Respiratory System

The Respiratory System
Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Respiratory System Anatomy
Structurally
Upper respiratory system

Lower respiratory system
Functionally
Conducting zone conducts air to lungs

Respiratory zone main site of gas exchange
Structures of the Respiratory System
Nose
External nose portion visible on face

Internal nose large cavity beyond nasal
vestibule
Internal nares or choanae

Ducts from paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal
ducts
Nasal cavity divided by nasal septum
Nasal conchae Meatuses
Olfactory receptors
Pharynx
Starts at internal nares and extends to cricoid

cartilage of larynx
Assists in deglutition
Functions
Passageway for air and food
Resonating chamber
Houses tonsils
3 anatomical regions
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Short passageway connecting laryngopharynx with trachea

Composed of 9 pieces of cartilage
Paired
Unpaired
Larynx
Structures of Voice Production
Mucous membrane of larynx forms:
Superior pair
Inferior pair
Androgens make folds thicker and longer slower vibration

and lower pitch
Trachea
Extends from larynx to superior border of T5

4 layers
Mucosa
Submucosa
Hyaline cartilage
Adventitia
16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
Open part faces esophagus
Location of Trachea
Bronchi
Right and left primary bronchus

Carina internal ridge
Divide to form bronchial tree
Secondary lobar bronchi (one for each lobe)

Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
Structural changes with branching
Mucous membrane changes

Incomplete rings become plates and then disappear
As cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
Sympathetic ANS relaxation/ dilation

Parasympathetic ANS contraction/ constriction
Lungs
Separated from each other by the heart and

other structures in the mediastinum
Each lung enclosed by double-layered pleural
membrane
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Pleural cavity is space between layers
Pleural fluid reduces friction, produces
surface tension (stick together)
Cardiac notch heart makes left lung 10%

smaller than right
Relationship of the Pleural Membranes to

Lungs
Anatomy of Lungs
Lobes each lung divides by 1 or 2 fissures

BRONCHOPULMONARY SEGMENT
Lobules wrapped in elastic connective tissue and
contains a lymphatic vessel, arteriole, venule and
branch from terminal bronchiole
Terminal bronchioles branch into respiratory
bronchioles which divide into alveolar ducts
About 25 orders of branching
Microscopic Anatomy of Lobule of Lungs
Alveoli
Cup-shaped outpouching
Alveolar sac 2 or more alveoli sharing a
common opening
Types of alveolar cells:
EPITHELIAL
Type I alveolar cells form nearly continuous lining,
more numerous than type II, main site of gas exchange
Type II alveolar cells (septal cells) free surfaces
contain microvilli, secrete alveolar fluid (surfactant
reduces tendency to collapse)
ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES removes dust and fine
particles
Alveolus
Respiratory membrane
Alveolar wall type I and type II alveolar cells

Epithelial basement membrane
Capillary basement membrane
Capillary endothelium
Very thin only 0.5 m thick to allow rapid diffusion of
gases
Lungs receive blood from
Pulmonary artery - deoxygenated blood

Bronchial arteries oxygenated blood to perfuse muscular
walls of bronchi and bronchioles
Components of Alveolus
INTERDEPENDENCE
Pulmonary ventilation
Respiration (gas exchange)

steps
1.
Pulmonary ventilation/ breathing
2.
External (pulmonary) respiration
3.
Internal (tissue) respiration
Oxygen Transport
Inhalation/ inspiration
Before Inhalation: Pressure inside alveoli ___
Atmospheric Pressure
For Air to flow inside Lungs
Pressure inside alveoli _ Atmospheric P
This is Achieved by:
Boyles Law
Inhalation
Intrapleural Pressure
Before Inhalation:
During Inhalation:
Importance:
Alveolar Pressure
Transpulmonary Pressure
Boyles Law
Inhalation
ACTIVE MUSCLES FOR RELAXED

INSPIRATION:
Diaphragm most important muscle of
inhalation
External intercostals
FOR FORCEFUL/DEEP INHALATION:

Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid
Exhalation/ expiration
Pressure in lungs greater than atmospheric

pressure
Normally passive muscle relax instead of
contract
Based on elastic recoil of chest wall and lungs from

elastic fibers and surface tension of alveolar fluid
Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped
External intercostals relax and ribs drop down
Becomes active only during forceful breathing

Active Muscle:
Airflow
Air pressure differences drive airflow

3 other factors affect rate of airflow and
ease of pulmonary ventilation:
Surface tension of alveolar fluid
Lung compliance
Airway resistance
Breathing Patterns
Eupnea
Costal Breathing
Diaphragmatic Breathing
Lung volumes and capacities
Minute ventilation (MV) = total volume of air

inhaled and exhaled each minute
Normal healthy adult averages 12 breaths
per minute
MV = CPM X TV
12 breaths/min x 500 ml/ breath
= 6 liters/ min
Spirogram of Lung Volumes and

Capacities
Lung Volumes
TIDAL VOLUME Normal Breathing

70%
30%
Anatomic (respiratory) dead space conducting
airways with air that does not undergo respiratory
gas exchange
Alveolar ventilation rate volume of air per minute
that actually reaches respiratory zone
Lung Volumes
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

- Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
Expiratory reserve volume

- Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
- inhale normally and exhale forcefully
Residual Volume
- Amount of Air left in the lungs after
expiration
Lung Capacities
Inspiratory Capacity (TV + IRV)
- Amount of air that you can inhale after forceful
expiration
Functional Residual Capacity (RV + ERV)

- Amount of air that remains after resting
expiration
Vital Capacity (TV + IRV + ERV)

- amount of air after max. inspiration and max.
expiration
Total Lung Capacity ( VC + RV)

Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Daltons Law
Atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg) = PN2 + PO2 + PH2O

+ PCO2 + Pother gases
Diffusion: Greater pressure Lesser pressure
Henrys Law
Quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is

proportional to the partial pressures of the gas
and its solubility
Partial Pressures of Gases in Inhaled Air

PN2
=0.786
x 760mm Hg
= 597.4 mmHg
PO2
=0.209
x 760mm Hg
= 158.8 mmHg
PH2O
=0.004
x 760mm Hg
= 3.0 mmHg
PCO2
=0.0004 x 760mm Hg
= 0.3 mmHg
Pother gases
=0.0006 x 760mm Hg
= 0.5 mmHg
TOTAL
= 760.0 mmHg
External Respiration in Lungs
Oxygen
Oxygen moves into the blood through diffusion
Alveoli always has more O2 than blood
Pulmonary capillaries gains O2
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses from deoxygenated
blood in pulmonary capillaries (PCO2 45
mmHg) into alveolar air (PCO2 40 mmHg)
Continues until of PCO2 blood reaches 40
mmHg
Internal Respiration
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen diffuses from systemic capillary blood (PO2

100 mmHg) into tissue cells (PO2 40 mmHg)
Blood drops to 40 mmHg by the time blood exits the
systemic capillaries
Carbon dioxide diffuses from tissue cells (PCO2 45

mmHg) into systemic capillaries (PCO2 40 mmHg)
PCO2 blood reaches 45 mmHg
At rest, only about 25% of the available oxygen

is used
Rate of Pulmonary and Systemic Gas Exchange

Depends
on:
Partial pressures of gases

Surface area available for gas
exchange
Diffusion distance
Molecular weight and solubility of
gases
Neural Regulation of Inspiration
Control:
Area of the Brain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate

and Depth
Physical Factors
Increased Body Temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
Emotional Factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate

and Depth
Chemical Factors
Carbon dioxide levels
- Main regulatory chemical
- Inc CO2 Inc Respiration
- Act directly on Medulla
Oxygen Levels
- Detected by chemoreceptors in aorta
and carotid artery Medulla
Developmental Aspects
Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus

Lungs are not fully inflated with air until 2
weeks after birth
Surfactant is not present until late in fetal
development
Aging Effects
Elasticity of lungs
Vital capacity
Blood oxygen levels
Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
More risks of respiratory tract infection

Respiratory System

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The Respiratory System

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.