IGCSE and GCSE Agriculture

Specification:
3.1 Agricultural systems
Candidates should be able to:
Describe in general terms the main features of an agricultural system: inputs, processes and
outputs.
Describe the influence of natural and human inputs on the processes and outputs of the two
agricultural systems listed in the syllabus (a large-scale system of commercial farming and
smallscale subsistence farming). Studies should include natural inputs (relief, climate and soil) and
human inputs (economic, social and sometimes political). Their combined influences on the scale of
production, methods of organisation and the products of each system should be studied. Reference
may be made to an example such as plantation agriculture or extensive commercial cereal farming
or extensive livestock production, etc., to illustrate a large-scale system of commercial farming.
Examples such as intensive subsistence rice cultivation or shifting cultivation, etc. could profitably
illustrate a system of small-scale subsistence farming. Other illustrations might be selected rather
than the above. In each case reference should be made to a detailed case study.
Recognise the causes and effects of food shortages. Shortages of food may be related to natural
problems such as soil exhaustion, drought, floods, tropical cyclones, pests, disease, etc. There
should be an awareness of the effects of these natural problems on selected areas within LEDCs.
Economic and political factors and their effects upon food shortages should be noted, for example
low capital investment, poor distribution/transport difficulties, wars, etc. The effects of food
shortages in
encouraging food aid and measures such as those of the Green Revolution to produce more food
should also be considered.
Agriculture (farming): The production of crops and or livestock.
Aquaculture: The farming of aquatic (water based) plants and animals e.g. mussels, fish and
seaweed.
Pastoral Farming: The rearing of animals.
Livestock: Animals that are domesticated and reared on a farm.
Arable Farming: The growing of crops.
Crops: Types of plants that are grown on a farm e.g. wheat, corn, rice and barley.
Mixed Farming: Farming that rears animals and cultivates (grows) crops.

Subsistence Farming: Farming that involves only rearing enough animals and/or growing enough
crops to support immediate friends and family.
Sedentary Farming: Farming that takes places in a permanent location. The farm and the farmer
stays in the same place every year.
Shifting Cultivation: Farming that moves from one location to another every couple of years.
Commercial Farming: Farming for the purpose of making a profit.
Extensive Farming: Where there are relatively
few inputs (and possibly outputs) per hectare of
land.

Normally a larger farm

Relatively few inputs per hectare
Relatively few workers per hectare
Relatively low yields per hectare

Intensive Farming: Where there are relatively

high inputs and outputs per hecatre of land.
Normally a smaller farm
Relatively high inputs per hectare
Relatively high number of workers per
hectare
Relatively high yields per hectare

Hectare: A hectare is an area of measurement equivalent to 10,000m2.

Yield: This is the amount of crops that are harvested i.e. the crop output.

Farming as a System
Just like industry, farming can also be looked at as a system with inputs, processes and outputs. In
farming, physical (natural) and human impacts are normally separated.
Human Inputs:
Physical Inputs: Natural
Processes: The events
Outputs: Things
Things that are built things that are either found that take place on a farm that are produced on
or made by humans on a farm or are added to a to turn inputs into
a farm and are often
and added to a farm. farm.
outputs.
sold.
Labour
Soil: If soil is fertile
Rearing: This is
Profits
(workers)
then arable farming is
the caring for and
Meat
Machinery
likely to take place, if
support of animals
products
it
is
less
fertile
and
to
maturity.
(tractors,
(lamb, beef,
can only support
Shearing: The
combine
chicken,
grass
then
pastoral
harvesters,
removing of wool
pork)
farming is likely to
etc.)
from animals,
Wool
take place.
Buildings
normally sheep.
(normally
Precipitation: Water
Ploughing:
(barns, silos)
from sheep)
that
helps
water
the
Seed to grow
Turning over the
Milk
crops.
land and
crops
(normally

Sun:
Energy
to
help
preparing it for
Animal feed
from cows)
plants
and
animals
to
planting
seeds.

Waste e.g.
Fertlisers and
grow.

Fertilising:
animal
pesticides

Alluvium:
This
is
Adding
chemicals
excrement
Calves,
mineral
and
nutrient
to
the
soil
to
try

Methane
Chicks,

piglets, etc.
(small
animals
bought to rear
and later sell)

rich sediment (load)

that is transported by
rivers and deposited
on floodplains in
times of flood.
Flood water: Floods
not only bring
alluvium but also
water to keep the
ground moist.
Relief: If land is flat
then it is easier for
arable farming to take
place. If land is hilly
then pastoral farming
is more likely to take
place.
Drainage: It is
important that fields
are well drained so
they are not
permanently flooded.
Apart from rice most
crops and animals
can't survive being
permanently
submerged.

and make it more

fertile.
Weeding:
Removing alien
plants (plants
other than the
crops your are
growing) from
crop fields.
Irrigating:
Watering the land.
Cultivating: To
care for and grow
crops.
Harvesting: The
collection of crops
at the end of the
growing season.
Slaughtering:
The killing of
animals once they
have reached
maturity and are
ready to sell.
Planting: Putting
seeds into the
ground.

(mainly from
cows)
Crops (corn,
wheat,
carrots,
potatoes,
etc.)

If a farmer has a really successful year, he maybe able to change his inputs the next year, by:

Buying more land

Buying better and newer equipment e.g. new tractor or combine harvester
Improving drainage and/or irrigation
Buying new varieties of seed, maybe GM crops
Building new buildings e.g. silos, barns or greenhouses
Buying more animals or better breeds

Alternatively the farmer may choose to have a more relaxing year and leave some of the land fallow
or set it aside for environmental purposes. However, if a farmer has had a really bad year, he has to
make decisions the next year. Does he invest in inputs and try and recoup loses or does he cut back
on inputs. His choices may include:

He may sell some of his livestock

He may sell some of his land
He may diversify by opening a shop or a small B&B
He may try and farm more intensively by buying more fertilisers and pesticides

Silos: A large tall building designed to store and protect crops that have been harvested e.g. wheat
and barley.
Barns: A large structure normally made from wood or corrugated steel to store machinery,
harvested crops or to protect animals.
Humans can change some of the natural inputs found on farms. The changes are not always
intentional, nor always caused by the farmer but may include:
Climate Change: It is now widely accepted that the main cause of climate change is the enhanced
greenhouse effect that has been caused by humans. The climate is changing in many ways an
altering natural inputs in many ways; some areas are getting warmer and drier, while other areas are
getting wetter. What ever the change farmers will have to adapt to the changing inputs.
Acid Rain: Acid rain which is largely caused by human pollution can alter the pH of of soil and
damage crops again forcing farmers to adapt their farming techniques.
Construction of a Dam: A construction of a nearby dam may improve the supply of water and
allow new irrigation channels to be built, but it will also reduce flooding and therefore the amount
of alluvium that is deposited on farm land. The reduced input of alluvium may force farmers to use
more fertilisers.
Irrigation Channels: The construction of irrigation channels diverting more water onto farmland
should make the ground more moist and easier to farm.
Drainage Ditches: Improved drainage may allow previously flooded land to be farmed and drain
flood water away quicker.

Subsistence Farming - Ganges River, India and

Bangladesh
The Ganges river flows eastwards from the Himalayas through northern India and into
Bangladesh. The mouth of the Ganges is in the Bay of Bengal. Much of India and
Bangladesh are very poor and a lot of the farming that takes place is subsistence
farming (growing crops for immediate friends and family).
The area around the Ganges is moist (especially during the monsoon sea), warm (over
20 degrees centigrade most of the time) and fairly fertile (alluvium from flood events).
Because of the natural inputs growing can take place most of the year and fairly
intensively. However, growing rice is very labour intensive, rice paddies need to be
constructed to hold water, irrigation channels need to be dug, seedlings planted, weeds
removed and rice harvested. Because most of paddies and plots of land are small, very
little equipment is used. As well as humans animals like water buffalo are used.
Traditions means that plots of land are divided up after death which makes the farms
less productive as they get smaller.

To try and improve yields in areas like the Ganges River the so called green
revolution started in the late 1960's. The green revolution was an idea to introduce
western plant varieties and farming techniques. The main change was the introduction
of HYV crops which aimed to increase yields. The green revolution brought some
successes and failures. These successes and failures are summarised below the climate
information.

Climate Graph for Kolkata

Climate graphs are very useful for showing the average conditions of a city or region. Climate
graphs show two variables; temperature in a line graph (often coloured red) and rainfall in a bar
graph (normally coloured blue). When looking at climate graphs you always need to remember
that they are average conditions and that months can be hotter or colder, drier or wetter than
shown on the graph.
If we look at Kolkata's climate graph we can notice that it has a fairly small temperature range,
about 8 degrees centigrade. In January the temperature is about 20 degrees centigrade rising to
about 28 degrees centigrade in May. It then decreases gently reaching 20 degrees centigrade in
December, except for the month of September which experiences a slight increase to about 27
degrees centigrade.
The rainfall appears to have two very distinct seasons. There is a lot of rain from May through to
October and very little from November through to April. August is the month with peak rainfall
reaching about 300mm, while December has the lowest with about 5mm.
Monsoon: This is the term normally used to describe South Asia's rainy season running from
May to October.

Climate Graph for Kolkata, India

Successes of Green Revolution

HYV did increase food production and
made countries like India more selfsufficient
Food prices began to fall making them
more affordable for the poor
More crops could be grown because of
the shorter growing seasons
The yields were more reliable
Different crops were grown adding
variety to local diet
There were surpluses so crops could
then be traded commercially

Failures of Green Revolution

Large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides
were needed that could then pollute water
sources
The HYV were more susceptible to disease
and drought
More water had to be diverted to growing
the crops
Many poorer farmers could not afford to
buy the more expensive HYV seed
Mechanisation has taken place leading to
unemployment
Many natural varieties lost

 Many farmers became wealthier

Countries and farmers became dependent of

foreign companies for the supply of seed.

Green Revolution: The introduction of modern western style farming techniques in LEDCs during
the late 1960's and 1970's.
HYV: High yield varieties were developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields. High
yield varieties were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties of rice. Increasingly this
is being done through genetic modification.
Labour Intensive: When work done is mainly done by humans and animals.
Tenure: This means who owns the land. In many societies on someones death the land is passed to
the eldest son or divided amongst all the siblings (sons and possibly daughters). If the land is
divided it means the plots of land get smaller and smaller with each generation and become
increasingly difficult to farm effectively.
There are a number of ways that subsistence farmers can try and increase their yields and make
money. If they increase their yields they can support their families, but also possibly have extra to
sell and earn an income.
Use HYV or GM crops: These should increase the average yield, but the crops can be
expensive to buy. Also intensive farming may degrade the quality of the soil overtime.
Buy more land: Not always possible but if a farmer has money (maybe a micro loan) then
he could try and buy extra land.
Land reform: Changing traditional practices of dividing land into smaller and smaller
profits can ensure that plots of land remain big enough to make farming sustainably.
Use fertlisers and pesticides: Use fertilisers so it is possible to grow more intensively and
use pesticides to stop plants being killed by infestations.
Two crops: In some countries it is possible to grow two sets of crops each year (these might
be the same crops or different crops). Even if climatic conditions are favourable by changing
some of the inputs like irrigation and drainage then it may become possible.
Modern machinery: Using machinery might not always be possible of small plots of land,
but it maybe possible if neighbouring farmers are cooperating. Machinery should make
farming more efficient and may increase yields by ploughing better and harvesting quicker.
Irrigation: By watering crops more frequently it maybe possible to grow crops over a
longer season, grow for two seasons or farm land that was previously too arid.
Cooperatives: By joining together with nearby farmers, farmers can share technology and
possibly even land to try and increase production.
Terracing: By terracing on hillsides farmers maybe able to increase the size of their land.
Terracing can also reduce the use of water.

Commercial Farming - Lynford Hall Farm,

Cambridgeshire, UK
Commercial farming is growing agricultural products with the aim of making a profit.
Lynford Hall Farm is an arable farm growing mainly wheat, potatoes and peas. The
farm is located in Cambridgeshire which is the east of England. Cambridgeshire is a
good location for farming because the land is flat, the soil is fertile and the
temperature warm with plentiful rainfall. However, before farming started in
Cambridgeshire the areas had to be drained because it was mainly wetland.
Lynford Hall farm is a large farm (570 hectares) and highly mechanised and
computerised. Because of this it does not employ large numbers of workers. It could
be considered an example of extensive farming because its inputs are small compared
to its size, although its outputs are large.
The farm receives subsidies under the CAP. The subsidies that Lynford Hall Farm
receives are designed to improve the EU's self sufficiency and protect the environment
of the farm. Lynford Hall farm has also tried to diversify and save money. It has done
this by selling some unused land and renting bungalows on the farm. It has also tried
to build a wind turbine but that has met with local protests (NIMBY).
Mechanisation: Replacing humans with machine. Commercial farms will use more equipment like
tractors and combine harvesters.
Diversification: This means increase the range of products. In farming this might be moving to
mixed farming or adding new crops. However, it might also mean opening a bed and breakfast
(small guesthouse), opening a coffee shop or farm shop or allowing educational visits.
Subsidies: Subsidies are financial help given to industries to make their production cheaper. The
EU gives many of its farmers subsidies in order to protect tradition, to be self sufficient and to
protect from foreign competition.
NIMBY: NIMBY stands for not in my back yard and it is the phenomenon of people approving of
certain developments, but not wanting them to happen near where they live e.g. a wind turbine.
CAP: The Common Agricultural Policy is the EU's farming policy aimed at creating a single
European market for farm products, become self sufficient, increase farm income and provide
financial support. The CAP and EU subsidies have been criticised as protectionist and actually
keeping the prices of farm products in the EU artificially high. If competition from outside was
allowed then cheaper products could be imported.
Surpluses: This is when you have an excess of crops. A surplus for a subsistence farmer will mean
that they can sell it at market and make a profit. A surplus for a commercial farmer may mean that
they have too much to sell and may dump it as aid on an LEDC or simply throw it away.
Countries or individual farms may produce surpluses for a number of reasons including:

 Subsidies: Financial help may allow a farmer to increase his inputs (land, machinery,
irrigation, etc.) which will allow them to produce more crops.
Favourable natural inputs: Farms or countries may have ideal conditions to grow certain
crops. The relief of the land, the fertility of the land and weather may all be perfect. Some
years may also be better than others because of hot summers or absence of frost which
makes certain years better than other creating surpluses.
Main sector of the economy: For countries where farming is the main sector of the
economy then greater support and help will be put into the farming sector giving it a better
chance to produce surpluses for sale.
Crop varieties: The use of new varieties like GM crops may increase yields and lead to
surpluses.
Farming techniques/practices: New farming techniques like greater use of fertilisers,
irrigation or crop rotation may increase yields.

Cash Crops - Coffee Farming in Vietnam

Vietnam is located in SE Asia. Although the Vietnamese economy is growing quickly, the majority
of its citizens are still employed in the primary sector - mainly fishing and farming. Vietnam used
to produce very little coffee, but after heavy promotion by the Vietnamese government it quickly
turned into the world's second biggest producer after Brazil and actually the biggest producer of the
cheaper robusta coffee (the other type of coffee is arabica which has a better taste and sells for
more). Vietnam now has over 500,000 hectares dedicated to coffee plantations (most in the Central
Highlands). Vietnam's main customers are the US and Germany.
Coffee production has brought jobs (estimated 500,000 accounting for 2% of national workforce)
and income (in 2008 the export value was estimated to be over $2 billion) to Vietnam, but it has
also caused many problems. Large areas of rainforest have been cleared (74,000 hectares only in
Dac Lac Province), rural areas have become overcrowded, there are water shortages because of the
all the water used to irrigate the coffee plants and the rapid growth of Vietnamese coffee exports
caused the price of coffee to collapse. The large scale deforestation has also led to erosion of
topsoil and loss of wildlife - Vietnam has many endangered animals including tigers, leopards,
elephants and the Javan rhino (now believed to be extinct in Vietnam).
The graph to the right shows the world coffee prices over a ten year period. The graph clearly
highlights how much prices can fluctuate by and demonstrates the risk of depending on one crop
for income.

Cash crops: Crops that are normally grown in large plantations for the purpose of selling (making a
profit). Cash crops are often grow in LEDCs and refer to things like bananas, tea, rubber, coffee
beans, cocoa beans and palm oil, but they can also refer to corn, wheat, barley, etc. grown in
MEDCs. Cash crops are sometimes referred to as commodities.
Monoculture: This is the growing of only one type of crop.
There are a number of problems that come from specialising in one crop (monoculture). The
problems include:
Disease: If you only grow one crop, they can be wiped out if they are attacked by a disease
or parasite. If you have a mixture of crops then other should survive if one is attacked.
Price Fluctuations: Because cash crops are traded globally, their prices can fluctuate with
changes in supply and demand. Therefore if you are only growing one crop and the price
collapses, then you lose the majority of your income.
Changing Demands: Again if you only grow one crop and the demand for that crop
changes, then you potentially lose all of your income. For example if you grow only coffee
and every suddenly stops drinking coffee because of the fear of caffeine then you could lose
all of your income.
Natural disasters: Some crops are more vulnerable to natural disasters than others. For
examples frost can destroy fruits, grains can be flooded by rain, bananas can be damaged by
hurricanes. Therefore it is better to grow a variety of crops as to minimise the risk of
damage.

Shifting Cultivation
Farming that involves clearing an area of land (deforestation) in order to farm.
Shifting cultivation is usually small-scale subsistence farming. Once the land is
cleared farming will take place. However, without its normal source of nutrients
(rotting plant and animal matter) the soil soon becomes infertile and the farmers are
forced to move onto a new location. Shifting cultivation is very common amongst
indigenous groups in rainforests. Shifting cultivation is often criticised for causing
problems including:
The killing or disturbance of flora and fauna.
The breaking of the nitrogen cycle, causing soil to lose its fertility very quickly
Breaking the stability of the soil and causing top soil erosion. Tree roots are
very good at holding soil in place. If you remove these roots then water and
wind erosion is more likely to happen.
More flash floods caused by the reduced interception, faster saturation of
ground and increased surface run-off.
Silting of rivers caused by top soil being washed into rivers. The silt can then
be washed into the seas blocking shipping channels or damaging reefs.
However, others would argue that shifting cultivation is normally carried out by
indigenous groups who have been custodians of the rainforest for thousands of years
and therefore should know how to care for it. Also it maintains a traditional way of
life and is only small-scale as apposed to some of large cattle ranches that deforest
large areas of rainforest.
Slash and burn farming: The process of cutting down areas of forest and then burning the
stubble/roots in order to farm. Because land will become infertile very quickly, slash and burn
farmers will move land every few years.
Nomadic: Nomadic simply means moving from place to place. Subsistence farmers who practice
shifting cultivation (slash and burn farming) are nomadic because they move locations every few
years.

GM Crops and Organic Farming

ADVANTAGES

ORGANIC CROPS AND

GM FARMING AND CROPS:
FARMING: Farming that uses
Genetically modified crops are
natural varieties and natural farming
crops that have their genes altered
techniques. There is only very
to improve quality and/or quantity
limited use of fertlisers.
Because the crops take longer
Crops are all uniform in
to ripen then they have better
shape which may make
flavour.
storage and transport easier
Limited fertilisers or
and/or appeal to customers.
The growing season is often
pesticides are used so there is
minimal run-off into rivers or
shorter and can often be
infiltration into groundwater
possible to have two or

DISADVANTAGES

stores.
There are also much less
chemicals they maybe
consumed by customers.
Organic crops often get a
higher price when sold to
consumers

more crop seasons per year.

Crops maybe drought
resistant so less water is
used in their production.
It maybe possible GM crops
in areas previously deemed
unsuitable for farming.

The crops are not uniform i.e.

they don't all look the same.
Although this is natural it
may put off some customers.
The crops maybe susceptible
to diseases.
The crops may take longer to
grow increasing the growing
season.
The crops may need more
water to grow,

Native/natural species may

die as a result because they
can't compete with the
stronger GM crops.
The taste is often not as
good because they have
been grown quicker and
often grown for appearance
rather than taste.
It can lead to the
development of super
weeds to compete with the
stronger GM crops
No one knows the long term
affects on humans

Apart from organic farming, it is possible for farmers to be more environmentally sustainable by
following a number of other practices including:
Plant hedges to act as wind break and create habitats for animals
Protect plant and animal species by building or protecting habitats e.g. leaving areas of
woodland, meadow and lakes
Putting aside part of their land to grow wild/natural species (the CAP now offers some
funding for farmers who do this)
Rotating crops and growing a greater variety of traditional native crops
Allowing animals to graze outdoor, rather than live in cages (free range animals and eggs)
Using traditional farming methods instead of relying on fertilisers and pesticides e.g. natural
manure
Introducing more fallow periods to allow soil to rest
Open educational centres (city farms)

Famine
Famine: When the demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment.
Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.
Drought: When the demand for water exceeds the supply of water causing water stress (water
shortages).

Soil Degradation: A reduction in the quality of soil, making it harder to grow things.
Desertification: The process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert.
Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually by wind and
water. Soil is much more vulnerable to erosion when no vegetation is growing on it.

Human Causes of Famine

Overpopulation: The growing population
of the world means that demand for food is
increasing. Unfortunately the supply of food
is not always matching this demand. This is
a problem that Malthus predicted.
Overgrazing: By trying to graze too many
cattle on land, all the vegetation can be
eaten. This reduces the integrity of the soil
and can cause topsoil erosion and soil
degradation.
Overcultivation: Trying to grow much on
land can cause its degradation by using all
the nutrients and not giving them time to
recover. If the land becomes degraded then
the yields decline.
Deforestation: By deforesting large areas
of woodland, then again the integrity of the
soil can be damaged as well as its source of
nutrients. This can cause soil degradation
and erosion, both leading to reduced yields.
Pollution: Farming and industrial pollution
can both degrade the land and reduce yields
of crops.
Conflict: When fighting takes place, it is
often men that fight removing them from
farming duties and therefore reducing yield.
Also conflict can also make the land to
dangerous to farm (mines) or degrade the
soil because of chemical or biological
warfare.
Corruption: Sometimes government
officials or armies can use crops for
themselves or their own needs leading the
general population to go hungry.

Physical Causes of Famine

Temperature: Temperatures that are

too hot or too cold can both kill crops
and animals. Most crops need steady
and reliable temperatures.
Rainfall: If there is a shortage of
rainfall then most crops will die or
need extra irrigation. If water to irrigate
is not available then crops will begin to
die and yields reduce.
Flooding: Although all crops need
rainfall, especially things like rice, too
much rainfall can flood and kill crops
or wash away topsoil reducing the soils
fertility. (El Salvador Counts Cost as
Crops are Destroyed by Floods - BBC
article)
Natural Disasters: Natural disasters
like hurricanes, tsunamis and volcanoes
can destroy large areas of agricultural
land. They can also kill or injure
farmers. Both factors reduce yields.
Soil fertility: If soil is infertile because
the bedrock contains few minerals or
there is no flora and fauna to provide a
humus layer then it can be hard to
cultivate the land and lead to low
yields.

General Problems Caused By Drought and Famine

Livestock deaths: When there is a shortage of water and food, animals are the first to go without,
so animals will start to die. This makes the famine even worse because there is less meat, eggs,

milk, etc.
Crop failure: Drought can cause crops to fail, but also when there is famine people often become
too weak to work on the land so less crops are grown and the famine worsens.
Illness: When there is s shortage of food and water, people become weak from undernourishment
(lack of food) and are more vulnerable to getting sick.
Death: Severe drought and famine will eventually lead to death. It is usually the very old, young or
already sick that die first.
Conflict: If the resources of food and water are declining, fighting over these resources is likely to
increase, especially between different tribes and countries.
Loss of Education: When drought happens people have to travel further to find food and water.
They also become sicker. Both of these factors can impact students and teachers. Who it affects it
means that people are either unable to go to school or have no one to teach them once they are at
school.
Loss of income: If people are unable to work they are unable to work and earn money. Also many
countries that suffer from famine have large primary sectors. Famine normally means that the
primary sector (farming) has collapsed and people have nothing to sell to make money.

The Sahel - Famine and Desertification

The Sahel is an area of land south of the Sahara Desert. It stretches from Mauritania in the west
through Mali, Niger, Chad and into Eritrea and Ethiopia. The areas in the Sahel have very high
total fertility rates (the average number of children a woman has in her lifetime) causing the
population to rise rapidly. This rising population is steadily increasing the demand for food. In the
meantime the supply of food is also being affected because of land degradation caused by:

Deforestation
Overgrazing
Reduced rainfall
Increased temperatures

The combination of increased demand and reduced supply has meant that many areas in Sahel
have suffered from famine (food shortages).
In Niger a lack of rainfall (rainfall varies between 2 and 85 cm in Niger, but most falls in a 2
month period) caused a 26% decline in crop yields in 2009. Daytime temperatures in Niger are
normally over 30 degrees centigrade so evaporation rates are high. This has meant that about half
of its population of 15 million people face potential food shortages in 2010. Niger is a poor
landlocked country (GDP per capita is about $750 per capita) where over 50% of the population
are involved in farming (subsistence farming). Increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall
combined with deforestation and desertification mean that Niger are likely to experience

increasing problems in the future. Niger is also experiencing rapid population growth with total
fertility of 7.4.
Strong Risk of 2010 Famine in Africa's Sahel - Reuters
Niger's Complicated Hunger Crisis - BBC article

Some Solutions to Famine and Land Degradation

Crop Rotation and Fallow Periods: By using different crops and allowing the land to rest
it gives nutrients and minerals chance to return to soil making it more fertile and hopefully
increase yields over longer periods.
Desalination: Taking water from the sea and removing the salt to make it good for drinking
and agricultural uses. If more water is available it is then possible to water arid areas of land
and hopefully increase crop production.
Irrigation: This means watering the land. By irrigating more arid areas we should be able to
increase agricultural output.
Reforestation and afforestation: By foresting areas of land it can ensure that the nitrogen
cycle (nutrients) is maintained, it can increase the stability and integrity of the soil and it can
form a wind break from erosion and finally prevent flash floods. All these factors should
improve the quality of the soil and hopefully crop yields.
Fertlisers and Pesticides: Although overuse of fertilisers and pesticides can damage the soil
and pollute nearby water courses, if they are used properly they should improve the amount
of nutrients present in the soil.
GM Crops: Some people believe GM crops could drastically reduce famine by increasing
yields by allowing crops to grow more quickly, grow bigger, be more drought and disease
resistant.
Improved Distribution of Crops: It is argued that there is currently enough food to feed
everyone but it is not distributed evenly. Governments, charities and organisations like the
WFP (World Food Programme) can try and distribute food more evenly so no one goes
hungry.
Population Policies: By reducing population growth, especially in areas with low
agricultural output, we should be able to reduce shortages of food and therefore famine.