Professional Documents
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INDIGENIZATION A N D T R A N S F O R M A T IO N O F CHRISTIANITY
IN A J A P A N E S E R U R A L C O M M U N IT Y
N ISH IY AM A Shigeru
results
to date
of
studies
on
the
indigenization
and
summarized
in two
theses
an indigenization
thesis and a
confession
of
faith
and
individual
membership,
influence
from
the
Christianity
ancestral cult,
in
in
light
the
of
course
the
of
data
this
(including
questionnaire
monographic
study
of
data)
Fukuda
in
Shakaiqaka hvoron
26 (1975) p p .53-73.
18
process the
non-institutionalized
coming
contact
institutionalized
into
patterns
unraveled
with
and
rewoven
in
cultural
culture,
definite
way.
II
Christianity
Individual
Traditional
religions
III
its
Religious
Figure 1
form
finds
IV
19
patterns,
or
moreover,
will here
be
considered
either central
hypothesis
the
vertical.
Both
are
capable
of
transformation in
is whether
to a
central
or a
peripheral pattern.
Because this difference is a serious one, the concept of trans
formation as used in this study will be divided into two subordi
nate concepts, namely, form and substance. An attempt will be
made to verify the two hypotheses in terms of these two subordi
nate concepts. The first is transformation as change in form the
horizontal axis in Figure 1 . The second is transformation as change
in substancethe vertical axis in Figure 1 . Of
these two it is
respondents members
of
the
Fukuda
Anglican
Episcopal
20
of
are
not
Anglican
Episcopal Church
tember 1876, and its church building remains to the present day in
the Shimo Fukuda ward of Narita City. (At the time the church
was founded, the full name of the geographical location was Shimo
Fukuda
Village Shimo
Habu
District,
Shimosa
County,
Chiba
the
years
1883-1887 there
were
household
associations
21
the landowner-tenant
farmer relationship of
that day.
Table 1
Land Distribution among the Households
No. of
Paddyland
tan
Farmland
Woodland
(including
Residential)
None
6(44.4)
9 (25.0)
4 (38.9)
1-4
7 (19.4)
5 (41.6)
3 (36.1)
5-9
3 (8.3)
6 (16.7)
3 ( 8.3)
10-19
5 (13.9)
5 (13.9)
2 ( 5.6)
20-29
2 (5.6)
0 ( 0 .0 )
3 ( 8.3)
30-39
1 (2 .8 )
0 ( 0 .0 )
0 ( 0 .0 )
40-49
1 (2 .8 )
0 ( 0 .0 )
0 ( 0 .0 )
50 or more
1 (2 .8 )
1(2.8)
1 ( 2 .8)
36 (100.0)
36 (100,0)
Total
Source:
36 (100.0)
gdkeicho (1885).
Note:
order to make the total percentage equal 100.0. It has the same
significance in the table to follow.
22
As may be
is the
is a branch house of
Paddyland
in tan
Independent
A
Households and
Total
Buddhist Temple
None
1-4
5-9
10-19
20-29
16
1
1
30-39
40-49
50 or more
Total
36
23
Table 3 shows the size and yen value of dozoku land holdings
as of 1855. In all categories the extraordinary size and value of
the land holdings of A dozoku will be readily apparent. It is also
worth noting that when the yen value of the two largest land
owners, A and B, are added together, the total yen value of their
holdings is well over half of the overall total.
Table 3
Size and Value of Dozoku Landholdings
as of 1885
D NH
o oo
z .u
o s
k oe
Paddyland
Woodland
Total
72.7 (35)
101.0 (45)
331.7 (44)
8,442(50*:
141.1 (19)
3,508 (21
62.0 (5
31.5 (15)
47.6 (21)
24.0 (
35.5 (]
22.6 (11)
22.4 (10)
69.0 ( 9 ) 1 , 4 4 4 ( 9)
21.7 (10)
23.0 (10)
80.2 ( 1 1 ) 9 4 9
10.7
10.0 ( 5 ) 1 . 0
(1 )
( 6)
21.7 ( 3 )
570 ( 3)
5.3 ( 2
11.6 ( 6)
9.1(4)
26.2 ( 4 )
504 ( 3)
( 2
4.7 ( 2
0.6 ( 0)
7.3 ( 4)
7.5 ( 3)
20.2 ( 3 )
396 ( 2)
5.7 ( 3)
0.2 ( 0)
10.6 ( 1 ) 2 6 3
( 2)
8.7 ( 4)
4.8 ( 2)
14.1 ( 2 ) 1 1 9
( 1)
7.3 ( 2)
14.0 ( 7)
8.4 ( 4)
29.7 ( 4 )
5.4
Note:
(including
Total
Residential)
158.0
Source:
of the
Farmland
u fs
Tot 36
Yen Value
Number of tan
----------------------
313.5(100)
205.8(100)
225.0(100)
744.5(100)
512 ( 3)
16,707(100)
independent households.
24
small,
unranked
facility
enshrining
the
Buddhist
chapel Nankoin
which,
though
really
unit
of
was
17
overlap
into another
sect
in 2 households),
and
unspecified.10
The process whereby Christianity was adopted in the community
is represented in Figure 2 in terms of the growing scale of its
adoption. This process may be divided into four stages:
Stage I
Stage II beginning in 1881 when his eldest son and eldest daughter
(then ages 5 and 3) were baptized; Stage III beginning in 1882
when two young men (then ages 26 and 2 1 ) from two households in
B dozoku received baptismand Stage IV beginning in 1887 when
at least one person from each household in the A, B H, and I
dozoku and from each independent household received baptism en
masse on 8 September 1887.
The move from Stage III to Stage IV should probably be char
acterized as a "leap." The number of people who had received
baptism during Stage III was a mere 5, the number of households
involved only 3 and all 3 from 1 dozoku. But Stage IV opens with
the baptism of 32 more people, the total of 37 representing 16
households belonging to 4 dozoku. The year 1887 also marks the
organization
of Fukuda
Anglican
Episcopal Church;
25
the
Figure 2
Broadening Stages in the Adoption of Christianity
26
Church, after which their children and his parents accepted the
faith.
Table 4
Age and Sex of People Baptized in 1887
Sex
Tn
tal
Age Male
Unknown
Female
0-9
( 6. 3)
10-19
(12.5)
20-29
10 (31.2*)
30-39
(15.5*)
40-49
(12.5)
50-59
( 6. 3)
60-69
( 6. 3)
70-79
(6.3)
Unknown
(3.1)
Total
19
12
32 (100.0)
Sources:
Table
gives
breakdown
by
dozoku
of
households
with
persons who had received baptism as of 1887, and Table 6 does the
same by kumi. In combination they show how greatly the baptisms
of this period took place in dozoku units and how much these
households tended to cluster in the same neighborhoods.
But how, then, can the leapTT from Stage III to Stage IV be
explained?
Beginning
with
September
1881,
the
head
of
household
and
27
Dozoku
No. of Households
in the
with Baptized
Dozoku
Members
Percentage
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Independent
14.3
Total
22
16
72.7
No. of Households
in the
with Baptized
Dozoku
M em bers
Percentage
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Independent
14.3
Total
22
16
72.7
Dozoku
28
church,
it becomes
necessary to
16)
of the
and
households of A
dozoku,
the most
and
households
farmer
were
the
landowners
in a landowner-tenant
and
to
make
possible
the
TTleap
that
took
place
in 1887.
29
that permitted
Christianity
a certain
degree of
and
households,
on
the
one
hand,
and
the
other
the Fukuda
Anglican
Episcopal Church
went
on
to
was
established there.
four years.
Is it possible, then, to specify at what time the Christianity
adopted by Shimo Fukuda actually became indigenous?
If we take as criteria the establishment of Christianity within a
household (three generations of family members receiving baptism)
and
the
acquisition
of particularly important
facilities
by
the
THE C O N T E M P O R A R Y C H U R C H
This section will consider data essential to pursuing the ques
tion of substantive change in Christianity that will be taken up in
the next section.
30
Number of Households
6 (37.5)
1891-96
1 (6.3)
1897-1901
5 (31.0*)
1902-06
1 (6.3)
1907-11
1 (6.3)
Subtotal
14 (87.4*)
0 (
1917-21
0 (
1922-25
1(
Subtotal
1(6.3)
1(6.3)
Subtotal
1(6.3)
Total
Source:
16 (100.0)
Same as for Table 4.
of
these
29
non-resident
members
31
19
(65.8%)
were
people who had been raised in the community but moved away
later in connection with marriage, adoption, formation of an inde
pendent household, or the emigration of an entire family. From
this we may gain some idea of the closeness of the connection
between
Fukuda
Anglican
Episcopal
Church
and
this particular
community,
The Pattern of Existence of the "Christian Household
In Shimo Fukuda, households that have accepted Christianity are
spoken of as "Christian households."13 Apart from the pastor and
his family who come from outside the community, all the residents
members of the church are members of "Christian households^ that
over the generations have followed Christianity as their "household
religion." Other than such members, there is not one "individual
believer11 in the entire community.
During 1971Shimo Fukuda had a total of 54 households. O f
this total, the number of Christian homes (including the pastor and
his family) came
to 2 1 ( 3 8 . 9 % ) ,
being
apart
Christian
from
households
the question
are
to be
of whether
counted
as
the
members
of
church members 15
the
basis
of
criteria such
as
financial
support
for
the
association
Yusanko.19
These
routine
practices,
32
p i go r e
33
this table shows, except for C dozokuy each dozoku listed has
Christian households ranging from 80 to 100% of all its constituent
householdsan unusually high percentage.
Table 8
Percentage of Christian Households in Each Dozoku
Dozoku
Constituent
Christian
Households
Households
Percentage
85.0
100.0
10
10.0
80.0
100.0
100.0
31
20
64.5
Total
essentially the same as those that existed at the time the church
was founded.
Table 9
Percentage of Christian Homes in Each Kumi
Kumi
Constituent
Christian
Households
Homes
Percentage
North
18
50.0
Central
15
11
73.3
South
21
4.8
54
21
38.9
Total
34
Buddhist
Households
Households
Christian Households
33 (76.7)
10 (24.4)
Buddhist Households
10 (23.3)
3 1 (7 5 .6 )
Total
43 (100.0)
4 1 (1 0 0 .0 )
----------------Christian
Buddhist
Christian
96 (76.8)
18 (22.2)
Buddhist
29 (23.2)
63 (77.8)
Total
125 (100.0)
8 1 (1 0 0 .0 )
Tables
10
and
11
it
may
be
seen
35
that
there
is a
and
for
Buddhist
households
to
associate
with
60.6%
(20)
of
the
Buddhist
households
were
not
12
compares
Christian
and
Buddhist
households
with
Type
represents
income
that
is
Table 12
Household Religion and Type of Household Income
Type of Household
Christian
Buddhist
Household
Household
0 ( 0.0)
( 0.0)
3 (15.0)
(18.2)
6 (30.0)
(12.1)
5 (25.0)
12 (36.4)
4 (20.0)
( 9.1)
2 (10.0)
(24.2)
20 (100.0)
33 (100.0)
Income
Total
entirely
36
somehwat
more
heavily
on
agricultural
income
than
the
community,
moreover,
having
experienced
the
op
have more
.992-1.98
hectares)
of
arable
land.
Here
again,
there
is
no
number
of
males
and
females
constituting
first-generation
the
suggestive
Fukuda,
the
of
fourth through
result is over
the
framed
by
degree
the
to
the sixth
50%
of
which
Christian
generations are
the
the
added
overall total a
Christianity of
household,
fact
Shimo
is constituted by
women
(40%)
counted
as
first-generation
Christians
derives
partly from the fact that most the brides who marry into Christian
households
first
accept
Christianity
after
entering
their
new
family, partly from the fact that the females born into Christian
households, after growing up, usually marry into households outside
the community.
37
Male
1 (2 6 .6 )
0 (25.3)
jS
34 (100.0)
Total
2 (5.9)
3 (16.4)
Sixth
9 (26.5)
1
3
17
13 (38.2)
Fifth
(4
6
Fourth
(4
7 (20.6)
Total
2 (5.9)
Third
1 (2.9)
Second
Note:
First
Female
45 (100.0)
79 (100.0)
Shimo Fukuda, including not only the pastor and his family but also
family members who have left home.
In this connection it may be
cut
the church.
Conversely,
unless
there are strong reasons for doing otherwise, by far the greater
part of those who marry into a Shimo Fukuda Christian household,
abiding by its customs, receive baptism and become members of
Fukuda Anglican Episcopal Church.
they become
middle
of
baptism
as infants and
the
38
Table 14
Infant Baptism and Adult Baptism among All Church Members
Type of
Church Members
Baptism
Residing within
Residing outside
Received
the Community
the Community
Infant
48 (60.8)
12 (41.4)
60 (55.6)
Adult
31 (39.2)
17 (58.6)
48 (44.4)
Total
79 (100.0)
29 (100.0)
108 (100.0)
Church members
Total
teachings,n
''Because
of
the
attractiveness
of
the
of
lay
believer's
personality
and
life-outlooktn
etc.
Motivation
op
Confirmation
Members who
Members who
Received
Received
Adult Baptism
Confirmation
22 (78.6)
29 (67.4)
6 (21.4)
14 (32.6)
28 (100.0)
43 (100.0)
The
39
Inquirers
Attendance
Unconfirmed
Confirmed
Total
Nearly every
Sunday/2-3 times
per month
0 ( 0.0)
3 (17.7)
17 (39.6)
20 (33.4)
1(4.5)
0 (0.0)
3 ( 7.0)
3 ( 5.0)
1(4.5)
1 (5.9)
8 (18.6)
9 (15.0)
Almost never
20 (91.0)
13 (76.4)
15 (34.8)
28 (46.0)
Total
22 (100.0)17 (100.0)
43 (100.0)
60 (100.0)
About once
a month
5-6 times a year/
2-3 times a year
Note:
have not yet been baptized and thus are not yet church members.
The total number of baptized persons who remain unconfirmed is
25
(of
whom
follow.
those who received adult baptism and by 67.4%
received
confirmation a
passive
response
of those who
indicative
of
of
fact,
the
results in tables
16-19
confirm
this
40
Table 17:
Type of
Baptized Persons
Worship
PossesMaterial
Bible
Unconfirmed
sion
Have
Not have
Prayerbook
Hymnbook
Have
Not have
Have
Not have
Total
Total
1(4.5)
5 (29.4)
28 (65.1)
33 (55.0)
2 1 (9 5 .5 )
12 (70.6)
15 (34.9)
27 (45.0)
0 ( 0.0)
5 (29.4)
24 (55.8)
29 (48.4)
22 (100.0)
12 (70.6)
19 (44.2)
3 1 (5 1 .6 )
0 ( 0.0)
3 (17.7)
24 (55.8)
27 (45.0)
22 (100.0)
14 (82.3)
19 (44.2)
33 (55.0)
43 (100.0)
60 (100.0)
22 ( 1 0 0 . 0 ) 1 7 (100.0)
Table 18:
Confirmed
Baptized Persons
Unconfirmed
Confirmed
Total
R
e
Almost daily
0 ( 0.0)
0 ( 0.0)
1(2.3)
1(1.7)
a
d
Once a week
0 ( 0.0)
0 ( 0.0)
3 ( 7.0)
3 ( 5.0)
Once a month
0 ( 0.0)
3 (17.7)
10 (23.3)
13 (21.7)
i Almost never/
b
i
Never
..( .
10 (45.5)
1 1 (64.6)
28 (65.1)
39 (65.0)
Subtotal
10 (45.5)
14 (82.3)
42 (97.7)
56 (93.4)
Never read it
12 (54.5)
3 (17.7)
1(2.3)
4 ( 6.6)
Total
22 ( 1 0 0 . 0 ) 1 7 (100.0)
43 (100.0)
60 (100.0)
41
Baptized Persons
Frequency
Unconfirmed Confirmed
D
0 (
Daily
i Occasionally
d
Special times
Subtotal
0.0)
0 (
0 (
0 (
Total
3 ( 7.0)
5 ( 8.)
4 ( 9.3)
4 ( 6.5)
2 (11.8)
18 (41.9)
20 (33.4)
15 (88.2)
24 (55.8)
39 (65.0)
0 ( 0.0)
1(2.3)
1(1.6)
17 (100.0)
43 (100.0)
60 (100.0)
0.0)
22 (100.0)
1 1 (18.6 )
2 (11.8)
0.0)
22 (100.0)
No answer
1 1 (2 5 .6 )
0 ( 0.0)
0.0)
0.0)
0 (
Never done so
0 ( 0.0)
Total
C O N T A C T WITH T R A D IT IO N A L RELIGION
AND THE QU ESTION O F SUBSTANTIVE C H A N G E
The problem to be considered here is that of the nature and
degree
of
substantive
change
that
Christianity
in
the
Shimo
results
of
taking
all
the
households
of
Shimo
Fukuda,
to
the
household,
referred to in the
are
shown
in
Table
20.
The
42
venerate
the ancestors
other
than
the
traditional altar it is
op
shrines
differ,
households. As
established
however,
for
mentioned above,
somewhat
earlier
the
Christian
and
Buddhist
than
the
Buddhist,
65%
of
the
but
shrine
along
with
other
traditional
religious
on accepting
op
discarded
facilities.24
for the fact that both groups showed high scores with regard to
having
place
to venerate
the
ancestors?
For 78.8%
of
the
43
Table 20
Household Possession of Traditional Religious Facilities
Type of Facility
Possession
Buddhist
Household
Household
A Buddha altar
6 (28.6)
26 (78.8)
A substitute
6 (38.1)
0 ( 0.0)
Subtotal
14 (66.7)
26 (78.8)
Do not have
7 (33.3)
7 (21.2)
A place to venerate a
the
Christian
ancestors
e
Kami altar
Have
Do not have
A house-kami
26 (78.8)
7 (21.2)
3 (14.3)
7 (21.2)
18 (85.7)
26 (78.8)
Have
Do not have
shrine
Kitchen kami altar,
Have
Do not have
Totals
hardly
7 (33.3)
14 (66.7)
unusual,
given
their
religious
2 (9.5)
19 (57.6)
19 (90.5)
14 (42.4)
21 (1 0 0 .0 )
33 (100.0)
affiliation.25
Attention
altars
during
the
Meiji
period
(1868-1911),
and
their
of
these
households
began
to
set
up
buddha-altar
44
actually set up buddha altars. This development did not occur until
after the end of the war in fact, not until quite recently. Since
1970 many new houses have been built in Shimo Fukuda. In the
case of the Christian households, building a new house came to
include, almost as if taken for granted, provision in the house
design for a special place in which to venerate the ancestors, and
in this place either a buddha altar or a substitute was installed.26
Of
this
revived
interest
in having a
place
to venerate
the
ancestors resulted not only in reviving the buddha altar, but also
in bringing to life the buddha altar substitute. If the percentage of
Christian households with substitutes were eliminated from Table
20 the item having to do with a place to venerate ancestors
would show a major discrepancy between Christian and Buddhist
households.
Taking the Christian households by themselves now, let us rank
the items in Table 20 by percentage scores, beginning with the
lowest and ending with the highest. Facilities for the functional
kami of the house (the kitchen kami, the well kami, and the like)
stand at the bottom. Next comes the house kami who protects the
area around the house and whose shrine stands outside. As for the
protective spirits inside the house, namely, the kami of the kami
altar and the ancestral spirits, the highest percentage of special
facilities are found in connections with the cult (or remembrance)
of the ancestors.
Christianity and Traditional Religious Events of the Community
Table 21 shows, for Christian and Buddhist households, the degree
of participation in the annual round of traditional religious events.
The Christian events, Christmas and Easter, have been part of the
Shimo Fukuda tradition for over 80 years, so they are counted
here as "traditional.11
No
attempt
will
be
made
to
account
for
the
degree
of
for which
the
45
Table 21
Participation in the Annual Cycle of Traditional Religious Events
Type of Event
Participation
Christian
Buddhist
Households Households
Christian
Easter service at church (Mar/Apr) Yes
No
Christmas service at church (Dec)
Yes
18 (85.7)
0 ( 0.0)
3 (14.3)
33 (100.0)
21( 100. 0)
6 (18.2)
No
0 ( 0.0)
27 (81.8)
Yes
7 (33.3)
25 (75.8)
kami-altar
No
Other
For New Year hang fresh straw-
Yes
No
Yes
No
14 (66.7*)
8 (24.8)
1(4.8)
27 (81.8)
20 (95.2)
6 (18.2)
0 ( 0.0)
25 (75.8)
21(0.0)
8 (24.2)
No
0 ( 0.0)
14 (42.4)
21(0.0)
19 (57.6)
1(4.8)
17 (51.6)
No
20 (95.2)
16 (48.4)
Yes
15 (71.4)
26 (78.8)
Yes
No
6 (28.6)
7 (21.2)
Yes
1(4.8)
17 (51.6)
20 (95.2)
16 (48.4)
No
46
Participation
Yes
No
child
Shinto shrine visit with 7 and 3
year old girls and 5 year old boys
Yes
No
Total
Christian
Buddhist
Household
Household
2 ( 9. 5)
30 (91.0)
19 (90.5)
3 ( 9.0)
2 (9.5)
30 (91.0)
19 (90.5)
3 ( 9.0)
2 1 (1 0 0 .0 )
33 (100.0)
Table 23
Participation in Other Customary Observances
Type of Observance
Participation
Christian
Buddhist
Household
Household
Yes
0 ( 0.0)
25 (75.8)
No
21 (1 0 0 .0 )
8 (24.2)
Yes
2 ( 9.5)
14 (42.5)
No
19 (90.5)
19 (57.5)
Yes
No
2 ( 9.5)
10 (30.3)
19 (90.5)
23 (69.7)
21( 100. 0)
33 (100.0)
turn
now
to
the degree
of
47
participation
in traditional
and beseeching
their unseen aid. When this stage has been reached, it is appro
priate to speak of the "ancestral cult
Cf. Yanagita 1969, Aruga
1969,
Takeda
1957,
Morioka
1959,
p. 3 1 , etc.).
The
position
Fukuda
Christians?
This
is treated in Table
24 which
48
Table ?4
Monotheistic vs. Syncretistic Ideas about God
Question:
Response
Disagree
1 (20.0)
4 (80.0)
0 (0.0)
5 (100.0)
4 (50.0)
4 (50.0)
0 (0.0)
8 (10.0)
4 (66.6*)
2 (33.4)
0 (0.0)
6 (100.0)
9 (47.4)
10 (52.6)
0 (0.0)
19 (100.0)
3 (16.7)
15 (83.3)
0 (0.0)
18 (100.0)
0 (0.0)
1 (100.0)
0 (0.0)
Total
Note:
1 (100.0)
3 ( 1 5 . 8 ) 1 6 (84.2)
0 ( 0 . 0 ) 1 9 (100.0)
following way.
founded
at
approximately
the
same
time
as
the
added
that all of
confirmation.
the
Christians
interviewed had
received
49
Since only one person in the non-Christian group said that his
household had no place to venerate the ancestors, the figures for
this
respondent
have
been
deleted
from
the
analysis;
the
in
the
question.
To
the
extent
that
Christian
people
the
answers
to this question
are
matched
with
the
those
who
Mhave
no
special
place"
to
venerate
the
ancestors, the next to the highest (50.0%) among those who "have
a substitute" (for the buddha altar), and the lowest (20.0%) among
those who "have a buddha altar.11 Conversely, the percentage for
Christians disagreeing with this view was highest if they had a
buddha altar
venerate
and the
lowest
if they had
no special place to
Christians with buddha altars who disagreed with this view (80.0%)
differs
only
slightly
from
that
of
the
non-Christians
(82.2%)
25
presents
the
results of
measuring
three different
first question
asks the
they
members
of
hold
(feelings)
they
their
that
the
lineage,
ancestors
and
the
watch
third
over
about
the
the
living
attitudes
Attitudes
Toward
T a b l e 25
A n c e s t r a l or
Memorial
cn
o
Rites
Jon-C h ri s t i a n s
C h ri s t i a ns
A ttitude
Have a
buddha
altar
Have a
su bstitute
H a v e no
s pecial
place
Have a
buddha
altar
T otal
H a v e no
special
place
T otal
A r e a n c e s t r a l ( m e m o r i a l ) r i t e s i m p o r t a n t or n o t ?
Important
5(100.0)
7 (87.5)
5 ( 8 3 . 3 ) 1 7 ( 8 9 . 5 ) 1 8 ( 1 0 0 . 0 ) 1 ( 1 0 0 . 0 ) 1 9 (100.0)
Unimportant
0
( 0 . 0 ) 1 ( 1 2 . 5 ) 1 ( 1 6 . 7 )
2 (10.5)0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
Don
t know
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
D o t h e a n c e s t r a l spirits w a t c h o v e r th ei r o w n ?
T h e y do
5 (100.0)
8 (100.0)
4 ( 6 6 . 6 * ) 1 7 (89.4)
T h e y dont
0
(0.0)
0
( 0 . 0 ) 1 ( 1 6 . 7 ) 1 ( 5 . 3 )
D o n rt k n o w
0
(0.0)
0
( 0 . 0 ) 1 ( 1 6 . 7 ) 1 ( 5 . 3 )
T otal
(100,0)
8 (100.0)
when
u s i ng the ! p l a c e
( 0 . 0)
(0.0)
17
(89.5)
( 0 . 0)
0
2
(1 0 . 0 )
1 ( 5 . 5 ) 1 ( 1 0 0 . 0 )
where
the
a n c e s to r s are
( 0. 0)
venerated?
2 (33.2)
6 (31.5)
2 (11.1)
(0.0)
2 (10,5)
1 (16.7)
3 (15.8)
2 (11.1)
(0.0)
2 (10.5)
1 (16,7)
5 (26.3)
2 (66.7)
(100.0)
1 (16.7)
1 (5.3)
(0.0)
(0.0)
0 ( o. o)
0 ( o. o)
3 (15.8)
2 (11.1)
(0.0)
2 (10.5)
1 (16.7)
0
( o . o)
1
0
0
0
0
0
(0.0)
(0.0)
0 ( o. o)
0 (0,0)
6 ( 1 0 0 . 0 ) 1 9
(5.3)
(0.0)
(100.0)18
(0.0)
(0.0)
100.0)1(100.0)
13
19
(68.5)
(100.0)
N I S H I Y A S A : Christianity in Japan
W h a t f e e l i n g do you us u al l y h a v e
R e m e m b e r wi t h
respect
0 (0.0)
4 (50.0)
Li k e talking
wi t h a living
pe rson
1 (20.0)
1 (12.5)
P r a y e r to
t h e k a m i or
b u d d h a s for
protection
2 (40.0)
2 (25.0)
P r a y e r to G o d
f o r th ei r
salvation
0
(0.0)
0 (0.0)
I d o n ft
think a b o u t
anything
1 (12.5)
2 (40.0)
N e v e r used
such a place 0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
D o n ft k n o w
0
(0.0)
0
(0.0)
17 (94.5)
affirming
the
importance
of
51
rites,
such
those
first
deals
only
with
the
most
general,
superficial,
and
of
conflict
with
Christian
faith
becomes
harder
to
100%
important,
87.5%
83.3%
those
of
of
those
with
buddha
altar
believe
them
no
special
place
for
venerating
the
who
believe
them
unimportant,
series
of
increasing
number
of
Christians
affirmed
that
these
rites
of the
were
52
hasty judgment to say without further ado that their faith has
taken on an ancestral cult coloration.
The second item, raising the question of whether the ancestors
watch over their own, resulted in percentages that were nearly
identical for both Christian (89.4%) and non-Christians (89.5%). But
whether this means, for the Christians, that their faith has taken
on an ancestral cult coloration is still open to question. For it is
by no means certain that the term ,!watch over" is to be identified
with the more specific divine protection suggested by the term
"unseen aid.
If the Christians alone are considered in relation to this second
item, it turns out that both those with a buddha altar and those
with a substitute were 100% in agreement with the idea that the
ancestors
watch
over
their
living
kin,
whereas
those with
no
only 66.6%
in
two
items,
non-Christian
the
difference
percentages
is
between
considerably
the
Christian
greater.
Among
and
the
in
in
the
ancestral
cult
resulting
from
the
adoption
of
Christianity.
On
the
other
hand,
if
this situation
is viewed
from
the
26.3%
of
the
Christians,
when
using
the
special
ancestor
53
community
has
undergone
substantive
change
in
the
S U M M A R Y AND C O N C L U SIO N
The
results of
the
be
summarized as
follows
1 . In the Shimo Fukuda community, membership in Christianity,
generation
by generation,
takes place
in household units.
The
Going
beyond
mere
peripheral
change,
Shimo
Fukuda
altar
direction
of
and
its substitute,
the
ancestral
cult.
of substantive
Again,
the
change
in the
percentages
for
are
closely
linked
to
the
presence
or
absence
of
ancestral cult facilities, especially the buddha altar, but also that
the buddha altar continues to the present day to be a tangible
power-base for the ancestral cult.
3.
Consequently,
the
primary
factor
leading
to substantive
54
Appendix
This paper originated as an M .A . thesis presented to the Tokyo
University of Education in 1972. A summary report was presented
to the Japan Sociological Society
in 1974 and
that summary,
the writing of
this
to
count.
To
both
should
like
to
express
my
deep
appreciation.
Notes
1 . The reader is referred to Morioka 1959, p. 232; 1957 p .4;
1967, p . 1 2 ; 1970b, pp. 142-143, etc.
2. This is not to say that Christianity as a whole, including
that of Europe and the Americais a non-institutionalized form of
culture; it is only to stipulate that the Christianity that came to
Japan, by reason of its relatively short history here is a
non-institutionalized form. One should also bear in mind Durkheim!s
characterization of "social facts" as consisting of externality and
restraint (Durkheim 1895).
3. The term !Tunit of religious membership used in this paper is
equivalent to Morioka!s term, "social basis of religion. See
Morioka 1968.
4. With regard to requirement 1 , see Section IV; with regard to
requirements 2, 3, and 4, see Section III.
5. It should be noted, however, that within the spectrum of
Protestant denominations, Fukuda Episcopal Church belongs to the
strand that stands closest to the older traditions, namely the
Roman Catholic and Orthodox. As compared to other Protestant
denominations, the Anglican or Episcopal Church lays only mild
emphasis on individualism; with regard to mission work in
non-Christian countries, it endeavors to take as sympathetic an
attitude as possible toward the cultures of these countries and the
feelings of their people, and it may be supposed that for this very
reason its faith, as compared to that of other Protestant
55
56
even though they come from outside the community; the narrow
meaning excludes the pastor and his family, limiting the term to
those community households that for several generations have
identified Christianity as their "household religion.11 In this paper,
the narrow meaning will be employed. When it becomes necessary
to include the pastor and his family, a different term will be used
namely, "Christian home.
14. Even though lumped together as "Buddhist households," their
actual sect affiliation shows considerable variety. These sects and
the number of households affiliated with each are as follows
Tendai 17Shingon 6, Ji 3, Nichiren Shoshu (Soka G a k k a i )1Zen
(further details unspecified)1 , Jodo 1 Tenri Honmichi 1 , Shinto
(Shinto f u n er al ) 1 none 1 . The reason for treating them as a
single category here is that, with the exception of the two
households affiliated with the Nichiren Shoshu (Soka Gakkai), all
participate cooperatively in the traditional religious ceremonies. In
this respect they are to be distinguished from the "Christian
households.**
15. In Shimo Fukuda today there is one "Christian household
that belonged to the church up to the previous generation, but
currently has no church member in the household. Despite this
anomaly it does not allow its contact with other Christian
households to lapse.
16. "Financial support1 means, of course, money given to the
church through offerings, but the point to note is that most of this
support derives from a system in which a treasurer is assigned to
each kami and is responsible to visit each Christian household and
collect money for the church on a household basis. The money thus
collected is called jikyu (self-support), a term that began at an
earlier time when the church, seeking to eliminate reliance on
subsidies from the mission board and other churches, undertook to
raise "offerings for the sake of achieving self-support. Today,
however, the term simply identifies money given to the church by
the Christian households.
17. The voluntary labor includes work in the ChurchTs
paddyland, offering hospitality to the bishop who comes each
autumn to administer confirmation rites, etc.
18. Christmas, EasterThanksgiving, etc.
19. A voluntary association held on completion of the major
agricultural tasks of the year (planting and harvesting) as a form
57
58
Bibliography
A R U G A K i z a e m o n
1969
Chiba ken Shimosa no kuni Shimo Habu gun Shimo Fukuda son shi
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D U R K H E IM , Emile
1895
Les regies de la methode sociologique. Paris: Alcan.
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M IY A J IM A Takashi ,transl.
59
Acceptance of Christianity in a
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The Formation of Modern
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title in
Minzokugaku
kenkyu 17/2
(1953):1-14.
Nihon ni okeru shukyo shakaigaku no hattatsu
1967
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1968
A Sociological Analysis of
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IK A D O Fujio and Y O SH ID A Mitsukuni
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no
(The
Religions of Japan). Kyoto: Tankosha.
1970b
Nihon no kindai shakai to kirisutokyo
The Es
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1970a
N ISH IY AM A Shigeru
1972-73
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61
S A W A Wataru ed.
1938
U E M U R A Masahisa to sono jfdai
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S U M IY A M i k i o
1961
Kindai Nihon no keisei to kirisutokyo