount of aggregate required for
a km of a surface course of bituminous mix can exceed 15,000
tons. The massive demand of aggregates resulting from rapid
urbanization in India has already started taking its toll there are
many areas where aggregates need to be transported from hundreds
of kms away for construction of new roads, for maintaining and
rehabilitating existing roads. Furthermore, with concerns about
pollution, opening up of new quarries are becoming increasingly
difficult. Transportation of aggregates over long distances adds
to fuel cost, and contributes to increase in emissions. Hence the
depletion of stock of natural aggregates has a huge impact on costs
as well as the environment. How big is the impact? If, instead of
using natural aggregates, we start recycling of existing roads for
maintenance and rehabilitation, what will be the reduction in the
impact? How much recycling needs to be done, and how soon?
This paper attempts to answer these questions with the help of
system dynamics modelling. The conclusions are alarming, and
demand an immediate and serious consideration of policies to
allow and enable recycling of pavements in India.
1 Background
Roads are vital for the transport of goods and
passengers. The Indian government has embarked
on a vigorous road building effort it is investing
Rs 1,20,000 crore per annum. In the next five years
$60 billion will be invested to build 35,000 km of
roads. The roads that are being built now will be
ready for maintenance and rehabilitation in the next
five to ten years. Some lessons can be learnt from
the US highway system, which is a mature system,
and most of the work in the recent past and at present
*

Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering

E-mail: rajib@wpi.edu),
**

Associate Professor, Social Science and Policy Studies,

E-mail: mjradz@wpi.edu),
is on maintenance and rehabilitation, rather than on

new construction. Because of soaring material costs
and budget shortfalls, there is a huge backlog in
maintenance and rehabilitation of pavements, leading
to the issue of sustainability of the maintenance of road
assets that have been created by huge investments.
For India, it should be noted that in addition to the
ongoing new construction, in the next five years, a
significant amount of work will also be needed for the
maintenance and rehabilitation of the new pavements.
The combined work will need (in addition to money)
a massive amount of materials and energy1, 2.
Pavement construction is the single largest market for
the natural aggregate (sand, gravel and crushed stone)
industry. Typically subbase and base courses are made
completely out of aggregates, whereas aggregates
constitute about 87% and 95% of Portland Cement
concrete and bituminous pavements (respectively).
In India about 15,000 tons of aggregates are required
per kilometer of highway. A typical National Highway
Development Project (NHDP) project of 60 km road
improvement require 20 lakh ton of material. Already,
severe shortage of aggregates is prevalent in Northeast
India, where a significant amount of money needs to
be spent on gasoline/diesel for transporting aggregates
from faraway places. In places such as New Delhi,
good quality aggregates are being hauled from over
200 kms, resulting in the consumption of hundreds of
lakhs of liters of diesel in transportation alone. And in
most cases, old pavement materials are dumped into
landfills dumping of old road materials is leading to a
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
*** Associate Professor, NICMAR-CISC, Hyderabad, E-mail: yaminin@gmail.com)

**** Professor, Civil Engineering Department, IIT Madras, Chennai E-mail: av@iitm.ac.in
59
TECHNICAL PAPERS
depletion of landfill space and generation of significant
amounts of harmful methane gas. In the mean time,
wherever available, depletion of natural aggregate
stock is taking place at an alarming rate (example,
Fig. 1) and anecdotal evidences of the effect of
depletion of natural aggregates are being discussed
in meetings/workshops and presented in various
publications.
equipment and experience, education of practitioners

and quality control practices.
However, there a few key pieces of information that
are missing from the discussion: what are the overall
impacts of the depletion of natural aggregates on
cost and the environment? If, instead of using natural
aggregates, we start recycling of existing stockpiles of
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) materials for new
roads and recycling of existing roads for maintenance
and rehabilitation, what will be the reduction in
the impact? How much recycling needs to be done,
and how soon? Finally, if we delay the adoption of
recycling, what will be the impact?
This study attempts to answer the above questions
using system dynamics modelling and analysis.
2 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
The objectives of this study were to:

i)
To construct a proper model of depletion

of stock of natural aggregates due to
pavement construction, and maintenance
and rehabilitation
ii)
To investigate the effect of various key

parameters, such as new roads built every
year and existing roads maintained every
year, on the rate of depletion
iii)
To determine the impact of the depletion

of the natural aggregates on fuel cost and
the environment
iv)
To determine the effect of recycling

(amount and rate of increase) on reducing/
eliminating the detrimental impacts
Fig. 1 Example of Quarrying of Natural Aggregates
The scarcity of aggregates now forces truck delivery

of materials from great distances, which leads to
emission of greater amount of pollutants from the
burning of diesel, such as particulate matter, nitrogen
oxides and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC). Many
of the diesel engine emissions have been identified as
carcinogenic, and harmful to the human health, even at
occupational and environmental levels of exposure.
An alternative to the use of natural aggregates is
recycling Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
material from existing stockpiles for new roads, and
from existing roads for maintenance and rehabilitation.
It is generally accepted that recycling is needed to
stop the depletion of natural resources, and there are
a number of research studies that are being carried
out in different parts of India at this time to determine
whether the use of RAP is suitable for different layers
of asphalt pavements. Concurrently, there is ongoing
debate among policy makers about policies and
specifications for allowing the use of RAP. Important
issues pertaining to this subject are availability of
60
The scope of work included the consideration of

the appropriate factors, construction of a system
dynamics model, analysis of the various scenarios,
and conclusions and recommendations.
2.1 Methodology
A System dynamics model has been created to analyse
the various scenarios. System dynamics is an approach
TECHNICAL PAPERS
that helps us develop a strategic view of a system,
which could be an industry, society or a nation, by
modelling the different parts and simulating the
dynamics of interaction between the different parts.
This helps us to determine the changes over time, and
hence develop a view which could not be obtained
from spot studies, that are conducted with either a
few of the critical elements of the system or within
the confines of a specific time (second, hour, day or
year) time. One of the most powerful elements of this
approach is the ability to link elements and model
the interdependencies of the various elements across
disciplines (for example climatic science and civil
engineering). Known as causal (or feedback) loops,
these links help us to understand the dynamic nature
of a problem, and simulate the systems over time.
The important aspect of simulating over time is that
whereas impacts (such as that of unsustained growth
in population or construction) may appear to be linear
over a short time period (say a span of five years), in
reality, they may be of exponential nature over a decade
or a few decades. Having the ability view this change
over a long time period is essential for developing
policies for an industry or society or a nation, to make
sure that the far reaching consequences of adoption
of these policies are indeed beneficial in the long run.
This ability can help us select good policies from bad
policies policies may appear to be good in the
short term, but in the long term may have disastrous
consequences, and only a proper system dynamics
model can capture it. Another key aspect of system
dynamics approach is the ability to show the root
cause (or causes) of a problem, and prevent us from
finger-pointing each other. This is because, a good
system dynamics model can include all of the essential
elements, and their interdependencies and hence, the
relational dynamics.
The steps in the modelling of system dynamics consists
of identifying and defining a problem, developing
a dynamic hypothesis, modelling, simulating, and
developing policies and evaluating them. The
components of a typical system dynamics model
are stock, flow and connectors. Stock represents a
commodity that can increase or decrease in value

or number or quantity. Flow is the rate of increase
or decrease in the stock, which can be influenced by
connectors. A simple example is that if the amount
of available natural aggregate can be considered to be
a stock, the amount of use of aggregate in tons per
km of a road can be considered to be a connector, that
dictates the rate of flow, which can be same as the
rate of use of aggregates or can also be influenced
particularly by the amount of recycled aggregates.
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
System dynamics has been utilized since the nineteen
sixties in modeling and simulation of a wide range of
problems, including social, industrial, sustainability,
food, population growth and natural resources. Of
these applications, the most appropriate for this paper
is that related to the modeling of depletion of natural
resources and resulting problems. Forrester (1971)1
introduced the subject through his sustainability model
on world dynamics, and was followed by Meadows
(1972)2 who presented the limits to growth model. This
study has been updated twice since then3, 4. A model
to illustrate the unsustainability of our civilization
was presented by Sterman (2012)5, which includes
growth, carrying capacity and technology, as well as
the delays in regeneration of resource, development
of technologies and adoption of policies. The carrying
capacity of the earth system and detrimental effect
of unsustainable growth on the environment has also
been investigated with system dynamics modeled by
Radzicki (1995)6, Bueno (2011)7 and Bockernmann
et al (2005)8. System dynamics has been used to
investigate the relationship between quality of life
and sustainability by Beck (2011, 2012)9, 10, whereas
Grosskurth (2007)11 has looked at a case study on
regional sustainability in Netherlands. Predictive
models for the forecast of fossil fuel predictions have
been developed by Maggio and Cacciola (2012)12,
whereas the link between resource productivity,
consumption and sustainability has been investigated
by Schmidt-Bleek (2008)13. More appropriately,
resources depletion has been investigated with system
61
TECHNICAL PAPERS
dynamics by Rees (1992)14, Wackernagel (1994)15,
Cohen (1995)16 and Tilton (2001)17.
Overall it seems that system dynamics is a perfect
tool for formulating, modeling and simulating, and
investigating the effects of a resource intensive activity
such as road construction on the environment.
4 MODELLING
The model is shown in Fig. 1. The hypothesis is as
follows. Authorization of new roads through State or
Central governments lead to the construction of new
roads every year (for certain number of years for a
specific budget/plan period). These new roads start
deterioration, and become candidates for maintenance.
In addition, there are already existing roads in
the network that require maintenance, and once
maintained, they become part of the new roads, and
hence the cycle continues. Now, new roads may or
may not be constructed with available RAP materials
(in stockpiles); maintenance jobs may or may not be
carried out by recycling. The maximum amount of RAP

that can be utilized for paving new roads is the amount
that is available at present as stockpile, whereas the
maximum percent of recycling that could be carried
out for maintenance jobs is 100%. Depending on
whether RAP is utilized or not, construction of new
roads and maintenance jobs consume the local stock
of natural aggregates. As this stock drops, contractors
have to transport natural aggregates from quarries
that are further away, and the transportation distance
increases with the depletion of the local stock of
natural aggregates. The fuel cost that is associated with
transportation of aggregates increases with an increase
in the transportation distance, and simultaneously
the emissions also increase. Since the amount of
emissions can be directly related to the amount of fuel
that is burnt (per gram or per liter), the increase in
percentage of emissions is the same as that of the fuel
cost (or fuel that is burnt). The specific emissions that
have been considered, and their harmful effects are
shown in Table 1.
Fig. 1 System Dynamics Model
62
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Emissions from Diesel Engine Trucks (Source: US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA18)
Emission
Volatile
Organic
Compound
Rate
0.74 gm/mile
Effects
Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney,
and central nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or
known to cause cancer in humans. Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs
include conjunctival irritation, nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction,
dyspnea, declines in serum cholinesterase levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness.
RVOCEPA
Nitrogen
Oxide, NOx
7.27 gm/mile
Adverse respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased
respiratory symptoms in people with asthma. NOx react with ammonia, moisture, and other
compounds to form small particles. These small particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of
the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and
can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature
death. Ozone is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds react in the presence
of heat and sunlight. Children, the elderly, people with lung diseases such as asthma, and
people who work or exercise outside are at risk for adverse effects from ozone. These include
reduction in lung function and increased respiratory symptoms as well as respiratory-related
emergency department visits, hospital admissions, and possibly premature deaths.RNOEPA
Carbon
Monoxide,
CO
3.39 gm/mile
At low concentrations, fatigue in healthy people and chest pain in people with heart disease.
At higher concentrations, impaired vision and coordination; headaches; dizziness; confusion;
nausea. Can cause flu-like symptoms that clear up after leaving home. Fatal at very high
concentrations. Acute effects are due to the formation of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood,
which inhibits oxygen intake. At moderate concentrations, angina, impaired vision, and
reduced brain function may result. At higher concentrations, CO exposure can be fatal.RCOEP
Carbon
Dioxide,
CO2
10.1 kg/gallon of Primary greenhouse gas, responsible for global warming and other associated effects
dieselRCO21Krupnick
Particulate
Matter,
PM10
0.13 gm/mile
Effects on breathing and respiratory systems, damage to lung tissue, cancer, and premature
death. The elderly, children, and people with chronic lung disease, influenza, or asthma, are
especially sensitive to the effects of particulate matter. Acidic PM-10 can also damage humanmade materials and is a major cause of reduced visibility in many parts of the U.S. New
scientific studies suggest that fine particles (smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter) may
cause serious adverse health effects.RPMEPA
5 MODEL EQUATIONS AND NUMERIC

VALUES OF PARAMETERS
The model equations and numeric values (Tables 2
and 3) of the different parameters are either based
on literature or on best assumptions. Although the
increases are based on the increase in trucking

distance and expressed in percentage, equations
relating emissions to trucking distance are indicated
at the bottom of Table 3 to demonstrate the significant
effect of increase in trucking distance.
Table 2 Initial Values of Parameters

Parameter
Authorized New Kms per year
Existing new roads
Existing roads needing maintenance
Average pavement life
Local natural aggregate stock
Natural aggregate use per km
Value
100 lane-km for the next five years
0
15,000 kms
5 years
1,000 million tons
15,000 tons per km
63
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 3. equations
Table 3 Equations
19
Note
: Carbon
dioxide,
kg = 2.65*disel
fuel consumedfuel
(litres):
source: Krupnick,
2010
Note:
Carbon
dioxide,
kg = 2.65*disel
consumed
(litres):
source:
Krupnick, 201019
20
Carbon
monoxide =2.12*trucking
2.12* trucking distance:
source:source:
FHWA20 FHWA
Carbon
monoxide=
distance:
Fuel cost
= diesel
fuelconsumed
consumed in litres*Rs.
50 per litre
Fuel cost=
diesel
fuel
in litres*Rs.
50 (assumed)
per litre (assumed)
Fuel consumed
kms per
(assumed)
Fuel consumed
= =88kms
perlitre
litre
(assumed)
20
Nitrogen
Oxide
4.54*trucking distance;
source:source:
FHWA20 FHWA
Nitrogen
Oxide
==4.54*trucking
distance;
20
Particulate
matter== 0.11*trucking
0.11*trucking distance:
source: FHWA
Particulate
matter
distance:
source:
FHWA20
20
20
Volatile
organiccontent
content ==
0.46*trucking
distancedistance
source:FHWA
Volatile
organic
0.46*trucking
source:FHWA
64
TECHNICAL PAPERS
6
ANALYSIS
6.1 Effect of new road construction and

maintenance activities on the local natural
aggregate stock
The effects are shown in Fig. 2. Note that even though
the construction of new road has been considered only
for the next five years, the maintenance of existing
roads create new roads, which again become
ready for maintenance hence the cycle continues
indefinitely. Interestingly, the difference in kms of
new roads that are constructed every year for the
next 5 years do not make a significant impact on the
depletion of natural aggregate stock. If the roads that
need maintenance are actually maintained at a rate of
20%, then by the next 30 years, the natural aggregate
stock will be depleted by 75 to 85%. However, as
Fig. 2 shows, the effect of a change in maintenance rate

(percentage of roads maintained every year) is more
significant, the depletion can range from 75 to 100 %,
as the rate changes from 20-60%. In fact, for 60%, the
depletion is mathematically predicted to be >100, and
the model stopped the calculations at a point at which
the transportation distance became unrealistically
high. Although the exact numbers are less important,
the primary inference is that maintenance of roads is
the major driving force behind the consumption of
aggregates, and even at a low maintenance rate of
20%, most of the local stock of natural aggregates
could be depleted with two decades. Obviously, for
improvement of infrastructure one would assume that
a significantly higher (>20%) percentage of roads will
be maintained every year the effect on the aggregate
stock will be drastic.
Fig. 2 Effect of Road New Road Construction on the Depletion of Natural Aggregate Stock
6.2
Impact of the Depletion of the Natural

Aggregates on Fuel Cost and the
Environment
Since the environmental impacts are related to the

amount of fuel consumed, the impact of the depletion
of local natural aggregate stock on both fuel cost and
emissions will be the same (Fig. 3). In the absence of

any recycling, it is seen that the effects are exponential,
and within two decades, the increase will be between
100-175% of initial values, depending on the rate of
maintenance (which, for a good pavement system,
should be higher than 40%).
65
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 3 Effect of Maintenance Rates on the Depletion of Natural Aggregate Stock
Fig. 4 Impact of Rate of Maintenance on Fuel Cost and Emissions
6.3 Effects of Recycling (Amount and Rate

of Increase) on Reducing the Detrimental
Impacts
The effects are compared against those of no recycling
in Fig. 5. Recycling at a constant rate of 10% or 20%
cannot avoid the increase in impact by over 100% in
30 years. The higher rates of recycling can bring down
the impacts significantly, although the impact levels
66
are not stabilized even after 30 years. Note that this

analysis assumes that the fuel cost will remain at the
same level after 30 years, as it us now: obviously this
is a wrong assumption. Fuel costs will rise, as the fuel
stock gets depleted, and hence the impact on cost will
be even more disastrous. (If one can predict the rise in
field cost with time, it can be easily accommodated in
the model, and the results can be refined).
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Fig. 5 Effect of No Recycling, and Recycling at Constant Rates

on the Increase in Fuel Cost and Emissions
So the only solution seems to be reaching a 100

% recycling level, as indicated in Fig. 6, within a
decade, by increasing the rate of recycling every
year. The increase in recycling can be expected as a
result of increase in confidence and technology, as
a result of both laboratory and field based research.
100% recycling means for a pavement that needs to
be maintained or rehabilitated, the existing layer (or
layers) will be milled off, the materials will be brought
to a plant, recycled, and placed back, with the use
of a recycling agent or rejuvenator. The assumption
is that when the pavement needs the maintenance,
the aggregates are still in good shape, and the only
deterioration is due to the aging of the asphalt binder
(due to aging). In the case of a structural failure (that is
when the pavement is ready for rehabilitation and not
maintenance), a combination of in-place and in plant
recycling can be adopted. Part of the top layer that has
high asphalt content could be milled off and taken to
a plant for recycling. The remaining layers could be
recycled in place using cold in-place recycling, with
emulsion. The recycled bituminous mix could then be
transported from the plant and laid down on the cold
recycled (new) base course. Note that even though
100% recycling is assumed, there will be some use of
new materials, such as recycling agent or rejuvenator.
In some cases, if the aggregates are considered to be
deteriorated, then new aggregates could be used but
the amount should be minimal.
Fig. 6 Effect of No Recycling, Recycling at a Constant Rate of

10% and Recycling at Various Increasing Rates on the Increase
in Fuel Cost and Emissions
6.4
Assumptions Made in this Study
The model used in this study consists of different

stocks and flows, with a number of connectors. For
the equations that relate the different components,
certain assumptions have been made. Definitely, the
equations could be improved with more study, and
identification of better relationships. The expressions
relating the emissions and the fuel cost to the fuel
consumed are taken from literature, and the amount of
fuel consumed per km is based on common knowledge
for a typical dump truck. Hence, these values should
be fairly accurate. The amount of aggregate required
per km of a road is based on calculations, and although
accurate, can vary according to the type of roads.
Hence, the rate of aggregate use can be improved
with data obtained for specific road types.
However, the most important assumption is the
relationship between the depletion of the local natural
aggregate stock and the distance needed to transport
natural aggregates to the job site the assumption is
that this distance increases as the local stock goes
down (Fig. 7). Although the fundamental premise for
this assumption is correct (states are experiencing
a rapid increase in transportation distance with a
depletion of natural aggregate stock) the equation has
been assumed this should be determined from data
for specific areas or specific states, and readers are
encouraged to collect realistic data. Literature shows
that the effect of depletion of local aggregates on the
haul distance is indeed exponential19.
67
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The following recommendations are made.
1.
Research should be carried out to obtain proper

data and determine the relationship between
depletion of local natural aggregate stock and
increase in aggregate transportation distance/
cost
2.
The equations and parameters in the proposed

model should be improved and analysis should
be carried out
3.
Based on the conclusions reported here, policy

makers are requested to take a very serious look
at the countrys future especially with respect
to the sustainability of road construction and
maintenance, and immediately develop a policy
to encourage and even provide incentives
to jumpstart recycling, and maintain a path
of increasing recycling rate over the years to
come.
4.
It should be noted that recycling can only be

carried out when the existing mixes consist of
good quality aggregates, and the detrioration
has been primarily due to the aging of the binder
and/or changes in volumetric and mechanical
properties of the mixes. Hence, the proposed
approach is valid for the roads that are being
now with relatively better specifications, and
materials and mixes.
Fig. 7 Assumed Natural Aggregate Stock Versus Haul Distance

Relationship
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study has utilized a system dynamics approach

to get a big picture of the effect of new road
construction and maintenance on the depletion of
local natural aggregate stock, and the corresponding
impacts on fuel cost and emissions. Based on the work
the following conclusions could be made.
1.
System dynamics should be utilized to get

an objective and clear view of the impact of
construction work
2.
The cumulative impact of new road construction

and resultant increase in the number of roads
to be maintained can only be understood when
viewed on a time scale, and system dynamics
offers the capability to do so
3.
4.
5.
6.
68
New road construction and maintenance (and

rehabilitation) can very quickly deplete a large
percentage of natural aggregate stock
The effect of depletion of natural aggregate stock
on the fuel cost and missions is exponential
A constant rate of recycling at a low rate of
10-30% will not be able to slow down the
depletion of aggregates at an appreciable rate
At some point 100% (close to 100%)
recycling has to be achieved, to stabilize the
natural aggregate stock and sustainable road
construction.
REFERENCES
1.
Forrester, J. W. (1971). World Dynamics. Cambridge,

Mass, Wright-Allen Press.
2.
Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D,L., Randers, J. and William

W. Behrens III (1972). The Limits to Growth., New York,
Universe Books.
3.
Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D,L., and Jorgen Randers

(1992). Beyond the Limits. Post Mills, VT, Chelsea Green
Publishing Company.
4.
Meadows, D. H., Meadows, D,L., and Jorgen Randers.

(2004). Limits to Growth the 30 Year Update. White River
Junction, VT, Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
5.
Sterman, J. D. (2012). Sustaining Sustainability: Creating a

Systems Science in a Fragmented Academy and Polarized
World. Sustainability Science: The Emerging Paradigm
and the Urban Environment. Springer 21-58.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
6.
Radzicki, M. J. (1995). A System Dynamics Approach

to Sustainable Cities. The 1995 International System
Dynamics Conference, Tokyo.
7.
Bueno, N. P. (2011). A Simple System Dynamics Model for

the Collapse of Complex Societies. The 29th International
Conference of the System Dynamics Society, Washington
DC, The System Dynamics Society.
8.
Bockermann, A., et al. (2005). "Modelling Sustainability."

Journal of Policy Modeling 27(2): 189-210.
9.
Beck, A., Stave, K. (2011). Understanding Urban Quality of

Life and Sustainability. The 29th International Conference
of the System Dynamics Society, Washington.
10.
Beck, A., Stave, K. (2012). Understanding Urban

Quality of Life and Sustainability: Model Development
and Validation. Proceedings of the 30th International
Conference of the System Dynamics Society. , St. Gallen,
Switzerland, The System Dynamics Society.
11.
Grosskurth, J. (2007). "Ambition and Reality in

Modeling: a Case Study on Public Planning for Regional
Sustainability." Sustainability: Science, Practice, &
Policy 3(1).
12.
Maggio, G. and G. Cacciola (2012). "When Will Oil,

Natural Gas, and Coal Peak?" Fuel 98: 111-123.
13.
Schmidt-Bleek, F. (2008). "Factor 10: The Future of

Stuff." Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy 4(1).
14.
Rees, W. E. (1992). "Ecological Footprints and

Appropriated Carrying Capacity: What Urban Economics
Leaves Out." Environment and Urbanization 4(2):
121-130.
15.
Wackernagel, M. (1994). Ecological Footprint and

Appropriated Carrying Capacity: a Tool for Planning
Toward Sustainability. School of Community and Regional
Planning, The University of British Columbia. Doctor of
Philosophy.
16.
Cohen, J., E. (1995). "Population Growth and Earth's

Carrying Capacity." Science 269(5222): 341-346.
17.
Tilton, J. E. (2001). Depletion and the Long-Run

Availability of Mineral Commodities. International
Institute for Environment and Development , http://pubs.
iied.org/pdfs/G01035.pdf, accessed June 18, 2013.
18.
US Environmental protection Agency, EPA: http://www.

epa.gov/airquality/urbanair/, accessed June 30, 2013.
19.
Krupnick, Alan. Energy, Greenhouse Gas, and Economic

Implications of Natural Gas Trucks. Natural Energy Policy
Institute, June 20110. http://www.rff.org/RFF/Documents/
RFFBCK-Krupnick-NaturalGasTrucks.pdf, accessed June

30, 2013.
20.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Office of

Planning, Environment, & Realty (HEP); http://www.
fhwa.dot.gov/environment/air_quality/publications/
effects_of_freight_movement/chapter07.cfm, accessed
June 30, 2013.
21.
Edwards , W. A. D and Budney, H. D. The Occurrence,

Production and Projected Consumption of Sand and
Gravel in the Municipal District Foothills. EUB/AGS
Information Series 135. 2007. Online. http://www.ags.
gov.ab.ca/publications/INF/PDF/INF_135.PDF, accessed
6/30/13.
69
A study on Response spectrum and Time history

Analysis Methods for Seismic Analysis of
Prestressed concrete Bridges
Saadat Zaki Mulla*
ABSTRACT
Due to the increase in the population and development, manmade
structures are also increasing with a rapid increase, increasing the
hazards due to natural calamities specially earthquakes. In this
contest, importance of sufficient strength of structures to resists
seismic forces has increased. The importance and necessity of
seismic analysis has gained momentum in recent times and many
methods have been developed for analysis like, response spectrum,
capacity spectrum, displacement coefficient, time history, pushover
analysis etc. The suitability of Response spectrum and Time history
method is studied under in the present work and its found that
time history analysis gives more conservative results and better
behavior of prestressed concrete bridges. The availability of high
speed computing tools has made the computations easier; hence
time history method should be preferred for the seismic analysis.
Response spectrum method gives more idealistic behavior when
compared to Time history method.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years the emphasis on the seismic strength

of the structures has lead to many newer methods
of structural analysis especially seismic analyses.
The response spectrum method has gained much
importance in the whole process much because of the
simplicity in the calculations. Also, many standard
codes prefer for this method over the other developed
rational methods only because of the complications
in the computations. In the present study an effort has
been put to compare the widely accepted response
spectrum method with the more rational and actual
method of Time history analysis.
2
RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD
The response of a structure is often obtained by

subjecting structure to one component of ground
acceleration. The total response of structural system
70
is obtained by combining response due to individual

component, as method of superposition is valid for
linear static systems. Since the natural frequencies of
structure are not known prior, complications arise in
the design of structure necessitating several iterations.
In such a situation, a design engineer requires
perception of seismic loading that reflects frequency
content, amplitude of ground motion and effect of
subsequent filtering by the structure. This information
is provided by Response spectra. Response spectrum
is set of ordinates that describes maximum response
of a single degree freedom system (SDOF) subjected
to a prescribed ground motion.
2.1
Procedure as per IRC:6-2010[1]
In this, Dynamic analysis of the structure is performed

to obtain the first as well as higher modes of vibration
and the forces obtained for each mode by using
response spectrum from Fig.13 of IRC:6-2010 and
clause 219.5.1 of the same.
The horizontal seismic forces acting at the center of
mass, which are to be resisted by the structure as a
whole, shall be computed as follows:

Feq = Ah (Dead load + Appropriate Live load)
where,

Feq
= seismic force to be resisted
A h
= horizontal
seismic
= (Z/2) x (I) x (Sa/g)
= Zone factor as given in Table 6 of

IRC:6-2010
= Importance factor as per Table 7 of

IRC:6-2010
coefficient
Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, KLES College of Engineering and Technology, Belgaum, India
E-mail: saadat.mulla@gmail.com
TECHNICAL PAPERS

= Fundamental period of bridge (in sec)

for horizontal vibrations
Sa/g =

Average
response
acceleration
coefficient for 5% damping of load
resisting elements depending upon
the fundamental period of vibration
T as given in Fig.13 of IRC:6-2010
Fundamental time period of the bridge member is

to be calculated by any rational method of analysis
adopting the Modulus of Elasticity of concrete as per
Clause 6 of IRC:112-2011, and taking gross uncracked
section for moment of inertia. The fundamental period
of vibration can also be calculated by the method
given in Annex D.
Fig. 1 Response Spectrum of IRC:6:2010
TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS
The most sophisticated level of analysis available

to the designer for the purpose of predicting design
forces and displacements under seismic attack is
inelastic time history analysis. This involves stepwise
solution in the time domain of multi degree of freedom
equations of motions representing a multi storey
structure response. It requires one or more design
accelerograms representing the design earthquake.
These are normally generated as artificial earthquakes
analytically or by massaging recorded accelerograms
to provide the requisite elastic spectral response.
Since structure response will depend on the strength

and stiffness of the various structural elements, which
will not generally be known at the preliminary stages
of a design, it is unsuitable for defining design force
levels. It is worth noting that the level of sophistication
of the analytical technique may engender a false sense
of confidence in the precision of the results in the
inexperienced designer. It must be recognized that
assumptions made to the earthquake characteristics and
structural properties imply considerable uncertainty in
the predicted response.
The main value of dynamic analysis is a research tool,
investigating generic rather than specific response.
It may also be a considerable value in verifying
anticipated response of important structures after
detailed design to force and displacement defined by
less precise analytical methods[2].
Modal superposition is an elastic dynamic analysis
approach that relies in the assumption that the
dynamic response of a structure found by considering
the independent response of each natural mode of
vibration and then combining the responses in some
way. Its advantage lies in the fact that generally only a
few of the lowest modes of vibration have significance
when calculating moments, Shear, deflections at
different levels of the structure. In its purest form, the
response to a given accelerograms in each mode of
vibration is calculated as a time history of forces and
displacements, and these responses are combined to
provide complete time history of structural response.
In practice, it is used in conjunction with an elastic
response spectrum to estimate the peak response in
each mode. These peak responses which will not
necessarily occur simultaneously in real structures are
then combined in accordance with one of combination
systems[2].
4 BRIDGE MODEL
The bridge model considered is a 2 span highway
bridge with each span of 15 m long supported by
71
TECHNICAL PAPERS
three piers at mid span. The piers are rectangular in
section with size 1.0 m 0.5 m and height 10 m. The
main girders are I shaped prestressed concrete girders
with 2.5 m center to center spacing, the total depth is
1.83 m and base width is 0.712 m and bottom width is
1.066 m, web thickness is 0.232 m. The prestressing
force for main girders is taken as 1500 kN and the
prestress losses are estimated to be at 15%. The
concrete grade for deck slab is M 25, which is cast
in situ and that of main girders is M 50. The piers are
connected to superstructure through bearings and the
fixity is provided with the foundation. Damping ratio
of 2% is adopted.
For seismic analysis the soil type is considered as
Rock or Hard type. The seismic zone is taken as IV
(Zone factor = 0.24) and the seismic class as Important
bridges (Importance factor, I = 1.2). The live load is the
IRC class A tracked vehicle. For Response Spectrum
analysis, the Response Spectrum developed by the IRC
as given in the IRC:6-2010 is used. For Time history
analysis, Time history function of Century City, Lacc
North earthquake is used.
The models are created and analysed using SAP
2000.
Fig. 3 I Girder Section
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
a. Mode Shapes
Table 1 Time Period
Mode
1
2
3
4
5
Period in s
0.281736
0.117693
0.096409
0.094308
0.089853
The time periods obtained for different modes are

given in the Table 1.
Fig. 2 Cross Section of Deck

Fig. 4 Different Mode Shapes
72
TECHNICAL PAPERS

b.
Table 3 Shear Forces
Axial Forces
The axial forces acting at the centre of the
mass, obtained by the response spectrum
and Time history analysis are tabulated
below in Table 2.
Direction
Maximum Minimum
kN
kN
Table 2 Axial Forces

Time History Analysis
Response Spectrum Analysis
Maximum kN Minimum kN Maximum kN Minimum kN

966.156
-1182.976
1171.1828
1123.7727
The shear forces (horizontal and vertical)

obtained in response spectrum and time
history methods are given in the Table 3.
Response Spectrum
Analysis
Maximum
kN
Minimum
kN
Vertical
713.4707
-799.5856
763.9205
140.697
Horizontal
1190.8982 -1190.797
1325.8143
58.2025
d. Bending Moment
The bending moment due to the

adopted loading conditions obtained
in the response spectrum and time
history analysis are tabulated in the
Table 4.
The bending moment values shown in

the Table 4 indicate that the response
spectrum analysis gives moment in one
direction whereas time history analysis
yields bending moment in both directions
thereby balancing each other.
c. Shear Forces
Time History
Analysis
From the values shown in the above table

we observe that the Response spectrum
method gives only positive values
whereas the Time history analysis gives
both positive and negative values.
Table 4 Bending Moment
Direction
Time History Analysis
Response Spectrum Analysis
Maximum kN
Minimum kN
Maximum kN
Minimum kN
About Hz
1695.1472
-1527.311
1707.1151
734.2137
About V1
4904.1266
-4579.56
5368.9909
1328.1652
Fig. 5a Moment About Horizontal Axis_TH
Fig. 5b Moment About Horizontal Axis_RS
73
TECHNICAL PAPERS

As observed in tabulated results of response

spectrum analysis, only positive values are
observed. This method gives maximum and
minimum values of axial forces, shear force and
moments in one direction. In Time history analysis
both positive and negative values can be found in
the results.
Hence, it can be concluded that, when the behavior

of structure in both the methods is studied, Time
history analysis gives more realistic and actual
behavior whereas Response spectrum method
tends to give conservative values.
Based on the points above conclusion can be

made that Response spectrum analysis is more
conservative when compared with Time history
method.
The drawback of the time history method is, it

involves lengthy and complex computations.
Availability of powerful computing tools has

made the computations easier hence incorporation
of Time history analysis is good for more realistic
and economic designs of bridges.
Fig. 6 Moment About Vertical Axis_TH
REFERENCES
1.
IRC:6:2010- Standard Specifications and Code Practice

for Road Bridges, Section II- Loads and Stresses
(Fifth Revision), Indian Roads Congress New Delhi.
2.
V. K. Raina, Concrete Bridge Practice, Analysis, Design

and Economics, Tata McGraw Hill publishing Co,
New Delhi, (1991).
3.
Takahiro Sakata, Takao Nakazawa, Ryuichi Kanemaru,

and Mitsuo Tokunaga, (2000). Earthquake Resistance
of Four Span Continuos PC Rigid Frame Box
Girder Bridge 12th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Newzealand.
4.
Ding Yang, Ll Nan, and Ll Zhong Xian, (2004). Seismic

Analysis of Rigid Framed Prestressed Reinforced
Concrete Bridge in Tianjan Light Railway Transactions
of Tianjan University, Vol:10, No:4.
5.
Choi, En Soo, Kim HakSoo, Kim Kwang II, Cho

Byang Wan, (2006). Seismic Response of Multi Span
Prestressed Concrete Girder Bridges in the New Madrid
Seismic zone.
6.
A. Adnan, M. Suhatril, I. M. Taib, (2008). Seismic

Performsnce of Seismic KL Elevated Span Bridge Under
Low Earthequake Ground Motion ICCBT.
Fig. 7 Moment About Vertical Axis_RS
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the comparison of time history and

response spectrum methods for seismic loads performed
on a 15 m two span bridge, certain generalized conclusions
are made based on the results obtained as below:

As observed in the tabulated results for Axial

forces, the response spectrum method gives 20%
higher results than the time history method.
The Shear force values show that the response

spectrum results are 7% & 13% higher than the
time history results.
The bending moment about vertical axis in the

response spectrum analysis is 10% more than
that of the bending moment in the time history
analysis.
74
How Safe are Indian Highways at Night

Partha Aich* and M.K. Ganguly**
ABSTRACT
India has a very large network of Highways and Roads. However,
compared to the world average it is far less. Only 15 per cent of
the highway network in India carries 80 per cent of the traffic.
Safety of travel along the highways is always unsafe due to
several reasons like road discipline, frequent crossings of slow
& fast traffic from local roads across major highways and even
movement of traffic in wrong lane in case of divided highways.
The system is somewhat manageable in daytime. With inadequate
lighting as well as outdated systems the situation becomes
worse at night. With introduction of four-lane roads in Golden
Quadrangle (GQ) and North-South-East-West (NSEW) Corridors,
lighting along highways has been provided at selected stretches
passing through towns and villages as per the Guidelines and
Highway Codes. These are more visible on BOT roads. Still these
are inadequate and do not match with the current requirements of
mixed traffic movement on highways. Thus, safety of movement
on highways at night is a major concern.
This paper tries to bring out the deficiencies in lighting on the
Indian highways and the probable solutions to make highway
travel safe at night. Reference of lighting systems followed in
various countries have also been presented in this paper to make
a comparative assessment of the requirement keeping in view the
costs involved and supports required.
contributors to the construction industry. Moreover, the

National Highways Development Programme (NHDP)
has created the biggest construction opportunity in
the road and highways sector. The programme aims at
developing 50,000 km of national highways in seven
phases by 2015 with an investment of over Rs 3,000
billion at 2007 prices. Table 1 gives an overview of
Highway Network in India.
Table 1 An Overview : Road Network of India
Category of Road
Total Road Network
National Highways
State Highways
Major Distt. Road, Rural
Road & Urban Road
Length in Km
3.34 million
65,569
1,30,000
3.14 million
India having 3.34 million kilometers of road

network is the second largest in the world.
As per present estimate, road network carry

nearly 65% of freight and 85% of passenger
traffic.
Road connectivity is important for economic and social

development, and this is increasing in a great way in
India. The road network spans about 3.14 million km
but the road densities of 2.75 km per 1,000 people and
770 km per 1,000 sq. km are far too meagre compared
to world averages of 6.7 km and 840 km respectively.
Further, about 15% of the network carries 80% of the
traffic.
Traffic on roads is growing at a rate of 7 to 10%

per annum while the vehicle population growth
is of the order of 12% per annum.
With the setting up of an effective Public-Private

Partnership (PPP) model by the government to
expand the road network, this sector witnessed rapid
growth in the past few years and it has become the top
INTRODUCTION
Director,
**
Chief Electric Consultant,
All the roads except a few rural roads are mostly

accessible by all types of motorized vehicles. The
differences between daytime and nighttime journeys
are:
Daytime Journey - Passengers can move
comfortably, can drive safely and can avail
speed limits as marked in the signboards. Due
to clear vision, the roads still remain somewhat
M/s Sylos Engineering Pvt. Ltd., E-mail: p.aich@sylosengg.com
75
TECHNICAL PAPERS
safer, even if the drivers break minor road
rules.
Major Bridges (Length > 60 Mts.)
Rail over bridges
Nighttime Journey - This has several problems

like:
Public underpass
a)
Vehicle underpass
At Grade Junctions
Tunnels
b)
c)
d)
e)
Little lighting support on Highways or

Expressways.
Uncomfortable drive on two-lane roads
due to limited available space. The
situation becomes worse on hilly roads
where there are frequent curves.
Uncomfortable drive on four and six
lane divided highways where median
width is low (1.2 m). Anti glare trees
often cannot be planted on four-lane and
six-lane highways with low median
width (1.2 m).
However, there are no highway stretches that get

priority. This may be for avoiding expenses and
maintenance/energy bills.
2
Annual Global
Statistics
Nearly 1.3 million people die in road

crashes each year, on average 3,287
deaths a day.
Motorized traffic without proper light

moving in wrong lane suddenly appears
from opposite side (tractors, tractor
trailers, slow traffic and the like).
An additional 20-50 million are injured

or disabled.
More than half of all road traffic deaths

occur among young and adults ages
15-44.
Traffic from crossroads crosses the

highway without any warning.
Road
Crash
f)
Lane discipline is not followed by heavy

traffic.
g)
Overtaking from wrong side is frequent

as the trucks have a tendency to travel on
right lane to avoid interference of parked
vehicles and slower traffic on the left
lanes.
Road traffic crashes rank as the 9th

leading cause of death and account for
2.2% of all deaths globally.
Road crashes are the leading cause of

death among young people ages 15-29,
and the second leading cause of death
worldwide among young people ages
5-14.
Each year nearly 4,00,000 people under

25 dies on road, that is on an average
over 1,000 a day.
Over 90% of all road fatalities occur

in low and middle-income countries,
which have less than half of the world's
vehicles.
All these render the highways very unsafe for travel

at night. There are guidelines for highway lighting,
but various PPP construction organizations interpret
illumination of highways in different ways and thus
the road users suffer even though they pay tolls for
movement. PPP concentrates illumination at the
following areas:

Toll plazas
Junctions
76
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Road crashes cost USD $518 billion

globally, costing individual countries
from 1-2% of their annual GDP.
Road crashes cost USD $65 billion

annually
in
developing
nations,
exceeding the total amount received in
developmental assistance.
Unless action is taken, road traffic injuries

are predicted to become the fifth leading
cause of death by 2030.
Annual United States Road Crash

Statistics
With 250 million cars in USA the accident statistics

is as under:
took 50%; and even a country like Malaysia took a

target of bringing road deaths down to less than 3 per
10,000 vehicles!
What about Indias targets?
6
Who is at risk?
More than 90% of deaths due to road accident occur in

countries, like Africa and Middle-East and of course
India. Even injuries due to accident are pretty high in
these countries. Also, in developed countries people
from lower socio-economic backgrounds are victims
to road traffic crashes compared to their more affluent
counterparts.
7 Motor vehicles (per 1,000 people)
Over 37,000 people die in road crashes

each year.
An additional 2.35 million are injured or

disabled.
Over 1,600 children under 15 years of

age die each year.
The percentage of ownership of vehicles with

respect to the population is shown in the following
Table 2. Motor vehicle category includes cars,
buses, and freight vehicles excluding two-wheelers.
Population refers to midyear population in the year for
which data are available.
Nearly 8,000 people are killed in crashes

involving drivers ages 16-20.
Table 2 Percentage of Ownership of Vehicles with

Respect to Population
Road crashes cost the U.S. $230.6 billion

per year, or an average of $820 per
person.
Road crashes are the single greatest

annual cause of death of healthy U.S.
citizens traveling abroad.
Indian Scenario
With a mere 12 million vehicles, we have about

1,42,000 deaths on Indian roads caused by accidents
alone with 80 per cent occurring at night.
5
What some countries plan for

their citizens!
For USA the target for reducing road deaths is 20% in

ten years; for UK, the target taken was 40%; Austria
Sl
Countries Name
Year 2009
% w.r.t
Population
of 1000
United States of America
802
80.2
United Kingdom
523
52.3
United Arab Emirates
313
31.3
Russian Federation
271
27.1
Australia
688
68.8
South Africa
162
16.2
China
47
4.7
Hong Kong (SAR China)
74
7.4
Japan
589
58.9
10
Republic of Korea
355
35.5
11
India
18
1.8
Source : The World Bank
77
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Source : MORT&H Document

Fig. 1 A Statistics of Country-wise % Share of Accidents in World Scenario
WHO [World Health

Organization] Response Coordinating the decade of
action for road safety
funding. This is an on-going process and the final

result is not yet available.
In 2010, a United Nations general assembly resolution

proclaimed a decade of action for road safety (2011
to 2020). This decade was launched in May 2011 in
over 110 countries, with the aim of saving millions of
lives by improving the safety of roads and vehicles;
enhancing the behavior of road users; and improving
emergency services. WHO, in collaboration with the
United Nations regional commissions, is the secretariat
for the decade and plays a key role in guiding global
efforts by continuing to advocate for road safety at the
highest political levels; compiling and disseminating
good practices in prevention; sharing information
with the public on risks & methods to reduce these
risks; and drawing attention to the need for increased
Governments claims to curb road fatalities clearly do

not bear out in the nationwide loss of 390/400 lives
daily. While, 17 lives were lost in road accidents
every hour last year, the corresponding figure was 15
for 2010.
78
Road Accident statistics in India
Latest figures for all the states and Union Territories

(from government sources, to be published soon)
shows at least 1.42 lakh people died in road accidents
in 2011, an increase of over 7,000 from 2010. National
Crime Records Bureau Statistics also shows near by
figures as mentioned above.
The average cost of Road Transport Authority
(RTA) in India is approximately 12.5 billion dollars
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(Rs 7000 Crores). This does not include the economic
burden of permanent disability of more than 10 lakh
people who survives major accidents every year.
About 85% of the road accident victims are men in
the age group of 20-50 years. Majority of these are the
bread earners for their families.
The accidents in cities are no less. This is mainly due

to inter-mingling of heavy commercial traffic and
smaller vehicles particularly at night when commercial
traffic movement is opened in cities. The accident
data for various major cities in India in the year 2010,
as collected from Bureau of Statistics are presented
below in Table 3.
Table 3 Road Accident Profile in Selected Cities (2010)
Sl. No.
Name of city
Total number of
Fatal
Accidents
All
Accidents
Person
Killed
Persons
Injured
Accident
Severity
Ahmedabad
226
2,135
235
2,124
11.0
Bengaluru
791
6,490
832
5,376
12.8
Chennai
590
5,123
607
4,425
11.8
Coimbatore
264
1,131
274
1,066
24.2
Delhi
2,104
7,260
2,153
7,108
29.7
Hyderabad
473
2,797
494
2,662
17.7
Indore
383
4,961
414
4,180
8.3
Jaipur
414
2,000
436
1,808
21.8
Kanpur
558
1,413
640
1,249
45.3
10
Kochi
153
1,779
166
1,783
9.3
11
Kolkata
341
2,843
354
2,239
12.5
12
Lucknow
482
1,275
498
709
39.1
13
Ludhiana
222
430
227
239
52.8
14
Madurai
120
568
120
526
21.1
15
Mumbai
609
28,424
637
5,940
2.2
16
Nagpur
301
1,548
317
1,404
20.5
17
Patna
444
1,170
444
606
37.9
18
Pune
417
1,999
439
1,701
22.0
19
Vadodara
180
1,335
188
1,121
14.1
20
Varanasi
234
359
248
126
69.1
21
Vishakhapatnam
437
1,865
460
1,804
24.7
9,743
76,905
10,183
48,196
13.2
119,558
499,628
134,513
527,512
26.9
Total 21 cities
All India
Note : * Accident Severity: Road Accident deaths/100 accidents

Source : Bureau of Statistics, Statistics on Road Accidents in India
79
TECHNICAL PAPERS
10
Points to Ponder
17 people die per hour in road accidents

in India.
highlighted street lighting as one of the most important

point to be noted.
Street lighting of appropriate standard contributes
to safety in urban areas. Installation of good lighting
results in 21% reduction in all accidents, 29%
reduction in all casualty accidents, 21% reduction
in non-pedestrian casualty and 57% reduction in
pedestrian casualty accidents.
It is increasing 13.5% per year.
India leads world in road death as per

WHO.
70% of accident-prone spots are

located on National Highways, which is
responsible for just 2% of Indian roads.
Indian vehicle traffic is only 1.8%

compared to affluent countries having
traffic as high as 80.2%. What will be
the situation on highway accidents when
traffic density in India increases to higher
percentages?
The justification for highway lighting is savings

in terms of costs of loss of the vehicles, lives, and
compensation payment due to accident reduction.
Although estimates vary, the savings can be enough to
pay for a lighting installation in few years.
The analysis of road accident data

received from States/Union Territories
reveals that drivers fault is the single
most important factor responsible for
accidents (78%). Some of the other
factors responsible for road accidents are
indicated in Table 4.
Estimates by the regulation of Security and Road

Lighting (1989) indicated that lighting could reduce
the ratio of night-to-day accidents by as much as 14
percent of total accidents. In a more recent analysis
by Griffith (1994), the safety benefit was found
to be much higher, with an accident reduction of
32 percent.
Table 4 Other Factor Responsible for Accident

Fault of cyclist
1.2%
Fault of pedestrian
2.7%
Defect in road conditions
1.2%
Defect in condition of motor vehicle
1.7%
Weather condition
1%
All other causes*
14.2%
*Includes fault of driver of other vehicles,

fault of passengers, poor light condition,
falling of boulders, neglect of traffic rules,
stray animals, and other known and unknown
causes. However, most accidents occur at
night due to poor light condition.
The above indicates that Poor Lighting is one of the

causes for accidents on Indian Highways and hence
there is definitely a need for appropriate Lighting. A
quote from Prof Tom V. Mathew, on his lecture note
dated 11th August 2012 for Traffic Engineering and
Management & Analysis of Road Accident of India,
80
11
What Lighting does in Highways
Commission of Illuminating Engineers, popular

as CIE (1990), reports that road accidents at night
are disproportionately higher in number and
severity compared to daytime. Data from 13 OECD
(Organization for Economic Co-operation &
Development) countries shows that the proportion of
fatal nighttime accidents is ranged between 25 and
59 percent (average value of 48.5 percent). Estimates
of vehicle kilometers traveled during the hours of
darkness ranged from 17 to 32 percent (average of 25
percent). Although factors such as increased alcohol
usage, fatigue, and over-representation of young
drivers in night traffic contributes to the problem, the
major factor is darkness, demonstrated in accident
studies in which the effect of all factors has been
taken into account (CIE, 1990). In an evaluation of
62 lighting and accident studies from 15 countries, 85
percent of the results showed lighting to be beneficial,
with approximately one-third of the results statistically
significant. CIE (1990) concludes, therefore,
TECHNICAL PAPERS
that roadway lighting is successful; however, the
installation of lighting cannot be expected to result in
a reduction in accidents if there is a major non-visual
problem at any particular site.
Channelization is frequently used in connection with
rural intersection improvements. However, without
proper lighting this becomes another reason for
accident at night as drivers are often caught unaware at
such channelized junctions. A study indicates that the
mean night accident to total accident ratio when both
lighting and channelization were present, was lower
than junctions with channelization without lighting.
from its surroundings. This property of an object

depends on a combination of the following factors:

The differences in luminance, hue, and

saturation between the object and its
immediate background (contrast);
The angular size of the object at the eye

of the observer;
The luminance of the background against

which it is seen; and
The duration of the observation.
Historically, two complementary measures of lighting

system performance were employed:
Drivers
The primary purpose of lighting a roadway at night

is to increase the visibility of the roadway and its
immediate environment, thereby permitting the driver
to maneuver more efficiently and safely. The visibility
of an object is that property which makes it discernible
Luminance, or the amount of light from

an installation incident upon a given
surface of interest (visibility target) in
the roadway environment, and
Luminance, or the amount of reflected

light returned to the drivers eye from the
visibility target.
12 Lighting
and
Performance
Table 5 Highway Lighting Standards in India
Particulars
Highways
Average
illumination
Minimum
illumination
Uniformity
40 lux
Locations
Recessed Lights in
Service Road
Segments
30 lux
20 lux
Underpass
70 lux
18 lux
19 lux
8 lux
More than 40%
More than 40%
More than 40%
More than 60%
Lighting illumination at major junctions at ground

level shall be minimum 50 lux. Lighting luminance at
toll plazas and in all underpasses shall be 70 lux.
A comfortable Vertical illumination on

1.5 m height i.e. drivers eye level
(Motorist eye level to Truck drivers
eye level) of 25-30 lux vertical with
uniformity 0.6 in vertical plane is better
illumination w.r.t drivers. Uniformity of
illumination has a major role.
Illumination criteria of maximum to

minimum should not be greater than
3 times.
In reality, if we analyze effect of illumination on

Speedy traffics on highways, there importance to
drivers is as under:

Clear visibility of forward traffic on the

same direction.
Higher Median Width to avoid opposite

side traffic and its strong deeper effect.
81
TECHNICAL PAPERS
13
Trend of Illumination Practice

in India
a)
Horizontal illumination of road at metal surface

level. (How far effective to drivers who is
driving the car > 80-120 kms per hour speeds).
b)
c)
24.300 Km Roads under Golden quadrant/N-S/E-W

Corridor/Port connectivity. Table 6 presents the
summary.
Table 6 National Highway Development Programs
Project
Horizontal illumination level produces 60-65%

vertical illumination indirectly (Provided right
selection of street light luminaries is in place).
It creates a wide variation in illumination levels

from as low in 16 lux to 90 lux on a span of
30-35 metres (spacing between the poles) for
normal four lane highways.
e)
Uniformity of current standards needs to

review and following uniformity is suggested
to improve Illumination.
Target
Date of
Completion
(i) GQ
5846
Dec., 2005
ii) Port Connectivity &

others
NHDP Phase-II
1133
Dec., 2007
(i) N-S Corridor
7300
Dec., 2007
(ii) E-W Corridor

NHDP Phase-III
10,000
Dec., 2012
NHDP Phase-I
Uniformity of 0.4 means against an illumination

level of 40 lux (Horizontal-AVG). NHAI
illumination guideline allows Bidders/Lighting
Manufacturer to design a road lighting level to
go down to 16/18 lux on metal surface Roads. It
also allows no restriction to higher illumination,
as a result maximum illumination go up to
80-90 lux (below the street light luminaries).
d)
Length
(in Km)
These are the stretch of Roads carrying major Road

transportation/Goods movements between Metros
and can be the focal point for Lighting. Now PPP
Contractors construct these Roads. If 100 % Lightings
are involved in initial costing of projects then job
becomes easier to illuminate National Highway.

More than 24000 km 2/4 even 6-lanes are

completed in India.
Marginal lengths through towns and

villages are illuminated.
Highway lighting today is mainly

concentrated on Toll Plazas i.e. the
earning point for investors.
Lighting has been provided at some of

the selected junctions.
NHAI Guidelines are not followed in

totality.
Highway Lighting condition in

India
NHAI has specified in their guide lines

for illumination levels etc for highways.
Lets consider National Highway Development

Projects popular as NHDP under Phase-I, 2 & 3
completed in the year 2012, with approximately
Some PPP contractors are providing for

Urban areas. There is no importance on
Rural areas.
Ideal Uniformity should be
Eminimum/Eavg as 0.6.
Eminimum/Emaximum 0.33 to 0.4
f)
Introduction of vertical illumination concept

on highways will increase quality of lighting
(More sensible approach than conventional)
g)
Increase in uniformity will definitely curb

variation of lighting in highways and will
definitely reduce night accidents.
14
82
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Vehicles on highways whether in Rural or

Urban Lighting is equally important for
all areas. Rather security point of view
rural area is more dangerous for driving
than urban.
According to Engineering Practice or Commission of

Illumination Engineers Guides, continuous highway
lighting is needed whether it is urban or rural area.
This might increase investments to the tune of 5-7%
per km of construction but it gives comfort to vehicle
drivers who drive cars at night on highways and
will definitely reduce accident/loss of life to a great
extent.
Table 7 below shows safety benefits on road lighting
conducted by National Highway Co-operative
Research Program of National Academics published
by US scientists in 2009. Fig. 2 shows the reduction
in nighttime accident in other countries due to
illumination.
Table 7 Estimated Reduction in Nighttime Crashes
Lightings Impact on Night time Crash Reduction
Variables
Category
Estimated %
Reduction Night Time
Crashes)
Fatal
65%
Injury
29%
Crash severity
PDO
17%
Unspecified
18%
Fig. 2 Nighttime Accident Reduction in Other Countries
15 Estimates of Benefits and Cost

The tangible capital and operational costs are easy to
assess. However, the intangible costs such as medical
ambulance services, productivity loss (including
delay of traffic flow at the site of accident), police and
medical support, fire services, loss of property and loss
of quality of life of the victims are largely unknown.
Similarly, benefits too are difficult to quantify because
it is deferred safety and security costs that constitute
the benefits. 1996 Federal Highway Administration,
US Department of Transportation (FHWA) Annual
Report to Congress, covering study between 1974 and
1995 indicate that illumination had a benefit/cost ratio
of 26.8 percent, and this ranks highest of all safety
improvements. The Table 8. Illustrate the same.
Table 8 Highway Safety Improvement with Cost
Benefit Ratio
Rank
Improvement Descriptions
BenefitCost Ratio
Illumination
26.8
Up-grade median barriers
22.6
Traffic signs
22.4
Relocated breakaway utility poles
17.7
Remove obstacles
10.7
New traffic signals
8.5
Impact attenuators
8.0
New median barriers
7.6
Up-grade guard rails
7.5
10
Up-grade traffic signals
7.4
11
Up-grade bridge rails
6.9
12
Improve sight distance
6.1
13
Median for traffic separation
6.1
14
Groove pavement for skids
5.8
15
Improve minor structures
5.3
16
Turning lanes and channelization
4.5
17
New RR crossing gates
3.4
18
New RR crossing flashing lights
3.1
19
Pavement markings and delineators
3.1
20
New RR crossing lights and gates
2.0
83
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Let us concentrate on indirect savings by providing
continuous lighting on highways whether it is in urban
areas or rural areas.
Here Illumination levels are maintained > 40 lux

(average) with minimum illumination > 20 lux which
is termed as quality lighting.
Benefit-cost ratio of New Road Lighting System

can be worked out by the following formula set by
FWHA:
Pole spacing: 50 meters
11m Poles
Road width: 11.5m + 5.5m(median) +

11.5m
Type
of
streetlight
luminaries:
Symmetrical Beam 1 x 400 watt HPSV
street lights from Holophane USA.
(ADT x % ADTn x 365 x NRU x CRF x ACC)/(AIC

+ TMC +AEC) x 1,000,000 Benefit-cost ratio of
Existing Road Lighting System can be worked out by
the following formula set by FWHA:
(ADT x %ADTn x 365 x NRU x CRF x ACC)/(TMC
+ AEC) x 1,000,000
National Highways
Highway-Profile-6 Lanes Lighting
where,
ADT
= Average Daily Traffic (Existing or

Projected)
%ADTn
= Percent of ADT at night
NRU
= Night crash rate unlighted
CRF
= Crash Reduction Factor
ACC
= Average crash cost (per crash)
AIC
= Annualised installation cost
TMC
= Total annual maintenance cost
AEC
= Annual energy cost
Main Carriage Ways Lighting Installation on NH-4

Typical Street Light
The data from FWHA Technical Advisory T7570.1

(January 30,1988), recommends the following for
computation of average crash cost:
16
Highway
Lighting
Introduction of LED
Lights in Asia
and
Street
$1.7 million/fatality
Million-LED installation lights up China highways.
$ 14,000/ injury
$ 3,000/ property damage
High-brightness white LEDs made by US company

Cree expected to reduce energy consumption by 60%
compared with sodium lamps.
These figures have changed significantly in the last 20

years. In India, a family gets Rs. 50,000 for injured to
Rs. 1 lakh maximum in case of death as compensation.
This does not compare with any compensation package
anywhere in the world.
LED-based fixtures newly installed on nearly 75 miles

of roadway in China will dramatically cut energy
consumption and provide a return on investment
in just four years, according to companies closely
involved in the project.
The following photos indicate typical cases of lighting

system on various Indian highways along with the
comparative analysis as adopted at other countries.
The technical parameters are included with each
photo.
The Chinese LED lighting company that, installed a

combination of its 270W and 300W luminaires along
the highways, has recently installed 10000 LED street
lights on municipal roads. Highways are also going
from HPSV to LED street lighting in stages. India has
84
TECHNICAL PAPERS
started LED Installation on Highways with Indigenous
Manufacturing A Great Strength Now.
A 10 km Span in NH-41 [4 LANES HIGHWAYS]
Pole Spacing: 30 m between the poles

LED street lights: 216 watt from Philips India.
Good Design of roads & highways in near future will
attract other Indian manufacturers to promote LED in
street lighting.
17
Project Place: Haldia, West Bengal

Illumination Level
Uniformity : 0.4
40
Lux
(avg)
Road Width: 2 x 10.5 m
with
Transition Period
More LED Street light installations on highways

will slowly phase out High Pressure Sodium Vapour
streetlights resulting in better visibility on highways.
Standard recommendation of High Pressure Sodium
Vapor vs LED Street lights to combat Highway
Lighting Requirements (specified by NHAI) is
indicated in Table 9. The estimated comparative cost
is included in Table 10. The cost of construction of
few highways where cost of illumination has not been
considered is indicated in Table 11. The estimated per
kilometre cost of construction including illumination
is included in Table 12.
Table 9 Comparison of High Pressure Sodium Vapour and LED Street Lights
S. No.
Type of Highways
Four Lanes Highways

(2 x 2 lanes)
Nature of Road length/

Using High pressure
median width
Sodium Vapor Street Lights
10.5Mts + 1.2Mts
1 x 400 watt High pressure
Sodium vapor street lights
(medians) + 10.5 Mts
on twin bracket pole (From
Indian Manufacturers)
Six Lanes (2 x 3 lanes) 11.5 m + 5 m (medians) + 1 x 400 watt (luminaries from

11.5 m
USA Imported) High pressure
Sodium vapor street lights on
twin bracket pole & lamps
400 watt SON-T Plus Lamps
(From Indian Manufacturers)
Eight Lanes (2 x 4 14.0 Mts + 5 Mts
1 x 400 watt (luminaries from
lanes)
USA Imported) High pressure
(medians) + 14.0 Mts
Sodium vapor street lights on
twin bracket pole & lamps
400 watt SON-T Plus Lamps
(From Indian Manufacturers)
Using LED
Street light
1x216 watt LED
Street Lights light
s on twin bracket
pole (From Indian
Manufacturers)
1x216 watt LED
Street Lights on
twin bracket pole
(From
Indian
Manufacturers)
1x216 watt LED
Street Lights light
s on twin bracket
pole (From Indian
Manufacturers)
85
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 10 Estimated Costing of Highway Lighting for Various Lane Configuration
Highway Lighting
2 x 2 Lanes
2 x 2 Lanes
2 x 3 Lanes
2 x 3 lanes
2 x 4 lanes
2 x 4 Lanes
Lighting
Lighting with Lighting with Lighting with Lighting with Lighting with
with 400 W. 216 W.LED 400 W. HPSV 216 W.LED 400 W.HPSV 216 W. LED
Street Lights Street Lights Street Lights Street Lights Street Lights Street Lights
Initial Investments
per km (Rs In Lakhs)
42.5
51.0
43.5
73.0
46.5
82.5
Energy Consumption
per km (Kw)
29.04
14.52
35.2
17.6
40.5
21.12
Running Electricity
Cost (Rs 6.00 per kwh
for 10 hours per day x
365 days. (Rs In lakhs)
6.36
3.18
7.70
3.86
8.9
4.62
Note :
This cost excludes cost of power arrangements for highways by local Electricity Department.
Table 11 Cost of Construction of Highways

Number of Lanes
Cost per Km
Reference
2 x 3 lanes (6 lanes highways) (as per 2011 approved Rate of

NHDP-III Approved by CCI in its meeting held on April 2011)
Rs 20.9 Crores per KM *
Ahmedabad-Vadodara
(6-laning)
2x2 lanes (4 lanes highways) (as per 2011 approved Rate of

NHDP-III Approved by CCI in its meeting held on April 2011)
Rs 9.8 Crores per KM *
Beawer-Pali-Pindwara
(4-laning)
2x4 lanes (8-lanes)
No Input available
Cost of highways construction under various modes of construction varies. However old reference of Panipath- Jullandhar
(6 lanes) is Rs 7.5 Crores / Km & Dhule- Maligaon (4 lanes) was Rs 4.5 crores /km in the year of 2006-2007.
Note :
If we look at the investments, cost of lighting for Highways is not included.
Table 12 Construction Cost Including Cost of Lighting (Based on Current Date Cost Consideration)
Number of Lanes
As on date
ADD Lighting with LED
Effect on Overall Costing
Cost of Civil Latest Technology (Initial (Civil + Highway Lighting vs
Part (In Rs
Investments) (In Rs
todays cost of Civil works)
Crores)
Crores)
(In Percentage)
2 x 2 lanes (4 lanes
Highways)
5.6
2 x 3 Lanes (6 lanes)
7.50
2x4 Lanes
11.00
6.10
8.9
Remarks
NHAI / PPP to accept

as Mandatory Cost
of Overall on LED
Street Lighting
1) 7.935 with HPSV

Lighting
5.6% extra
Lighting
with
2) 8.23 WITH led Street

Lights
9.73% extra with LED Street

Lighting
1) 11.465 with HPSV

Lighting
4.2 % extra
Lighting
2) 11.825 WITH led Street

Lights
7.5 % extra with LED Street

Lighting
with
HPSV NHAI/PPP to decide
HPSV NHAI/PPP to decide
This will significantly come down in course of time.
86
TECHNICAL PAPERS
18
Various streetlights adopted in

Indian scenario are illustrated
in the following photographs
18.1 LED
Street
Manufacturing)
Lights
(Indigenous
1 x 216 watt LED Street lighting luminaries

indigenously manufactured in India suitable for
highway illumination. Up to 8 lanes highways.

True white Color and better visibility

always when compared to other Light
sources.
Less Co2 gas generation than other HID

light sources.
Energy savings.
Long 50000 hrs Lamp Life that is

2.5 times higher than High-pressure
sodium lamps.
Lumen / watt: 125
216-wattstreetlight
lumens.
Color choice, warm or cool color.
delivers
19500
Fig. 3 LED Street Light (Indigenously Manufactured)
High Pressure Sodium Vapor street lights (HPSV)
87
TECHNICAL PAPERS
400 watt High Pressure Sodium Vapor street lights
(Indigenous) manufacturing can tackle maximum
2 lanes one sides. Any further stretch on road
uniformity of lighting drastically falls down, hence
twin streetlights is recommended for 2 x 2 lanes i.e.
4-lanes maximum.
Fig. 4 Indian 1 x 400 watt HPSV street lights are suitable for
2 x 2 Lanes (4 lanes Highways)
400 watt streetlights from abroad are much superior in

lighting distribution and can tackle national highway
street lighting illumination level with less number of
poles per km, as well as maintain better uniformity up
to 0.6 Emin/Eavg & 0.33 Emin/Emax in case of 6 lanes and
8 lanes highways.
Fig. 5 Imported 1 x 400 watt HPSV Street Lights for 6 Lanes & 8 Lanes
88
TECHNICAL PAPERS

50000 Hrs of burning life (Will exist on

highways, safely for 10-12 Years).
Maintenance cost of installation is nil.
Easily available in India now.
Lumen per watt is 125 Lumens.
Applicable in all types of installations.
Costing is decreasing due to indigenous

manufacturing.
Ideal for 2 x 2 Lanes/2 x 3 lanes/2 x 4

lanes. With variation of spacing of poles.
Less CO2 Generation.
20 LED
is
a
technology
19
Why LED Street Lights
Natural white or warm color option is

available for foggy areas.
60% Power savings when compared to

high efficient High Pressure Sodium
Lamps.
216-watt LED street lights are replacing

400 watt High Pressure Sodium Lamps.
game
changing
Lighting the clean revolution.
Worldwide lighting is accounted for 19%

grid connected electricity generation and
used 9% of global energy in 2006.
The 6% of Global Green House Gas

(GHG) emission attributed to lighting is
equivalent to 70% of passenger vehicles
emission worldwide.
Switching to efficient lighting of Light

Emission Diode (LED) technology offers
designers to design an efficient lighting
system for indoors as well as outdoors.
Light intensity control, which possibly

saves electricity from peak hours to idle
hours. Additional Savings in electricity.
Conventional
lighting
technology
tends to suffer decay over time (Lumen
depreciation). In case of dimming HID
source like sodium lamps or metal halide
lamps, it further deteriorates rapidly. In
case of LED, it runs under lesser current
to reduce further energy consumption
that uses smart control system aiding in
increased life span.
89
TECHNICAL PAPERS

Infinite color choice by using RGB

LED technology. Hence, it is ideal for
applications needing color changes.
Directional Light LED provides

directional lights, meaning that they shine
only where it is needed. This accounts
for large proportion of the technologys

energy savings. In the case of streetlights
this can reduce light pollution by
preventing lights from intruding into
residential windows or spreading through
the night sky.
Table 13 LED Efficiency Over Conventional Light Source Technology
S. No.
Description
Light source Life
Visibility
Lumen efficacy
(lumen /watt )
Maintenance
Maintenance
Conventional system with High

pressure Sodium Lamp
20000 Burning Hours (avg).
Average denotes 50% Survival
Dull in Roadways traffic. Goldenwhite color. Poor Color rendition to
maximum 2200 deg Kelvin. Color
Rendering Index: 20
90-110 lumens /watt
Switch over to LED

50000 Burning Hours (100% survival).2.5
times more life.
Clear in visibility. Available in Warm and
cool color. Color rendition to maximum
6500 deg Kelvin. Color Rendering Index:
85.0
125 Lumens/watt (Indigenous Supply)
.
To attend accessories / lamp Maintenance cost compared to long life is
replacement periodically
Nil.
No development in technology Lumen / watt in Research laboratory already
since 1970
reached 230 lumens / watt & development
further is also expected I terms of life to
100000 Burning Hours.
LED light sources will soon supersede all the other light
source technologies. Advanced countries are going
towards LED to stop Carbon Dioxide emission with
repect to High Intensity Discharge Lamps like High
Pressure Sodium Vapour/Metal Halide/Fluorescent

& Incandescent light sources. This will avoid pollution
and make city or highways much cooler in night time
and fairly pleasant.
Fig. 5
90
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 14
21
An Example of City- Lights in the

year 2012 in USA
4-lanes lighting of a city.

300-350 metres road span, clear for
drivers safe vision for driving.
Head light usages on roads are
negligible.
No Dipper use.
Comparative electricity savings as
recurring expenses of streetlights is
noticeable up to 60 % than conventional.
No maintenance on street light points.
Instant lighting is available
availability of electrical power.
22 Modern day Solution

with
LED with solar power is modern day

solution for highways.
India is having ambitious plan to go with
solar power in 2020.
At present India has installed 1067 MW
solar power & connected it to the Grid.
By 2017, the plan is to upgrade to
additional 10000 MW.
By 2022, the plan is to upgrade to 20000
Mw.
Rough cost of solar energy investment is
Rs 15.0 crores with which advancement
of technology &indigenous drive will
definitely reduce cost.
Solar LED combination will be ideal
choice for solution to highway lighting
throughout India.
22 Conclusion
Importance of illumination for highways has been
identified and suitable recommendations have
been provided. Yes, question always arises in any
discussion forum for promotion of lighting especially
with highway builders; they will definitely provide
norms and guides that National Highway Authority
has established and are now in place.
At first stage, NHDP should give importance
to illumination and make it mandatory for PPP
contractors to build illumination system along
91
TECHNICAL PAPERS
highway construction. We should think of alternative
energy usage like wind power or solar power etc. so it
does not put pressure on power generation using the
ever depletingnon-renewable resources.
It is being learnt that more usage leads to cost economy,
like more solar plants will reduce cost of solar power
which today is Rs 15 cores per MW. 47% of this cost
involves one-time buying charges of solar cells and
once India starts producing its own indigenous solar
cells under government subsidy, this cost will come
down to 6-7 cores. Till such time we may have to go
with conventional energy system.
Regarding LED street lights or near future flood
lights, India should manufacture LED granules that
will save cost from todays 216 watt at Rs 60,000 to
near future Rs 10,000 to 15,000 per unit. This cost
reduction process will aid manufacturer to reduce
manufacturing cost and offer competitive pricing.
LED as a technology is now accepted as a long-term
technology for its benefits when compared to High
Intensity Discharge lamps of sodium and metal halide
or fluorescent light sources.
Finally, let us make our highways comfortable for
driving, which eventually will reduce accidents
resulting in better utilization of governments
compensation money, road damage maintenance and
medical resource utilization for other serious aliments
rather than road injuries.
Today we are losing 400 lives per day in highways
and accidents are increasing rapidly unless we take
proper action. We will surely keep building highways
and without proper illumination we are certain to keep
on adding to the loss of lives on roads. It needs to be
seen if highways are becoming a big deathtrap or ano
loss win-win situation for everyone.
23 Abbreviations Used
WHO : WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
UT
: Union Territory
RTA : ROAD TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION
GOVT OF INDIA
NHA : NATIONAL HIGHWAY AUTHORITY
FWHA : Federal Highway Administration, US
Department of Transportation
92
24
About the Authors
Partha
Aich, Founder and Director of Sylos
Engineering Private Limited, has experience of more
than 35 years in design of two-lane, four lane divided
carriageway National Highways and up-gradation of
four-lane to six-lane National Highways. In course of
his service life, he has been associated with many major
road projects, due to which he travelled extensively
throughout India and several countries of the world.
Looking at the night travel safety in other countries
compared to India, he chalked down the deficiencies
of Indian Roads related to highway lighting. This
inspired him to write this Paper along with Mr. M. K.
Ganguly, Electrical Consultant as co-author for this
paper.
M.K. Ganguly, Electrical Consultant having 35 years
of experience in the field of design of Highway
Illumination, Sports Stadiums and Tunnel lighting. He
was actively involved in design of Highway Lighting
for the following Projects:

Maligaon- NH-3 :Dhule : 118 kms

(4 lanes)
Nashik Mumbai :NH-3 - 100 kms

(4 lanes)
Hoskote - Mulbagal : NH-4 : 82 kms

(4/6 lanes Highways)
Devihali-Nela Mangala : NH-48

81 Kms (4/6 lanes Highways)
Pan path Jalandhar : NH-1 296 kms

(Six Lanes Highways)
Shamshabad Airport-Gachibowli (8 lanes

Highways) 22 km span First Phase
Elevated Road & Underpass at 7 locations

in Noida.
During last few years, he was actively involved

in lighting designs for all major sports stadium in
connection with Commonwealth Games, 2010. He
also carried out designs for lighting Dr. D. Y. Patil
Cricket Stadium in Navi Mumbai and Wankhade
Stadium at Mumbai and two hockey stadiums/ Four
Football stadiums with Punjab Mandi Board.
Behaviour of Piles Under Loads

K.S. Agashe*
Preamble
Piles of various types have been in use for decades.

Different types have been invented during the last
century. The load and moment carrying capacities
of piles has been a subject of research. Most of the
aspects of the capacities are a matter of guess work.
Different methods are adopted for determining the
capacities mostly depending on actual tests. For
determining the load carrying capacities there are
static and dynamic methods prescribed. Analytical
methods are also suggested which depend on the
characteristics of soils or rocks. In spite of all this, some
of the aspects remain to be understood or explained.
The load carrying capacity is allowed such that during
service, the settlement is well within permissible
limit. Analytical methods require characteristics of
soil. However, these characteristics are not related
with settlement and 1hence by adopting these
characteristics, no forecast of settlement is possible.
In most of the cases, the forecast of capacity of piles
based on the characteristics results in small settlement
and this is very conservative and actual load test allows
more load. In all cases of piles after conducting load
test permanent settlement is observed. Even in case
of piles resting on rocks, which have infinitesimally
small settlement, exhibit some appreciable permanent
set. In case of piles resting on rock frictional capacity
of the overburden is neglected.
2
Present Thinking
In case of piles which rest on firm stratum or rock, the

capacity due to friction is neglected. The pile capacity
is supposed to have two components, i.e. friction and
end bearing. Further, it is supposed to have both of

these components for any given load. In short, even
if a small load is placed on a long pile, it is supposed
to have frictional as well as end bearing components.
This is due to the fact that initial assumption is that
the pile does not have elastic compression and the
whole of settlement is due elastic compression of
the soil. Due to this approach anomaly creeps in. For
small loads the calculated settlement works out to be
higher than the actual with this assumption. The
IS:2911 (Part 4) 1985 (cl. A-2.1.5) therefore
advises to ignore such results. In most of the cases
in Maharashtra the experience is that, the calculated
settlement for the designed load is more than the actual
settlement. It is also difficult to explain the permanent
settlement.
3
Need of Revised Thinking:
In southern India there are no areas which are formed

by transportation of soils. The land has resulted from
deterioration of the crust of earth. The frictional
capacity of these soils is quite high.
The assumption made in the method recommended
for use is not in keeping with structural requirement.
The energy stored by a structural element is always
the least possible i.e. the principle of least work
or conservation of energy. In case of pile which is
loaded, if frictional capacity is available, the pile will
try to support the load by friction as it is available
at higher elevation (Fig. 1). A stage will be reached
when the frictional support of entire pile length will
be mobilized (Fig. 2).
Superintending Engineer, Maharashtra, PWD (Retd.), E-mail: akagashe6@hotmail.com
93
TECHNICAL PAPERS
will further start dropping faster and will be negligible
where the frictional resistance ends. In this case the
length subjected to frictional will be smaller than as
shown in Fig. 1. Such behavior will depend on the
soil properties. However, it will be conservative to
consider the supporting length as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Further on the deformation or settlement of the tip

will result into some resistance due to friction and
remaining due to soil reaction (Fig. 3).
Fig. 4
Fig. 3
The proposition of sharing of load beyond the point as

indicated in Fig. 2 will depend on shear deformation
and elastic deformation of soil. The ratio of shear
modulus and modulus of sub grade reaction will
decide the sharing of the load. It may be difficult to
decide the modulus of shear and also the modulus of
sub grade reaction at the tip.
In case of cohesive soils, the frictional resistance is
advised to be taken equal to shear strength i.e. the
cohesion.
From the pile test with small load, it will be easily
possible to find out the average skin friction which
will be nearly half the final.
In view of the fact that sharing of the maximum
load, which is supported by friction and end bearing
(Fig. 3), is difficult to be decided. It is convenient to
consider the sharing of further load by drawing lines
parallel to the straight portion of the load settlement
curve and y axis from this point downwards.
If the principle of least work or conservation of energy
is to be strictly applied, it may result into support by
friction as illustrated in Fig 4. The drop in frictional
resistance will be lesser near the ground level and it
94
Fig. 5
4 Behavior on Release of Load

On removal of the load the pile top will try to return
to its original level. However this upwards movement
will be prohibited by the surrounding soil which will
have a grip over the pile. Thus, there will be negative
friction on the pile surface. Due to this phenomena
pile will get permanent settlement.
If this pile is subjected to load once again, due to the
principle of least work no further settlement will take
place till the entire negative friction is neutralized. The
pile will exhibit further settlement after the negative
friction is neutralized. This load shall be almost equal
TECHNICAL PAPERS
to the previously removed load. It may be slightly
less due to the fact that due to the upward movement
the pile top which is near the ground surface and that
beyond the ground surface there is no surcharge on
continuing soil the soil near top, instead of offering
frictional resistance may be sheared (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6
Conclusions and
Recommendations
iv)
Clause 6.2 (Maintained Load Method)

shall also include The components of
load supported by friction and end bearing
arrived at as detailed in Appendix A.
v)
Clause 6.3 (Cyclic Method) shall be

totally dropped.
vi)
Appendix A shall be revised to include

Fig. 4 explaining that friction alone shall
support the load up to the load indicated
by the intersection of the load settlement
curve and the line drawn for calculated
elastic shortening for half the load for
full length of pile. The length of pile
supporting smaller loads shall be actual
settlement/calculated settlement as
suggested above.
The numbering
accordingly.
of
clauses
shall
be
revised
From the above mentioned discussion it will be

realised that IS:2911 (Part IV) 1985 (Reaffirmed
2000, printed 2003), titled Indian Standard
Code of Practice for Design and Construction
of Pile Foundations, Part 4 Load Test on Piles,
(First Revision), needs amendments to correct the
provision in respect of the sharing of the applied load
on piles by friction and end bearing.
The required amendments are as under :

i)
Clause 2.4 (Initial Test) shall also

include and also the components of load
supported by friction and end bearing as
detailed in appendix A.
ii)
Clause 2.9 (Total Displacement

Gross) and clause 2.10 (Total Elastic
Displacement) shall be deleted.
iii)
Clause 6.1 (Vertical Load Test

(Compression) General) shall be
modified to mention that Maintained
Load Test given in clause 6.2 shall be
used to determine the safe load as well
as the resistance by friction and end
bearing. The mention of cyclic load test
(clause 6.3) and relevant references shall
be deleted.
95
SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST OF LIME AND

CEMENT STABILIZED FLY ASH
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay* and Sunanda Bhattacharjee**
ABSTRACT
The evaluation of different characteristics for pavement materials
is an important step for design and performance of future condition.
Due to the effect of repetitions of wheel loads, component layers
of the pavement are stressed due to tension and as a result tensile
crack is developed. Tensile stress may also be developed due to
differential ground movement. The reason for differential ground
movement is seasonal variation and temperature gradient. In this
paper, for simulating the field conditions of lime and cement
stabilized fly ash material, indirect tensile test or split tensile test
is performed to assess the tension characteristics by applying a
compressive load in a vertical diametrical plane. Graphical relation
is also presented between split tensile strength and unconfined
compressive strength because unconfined compressive strength is
the most relevant parameter for pavement design. For both the
tests, samples are cured for different time periods.
cement stabilized fly ash materials, direct tension and

flexural beam test method are not popularly acceptable
for assessing the tensile characteristics of those
stabilized pavement materials. Indirect tensile test
or split tensile test is the simplest acceptable method
where tensile characteristics is examined by applying
compressive load in a vertical diametrical plane.
For pavement design aspect graphical comparison
is necessary in between split tensile strength and
unconfined compressive strength. That is why in this
present investigation both the tests are performed in
the laboratory.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Fly ash, the waste material from power plants, is

widely used in road construction work for preparation
of embankment, sub grade, sub base or base in ordinary
or stabilized condition. The road construction industry
has been under pressure in recent years in India to
incorporate a wide variety of waste materials into
component layers. Different test methods are used
for evaluation of tensile characteristics of stabilized
materials. The regular and simplest method is direct
tension test method. But some difficulties have been
arisen when performing the test such as the introduction
of bending stresses due to eccentricity of the load and
the addition of stress concentrations at the loading
grips (Kennedy and Hudson,1968)14. Flexural beam
test is the preferred method for pavement engineers
as stress conditions are properly simulated to the
field conditions of pavement component materials.
But due to difficulties of preparation and handling
of sample at low level binder content for lime and
Associate Professor, E-mail: kb@const.jusl.ac.in
**
Research Scholar, E-mail: sbhattacharjee069@gmail.com
96
Sobhan and Mashnad (2002)16 suggested that a

stabilized pavement layer is subjected to repeated
tensile stresses due to traffic load and failure is initiated
due to the formation and propagation of tensile
cracks. Cumberledge et al. (1976)4 concluded that a
split tensile strength of 469 kPa or above is required
for road bases to resist freeze-thaw cycles. Davidson
et al.(1959)6 proposed that unconfined compressive
strength of 2070-3050 kPa is sufficient for road
bases material to resist freeze-thaw cycles. Ghosh
et al. (2006)10 described that split tensile strength values
of 514, 1084 and 1146 kPa were achieved at 28, 45
and 90 days curing period, respectively, for the fly ash
containing 10 percent lime and 1.0 percent gypsum.
Clough et al. (1981)5 observed that the Brazilian
Tensile strength of cemented sands varied from 9 to
12 percent of unconfined compressive strength. Ghosh
et al. (2006)10 expressed that split tensile strength of
fly ash stabilized with lime and gypsum achieved
21.5% of unconfined compressive strength. Emesiobi
Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University

(Second Campus), Kolkata, India
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and Ayotamuno (2005)7 indicated the size of specimen
of 100 mm dia and 80 mm height for split tensile test.
They also pointed that the curing temperature be of
28C at humidity control chamber with the sample
being wrapped in polythene cover and suggested to
use normal CBR testing machine for split cylinder
test. Kennedy (1977)15 and Adedimila (1986)3 also
used the CBR load frame with innovative adaptations
for application of load.
3
AIM AND SCOPE OF LABORATORY

STUDY
Aim and scope of work consists of the following:

(i)
To study the variation of both the indirect tensile

strength and unconfined compressive strength of
lime and cement stabilized fly ash with percent
change of binder (lime and cement) content.
(ii)
To investigate the variation of both the indirect

tensile strength and unconfined compressive
strength of lime and cement stabilized fly ash
with different curing periods.
(iii) To examine the variation of maximum dry

density with percent change of binder content
and trend of indirect tensile strength and
unconfined compressive strength with maximum
dry density for lime and cement stabilized fly
ash samples.
(as SO3) = 0.28; loss on ignition = 5.40; The fly ash

can be classified as Class F, i.e. low lime fly ash
according to ASTM C 618- (2003)1.
The chemical composition (percent by dry weight) of
hydrated lime was as follows : SiO2 = 1.10; Al2O3 =
5.60; Fe2O3 = 0.58; CaO = 62.80 ; MgO = 0.34; loss
on ignition = 24.10. Air dried fly ash specimen was
mixed with 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 percent lime and 4, 6,
8, 10, 12, 14 & 16 percent cement by weight of fly
ash at maximum dry density and water was mixed
at optimum moisture content for each percentage in
accordance with IS:4332 (Part-1)196712. The size
of the specimen for split tensile test was of diameter
100 mm and height 80 mm. At first the sample was
taken at 100 mm dia & 127 mm height Proctor
mould attached with collar. The mould was placed in
compression testing machine for static compaction.
After the compaction was completed the sample was
extracted by hydraulic jack (Photo 1). At this time the
size was100 mm dia & 127 mm height. The sample
was cut from 127 mm and formed to 80 mm height.
All the test specimens of lime and cement stabilized
fly ash were cured for 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days
in humidity control chamber at 30 0.5C and >
95 percent relative humidity. The specimens were
wrapped by polythene for prevention of loss of
moisture when kept in humidity control chamber
(Photo 2).
(iv) To correlate the graphical relation between

indirect tensile strength and unconfined
compressive strength of both the stabilized
samples for different curing periods.
4 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The source of fly ash was from Farakka Thermal
Power Station, in the state of West Bengal. Hydrated
Lime used in this study was supplied from Katni
in the state of Madhya Pradesh. Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) of 53 Grade, was used in this work.
The chemical composition (Percent by dry weight)
of fly ash was as follows : SiO2 = 67.95; Al2O3 =
23.96; Fe2O3 = 1.67; CaO = 0.17; MgO =
0.14; Na2O = 0.031; K2O = 0.024; Total Sulphur
Photo 1 100 mm x 80 mm Sample is Extracted After

Compaction by Hydraulic Jack
97
TECHNICAL PAPERS
similar curing periods maintained for split tensile test
with a view to checking of variation with split tensile
strength for pavement design aspect. For each percent
of lime and cement content, six samples are taken for
both the split tensile and unconfined compression test
of lime and cement stabilized fly ash sample.
5
Photo 2 Cured Samples Wrapped by Polythene in Humidity

Control Chamber
Specimen was placed in between 12.5 mm wide

curved loading strip (radius of curvature equal to that
of the specimen) attached with platen of a CBR testing
machine and tested as per, ASTM D4123 (82)2. The
specimen was failed by splitting along the vertical
diameter (Photo-3).
Photo 3 Sample Failed by Splitting Along the Vertical Diameter

in Indirect Tensile Strength Test
Unconfined compression test was also carried out as

per IS:2720 (Part10) 197311 at laboratory for similar
percent of lime and cement mixed with fly ash and for
98
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Split tensile test results (average of six samples)

of stabilized mixes for different curing periods for
different percent lime and cement addition with fly
ash are summarized in Table 1. Maximum dry density
values for different percent lime and cement addition
with fly ash are also furnished in Table 1. From Table
1 and Fig. 1, it is observed that in case of fly ash
samples stabilized with lime, split tensile strength
increases with increase of 3 to 10 percent lime
addition at 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days curing periods,
respectively. From 3 to 10 percent lime addition, split
tensile strength also enhances with increase of curing
periods. Similar observations were found by Ghosh
et al.(2006). Table 1 and Fig. 2 also show that in case
of fly ash sample stabilized with cement, split tensile
strength increases with increase of 4 to 16 percent
cement addition at similar curing periods followed for
lime stabilized fly ash samples. From 4 to 16 percent
cement addition, split tensile strength also enhances
with increase of curing periods. It is further observed
that split tensile strength for cement stabilized fly ash
samples are much higher compared to lime stabilized
fly ash samples for same percent binder addition and
same curing period. Unconfined compression test
results of stabilized mixes for different curing periods
for different percent lime and cement addition with
fly ash are also furnished in Table 2. It represents that
unconfined compressive strength value increases with
increase of 3 to10 percent lime and 4 to 16 percent
cement addition for similar curing periods as followed
for split tensile strength of lime and cement stabilized
fly ash samples respectively.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Split Tensile Strength Test Results (in kPa) for
Lime and Cement Stabilized Fly Ash
Mix Designation
MDD
(gm/cc)
Curing Period (Days)

3
14
28
56
90
Fly ash
+ 3% Lime
0.992
31
39
47
59
68
113
Fly ash
+ 4% Lime
1.016
43
51
58
71
92
141
Fly ash
+ 6% Lime
1.038
52
58
64
83
116
278
Fly ash
+ 8% Lime
1.102
79
98
142 196 285
434
Fly ash
+ 10% Lime
1.107
104 179 218 297 388
626
Fly ash
+4% Cement
1.046
89
117 182 228 293
371
Fly ash
+6% Cement
1.083
172 245 322 387 441
532
Fly ash
+8% Cement
1.117
255 328 388 472 537
624
Fly ash
+10% Cement
1.208
293 356 417 498 631
752
Fly ash
+12% Cement
1.233
Fly ash
+14% Cement
1.248
Fly ash
+16% Cement
1.281
327 394 511 642 717
925
383 486 528 691 843 1034

429 514 625 711 902 1142
Fig. 1 Split Tensile Strength (fct) Versus Percent Lime Content

for Lime Stabilized Fly Ash
Fig. 2 Split Tensile Strength Versus Percent Cement Content for

Cement Stabilized Fly Ash
Table 2 Unconfined Compressive Strength Test Results

(in kPa) for Lime and Cement Stabilized Fly Ash
Mix
Designation
MDD
(gm/cc)
Curing Period (Days)

3
14
28
56
90
Fly ash
+ 3% Lime
0.992
87
119
193
258
314
586
Fly ash
+ 4% Lime
1.016
102 186
218
334
389
927
Fly ash
+ 6% Lime
1.038
151 229
342
414
527 2842
Fly ash
+ 8% Lime
1.102
196 259
388
492
743 4068
Fly ash
+ 10% Lime
1.107
218 272
423
537
862 5617
Fly ash
+4% Cement
1.046
197 244
315
398
453 1814
Fly ash
+6% Cement
1.083
223 378
437
527
671 3891
Fly ash
+8% Cement
1.117
421
506
642
931 5674
Fly ash
+10% Cement
1.208
438 646
732
915 1512 7238
Fly ash
+12% Cement
1.233
614 727
941 1217 2786 8893
Fly ash
+14% Cement
1.248
765 986 1518 2389 3908 9232
Fly ash
+16% Cement
1.281
914 1426 2204 3634 5764 9802
367
99
TECHNICAL PAPERS
From 3 to10 percent lime and 4 to 16 percent cement
addition unconfined compressive strength also
enhances with increase of curing periods. Kaniraj
et al.(2006)13 observed similar trend for cement
stabilized fly ash samples in his study. Unconfined
compressive strength for cement stabilized fly ash
samples are also much higher compared to lime
stabilized fly ash samples for same percent binder
addition and same curing period. Figs. 3 and 4
indicate that maximum dry density values increase
with increase of percent lime and cement addition for
both the lime and cement stabilized fly ash samples
respectively.
Fig. 3 Relationship Between Percent Lime Added with Fly Ash

Versus Maximum Dry Density (MDD) for Lime Stabilized Fly
Ash Sample
Fig. 4 Relationship Between Percent Cement Added with

Fly Ash Versus Maximum Dry Density (MDD) for Cement
Stabilized Fly Ash Sample
100
From Table 1 and Table 2, it is observed that split

tensile strength and unconfined compressive strength
value increase with increase of maximum dry density.
The weight of the samples is taken after 3, 7, 14, 28, 56
and 90 days curing in humidity control chamber, and
loss in moisture contents are within 0.25%. Similar
results were observed by Ghosh et al. (2001)9.
Comparing Table 1 with Table 2, it is observed that
unconfined compressive strength values are much
higher than split tensile strength values for both lime
and cement stabilized flyash samples at same curing
period and same percent binder addition.
Figs. 5 and 6 indicate the relationships between split
tensile strength and unconfined compressive strength
of lime stabilized flyash samples for different curing
periods.
Fig. 5 Relationship Between Split Tensile Strength and

Unconfined Compressive Strength for 3, 7 and 14 Days Curing
Periods of Lime Stabilized Fly Ash Samples.

Period of Lime Stabilized Fly Ash Samples.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Figs. 7 and 8 also represent the same relationships of cement
stabilized fly ash samples for different curing periods. The
values of coefficient of determination (R2) are presented in
the respective scatter of plots in Figs. 5 to 8.

Periods of Cement Stabilized Fly Ash Samples

Periods Samples
Due to higher percent of lime and cement addition and

extension of curing periods more and more pozzolanic
reactions occur and cementitious material is formed. In
the first few days of curing low pH value of pore fluid is
observed in the pozzolanic reaction, (Fraay et al,1990)8.
Afterwards both the strengths are lower. Pozzolanic
reaction accelerates at a later stage of curing and more
hydration products are formed at higher percent of binder
content and higher curing period. These hydration products
reduce the inter connectivity of pore channel and compact
matrix products are formed. The improvement of strength
due to increase of percent binder with fly ash may be due

to the formation of new reaction products such as Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (CSH). Hydrated calcium aluminates and
silicates crystallizing as products of lime-flyash interaction
are identified in pastes cured at 30 5C. Major reaction
products of flyash and calcium hydroxide as calcium
aluminium hydrate, carboaluminate, monosulphoaluminate
and hydrated calcium silicate play a vital part of strength
gain after increase of binder content and curing period. For
this reason split tensile strength and unconfined compressive
strength both increase with increase of percent binder and
curing period.
Both split tensile strength and unconfined compressive
strength are much higher for cement stabilized flyash
samples as compared to lime stabilized flyash samples.
This is due to the fact that cement stabililized flyash
samples accelerate the formation of pozzolanic reaction
product much earlier. Fraay et al. (1990) observed that the
pozzolanic reaction products of cement stabilized flyash
deposited in the capillary pores of the stabilized mix and
consequently a less permeable compact structure like,
ettringite is formed.
Unconfined compressive strength values are found to be
higher than split tensile strength for both lime and cement
stabilized flyash samples for same percent binder content and
same curing period. Fly ash materials are weak in tension
and stronger in compression. In unconfined compression
test sample is tested under direct compressive load. But
for split tensile test tension is developed into the sample.
For this reason, failure is developed earlier in case of split
tensile test compared to unconfined compression test. The
higher values of unconfined compressive strength may also
be attributed to different mechanism of testing procedures.
The indirect tensile test or split tensile test involved the
application of a compressive load on a cylindrical specimen
in a vertical diametrical plane through two curved steel
strips. A uniform tensile stress was developed at the
bottom by compressive load which ultimately caused the
specimen to fail by splitting along the vertical diameter.
Besides unconfined compressive strength is higher due to
more rigidity of the sample in the plane of loading. Due
to different axis of loading plane, rigidity is lesser for split
tensile strength.
6
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Both split tensile strength and unconfined

compressive strength increase with increase of
percent binder (lime and cement) content.
Split tensile strength and unconfined compressive
strength both increase with increase of curing
period.
2.
101
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.
4.
5.
Split tensile strength and Unconfined compressive

strength for cement stabilized fly ash samples both
are much higher compared to lime stabilized fly ash
samples for same percent binder (lime and cement)
content and same curing period.
In case of lime and cement stabilized fly ash
maximum dry density value increases with
increase of percent binder content. Split tensile and
unconfined compressive strength value both increase
with increase of maximum dry density.
Unconfined compressive strength values are much
higher compared to split tensile strength for same
percent binder (lime and cement) content and same
curing period.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ASTM C 618 (2003), Standard specification for Coal Fly

Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in
Concrete. ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, USA.
ASTM D 4123 (1982), Standard Test Method for Indirect
Tension Test for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous
Mixtures. ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, USA.
Adedimila, A.S.(1986), A Comparison of the Marshall
and Indirect Tensile Test in Relation to Asphalt Mixture
Design: Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Part 2, Vol 81, pp 461-469.
Cumberledge, G., Hoffman, G.L., and Bhajandas, A.C
(1976).,Curing and Tensile Strength Characteristics of
Aggregate-Lime-Pozzolan Transportation Research
record 559, Transportation Research Board, Washington
D.C, p.p. 21-29.
Clough, G.W., Sitar, N., Bachus, R.C., and Rad, N.S.
(1981), Cemented Sands Under Static Loading.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering .ASCE, 107(6),
pp: 799-817.
Davidson, D.T., Mateos, M., and Katti, R.K (1959),
Activation of the Lime-Fly Ash by Trace Chemicals.
HRB Bull., 231, pp.67-81.
7.
Emesiobi, F.C. and Ayotamuno, M.J. (2005),Testing

of Cement Stabilized Lateritic Soils in Various Indirect
Tensile Tests: (I) Methodology. Indian Highways, August
2005, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, p.p. 67-76.
8.
Fraay, A., Bijen, J. M., and Vogelaar, P. (1990), Cement

-Stabilized Fly Ash Base Courses. Cem. Concr. Compos.,
12(4), pp.279 -291.
9.
Ghosh, A., and Subbarao, C. (2001), Microstructural

Development in Fly Ash Modified with Lime and
Gypsum., Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
ASCE, 18(1), pp: 65-70.
10.
Ghosh, A., and Subbarao, C. (2006), Tensile Strength

Bearing Ratio and Slake Durability of Class F Fly ash
Stabilized with Lime and Gypsum., Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering ASCE, 18(1), pp: 18-27.
11.
IS:2720 (Part-10)-1973 Methods of Test for Soils:

Determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
12.
IS:4332 (Part1)-1967 Methods of Tests for Stabilized

Soils: Part 1 Method of Sampling and Preparation of
Stabilized Soils for Testing, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, India.
13.
Kaniraj, S.R., Gayathri, V. (2003), Factors Influencing

the Strength of Cement Fly Ash Base Courses., Journal
of Transportation Engineering, ASCE, Vol.129(5),
pp : 538-548.
14.
Kennedy, T.W., and Hudson, W.R.,(1968) Application of

Indirect Tensile Test To Stabilized Materials, Highway
Research Record. Vol. 235, pp.36-48.
15.
Kennedy, T.W. (1977), Characterization of Asphalt,

Pavement Materials using the Indirect Tensile Test.
Asphalt Paving Technologists, San Antonio, Texas:
Vol-46, pp: 132 -150.
16.
Sobhan, K., and Mashnad, M. (2002), Tensile Strength and

Toughness of Soil-Cement-Fly Ash Composite Reinforced
with Recycle High-Density Polyethylene Strips.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 14(2),
pp: 177-184.
JUST RELEASED
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IRC:107-2013 Specification for Bitumen Mastic Wearing Courses (First Revision) (Price Rs.200/+ Rs.30/- for Postage and Packing charges)
2.
IRC:SP:87-2013 Manual of Specifications & Standards for Six Laning of Highways through Public
Private Partnership (First Revision) (Price Rs.1000/- + Rs.40/- for Postage and Packing charges)
3.
IRC:SP:98-2013 Guidelines for the use of Waste Plastic in Hot Bituminous Mixes (Dry Process) in
Wearing Courses (Price Rs.300/- + Rs.30/- for Postage and Packing charges)
4.
IRC:SP:99-2013 Manual of Specifications and Standards for Expressways (Price Rs.1200/- + Rs.40/for Postage and Packing charges)
102
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INDIAN RoADs CoNGRess

HQ office : Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110022 (India)
Phone. : Secy. Genl.:+91(11) 26185303, Sectt.:+91(11) 26185315, 26185319, 26185273, 26716778
Fax: +91(11) 26183669, E-mail : secretarygen@irc.org.in, dsa@irc.org.in, Website : www.irc.org.in
satellite office : Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi-110011 (India)
Phone: Secy.Genl.: +91(11) 23386486, Sectt: +91(11) 23384543, 23385395, 23387140, 23386274
Fax: +91(11) 23381649 E-mail: membership@irc.org.in, Website : www.irc.org.in
FoRm A-1, APPlICATIoN FoR membeRsHIP
I desire to become a Member/Student Member/Life Member/Individual Associate Member of the Indian Roads
Congress and agree that, if admitted, I will be subject to the Memorandum, Rules, Regulations and the Bye-Laws of the
Society for the time being in force or as they may hereafter be altered or added to according to Law, and I undertake to
promote the objects and interests of the Society so far as lie in my power, provided that whenever, I shall signify in writing to
the Secretary General that I am desirous of withdrawing from the Society, I shall, after the payment of any arrears which may
be due from me, be free from the obligations above mentioned.
I give below full and accurate statement of my academic qualifications, experience, etc.:
(To be FIlleD IN CAPITAl leTTeRs)
1.
NAme______________________________mIDDle NAme_____________________lAsT NAme___________________

(mr./miss/mrs./ms.)
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PRoFessIoNAl /eDuCATIoNAl QuAlIFICATIoNs (Attach copy of Degree/Diploma)
(DAY)_________________(moNTH)____________________(YeAR) (in words, attach proof)
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DD/CHeQue* ____________________________________ DATeD_______________________________________

(* subject to realization)
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1.
QuAlIFICATIoN ReQuIReD FoR membeR / sTuDeNT membeR / lIFe membeR /

INDIVIDuAl AssoCIATe membeR & INDIVIDuAl AssoCIATe lIFe membeR
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
Graduation in Engineering in relevant field.

Corporate Members of the Institution of Engineers (India)
Persons holding such qualifications as are acceptable by the Institution of Engineers (India) for election to
Corporate Membership.
Diploma holders with 20 years experience or 10 years experience and in the rank of SDO/AE.
Such qualified Engineers who are or have been connected with roads and such other persons being
Scientist of eminence in or being engaged in a responsible capacity in the sciences allied to road
construction and maintenance, as the case may be, can be elected member of the Society after the
approval of the Executive Committee.
Such Persons, who, while not eligible to be Member/Life Members, are or have been in the opinion of the
Executive Committee, engaged in the administration of roads or road transport or so engaged in business
connected with construction and maintenance of roads or with the manufacture or sale of materials used in
connection with the making or repairing of roads or of road transport vehicles or the operation thereof for
more than 5 years may be elected Individual Associate Members of the Society.
Students of Final Year of BE / B.Tech or M.Tech / Ph.D in engineering may be elected as Student
Members (SM).
1.4.
1.5.
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2.
Fee To be PAID AloNGWITH APPlICATIoN FoRm A-1

Member
India & SAARC

Countries
Rs.
Entrance fee
400
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Total
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st
(-)
Less:Rebate on 1 Subscription (-) 200
Net amount payable(mandatory) 1500*
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arrears may compound their future annual subscriptions by a single payment of us $ 600.
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33
34
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49
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8800
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8800
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8000
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8000
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OFFICIAL REGISTRATION FORM
74th ANNUAL SESSION - GUWAHATI 18th to 22nd JANUARY, 2014
Telephone No. : 011-2338 7140, 2338 6486
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Email : annualsession@irc.org.in
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120

OFFICIAL ACCOMMODATION FORM
74th ANNUAL SESSION GUWAHATI 18th to 22nd JANUARY, 2014
(Please Return before 31st December, 2013)
Shri Suryya Kr. Baruah
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74th Annual Session)
Superintending Engineer,
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INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

From the Editors Desk - Can Roads Be Saviour to Environment

The Indian Roads Congress

Founded : December 1934

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

From the Editors Desk

CAN ROADS BE SAVIOUR TO ENVIRONMENT

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Place: New Delhi 

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Accommodation and Technical

Shri S.K. Chadha

Shri Mukesh Dubey

Shri S.C. Pant

Shri Suryya Kr. Baruah

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

HIGHLIGHTS OF INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways being

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways being

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways meeting with

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways and other

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) in association

Sector Engineers/Professionals representing various

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Highlights of International Seminar

Shri B.K.Chaturvedi Ji, Member (Power Energy & Transport),

Honble Minister of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India,

Shri T.K.A. Nair Ji, Advisor to Hon'ble Prime Minister of India

His Excellency Shri Francois Richier Ji, Ambassador of Govt. of

Shri Arvind Mayaram Ji, Secretary, Department of Economic

Shri Gajendra Haldea Ji, Advisor to Deputy Chairman

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Highlights of International Seminar

Lighting of Traditional Lamp during the International Seminar

Other dignitaries, Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary,

Shri Gerardo L Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman of the

Highlights of International Seminar

Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary, Department of Economic

His Excellency Shri Francois Richier, Ambassador of Govt.

Shri Gerardo L. Gavilanes Gineres, Chairman, Technical

Lt. Gen. A.T. Parnaik, Director General (Border Roads) being

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Highlights of International Seminar

Shri C. Kandasamy, President, IRC and DG (RD) & SS, MoRTH

Shri P.N. Jain, Immediate Past President of IRC being welcomed

Shri K.K.Y. Mahindrakar, Vice President, IRC being welcomed

Shri Swatantra Kumar, Vice President, IRC being welcomed in

A view of the dais during Inaugural Function

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Highlights of International Seminar

Shri Oscar Fernandes Ji, Honble Minister of Road Transport &

Distinguished Dignitaries, Delegates from India

With the growing road construction industry,

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, December 2013

Highlights of International Seminar

that there is proper integration and inter-linkages

Highlights of International Seminar

Shri Arvind Mayaram, Secretary, Department of Economic

Honble Minister for Road Transport & Highways,

needs to be recognized. There is a need for openness

Highlights of International Seminar

Place: New Delhi