Quasi-Isotropic Laminates vs Orthotropic Laminates

Quasi-Isotropic Laminates : A laminate is called

quasi-isotropic when its extensional stiffness
matrix behaves like an isotropic material. This
requires that

and

. Further, this
extensional stiffness matrix is independent of
orientation of layers in laminate. This requires a
laminate with

equal thickness layers and

N equal angles between adjacent fibre orientations. The N equal angles,

between the fibre orientations in this case can
. The quasi-isotropic laminate with this construction for N=3, 4 and 6 will have fibre orientations as
be given as
shown in the figure above. Some examples of quasi-isotropic laminate are:

Orthotropic Laminates: The laminates for which the terms

are zero are called
specially orthotropic laminates. It is clear that such laminates do not show coupling
between in-plane extensional and shear responses.

Woven fabrics (4)have less stiffness and strength compared to non-woven

(2), but they behave better at 45 degrees. Unidirectional has highest
strength at 0 degree but least at 45 degree and 90 degree. The quasi
isotropic give nearly same properties in all angles between fibre and loading.
Glass transition temperature
is the temperature region where the polymer transitions from a hard, glassy material to a soft, rubbery
material. It applies very much to resin. The Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), not to be confused with melting point (Tm), is the
temperature range where a thermosetting polymer changes from a hard, rigid or glassy state to a more pliable, compliant or rubbery
state. In actuality Tg is not a discrete thermodynamic transition, but a temperature range over which the mobility of the polymer chains
increase significantly. This is different from the Heat deflection (or distortion) temperature(HDT), which is related to a fixed deformation as I
earlier explained

Chapter 5: Structural Design (code: JRC2016) other codes include CUR 96, Eurocomp, ACMA etc.
The JRC2016 is Intended for design of a new built construction similar to concrete, timber and steel. It deals only with resistance of FRP.
FRP complies with other Eurocodes: General rules, Loads, etc. Scope of JRC2016 preliminary design code: Thermoset resins:
polyvinyl, vinylester, epoxy Fibre volume percentage minimum of 15% Design of: profiles, plates/shells and sandwich panels Design
rules are limited to symmetric laminates Materials must have permissible micro cracks Does not cover reinforcing rods, FRP cables, and
reinforcement of existing structures.
Limit state design approach
For the pultruded profiles, following limit stated need to be considered: Ultimate limit states {i.e. Resistance, Stability (in terms of Local
buckling and Global buckling)} and Serviceability limit states{i.e. Deflections (short-term and long-term), and Vibrations}
Design Verification: The partial factors method should be used to verify that none of the limit states are violated
during all the design phases:
(i.e. design action should be less than design capacity (or resistance). Now,
calculating the design resistance is where the differences do come in. See the expression he usedK

and
the design and characteristic value of the resistance or deformation;
is
partial factor covering uncertainty in the resistance model, and geometric deviations, and
is a conversion factor
For FRP members and bolted joints,
where
depends on source of material properties, and is 1.0 for
certified production, 1.15 where tests are performed on the sample, and 1.35 if its just from literature. On the other hand.
depends on the variation coefficient and limit state. Thus
differs from strength ULS, to local stability ULS to Global
stability with local stability requiring the highest
.
For bonded joints,
, but
depend on the method of applying the glue/bond. Like before,
depends on the
variation coefficient
Force core materials (i.e. foam),
where
depends on source of material properties, and
depends on the
load condition and limit state. Like before, local stability requires the highest
.
For the conversion factors,
where
is conversion for temperature effects and
is for
humidity. Both of these are environmental effects. The other conversion factors
for creep effect and
for fatigue effects
are long term effects. Other conversion factors should be considered if relevant: e.g. alkaline attack, freezing-thawing cycles,
extreme UV radiation etc. Environmental conversion factors are always taken into account. Additional conversion factors to
be taken into account depend on the limit state in consideration (whether strength, stability, fatigue, creep etc).

ENVIRONMENTAL CONVERSION FACTORS: Ill look briefly at conversion factor for temperature and humidity. The
thermal conversion factor depends on the limit state. For strength,
. Howeverfor stability and deformability, it
depends on the service temperature
compared to the glass transition temperature .
i.e. 1.0 if the service temperature is at least 40C lower than glass
temperature. 0.9 if it is about 20C lower. For using resin, the
heat deflection temperature, and the glass transition temperature
must be at least 20 higher than your service temperature.
Humidity conversion factor depends on curing and environment

CREEP CONVERSION FACTOR: Creep should be verified for permanent and quasi permanent loading conditions
depending on load duration and material type. There is a graph that can be used to get it. The graph has accumulated load
duration on x axis, and conversion factor
on y-axis for different material types. The conversion factor
is calculated
regarding the reference value
due to loading duration of 20 years. For very short accumulated duration (say 1 minute),
. As time accumulate, the conversion factor reduces. The duration is estimated based on the load type in the
combination. !! Differnet creep conversion factor for each load combination !!!.
FATIGUE CONVERSION FACTOR: Should be considered in the following cases:
Load cycles > 5000 and |

or

{|

||

|}

ULS verification of fatigue is done directly using S-N curves and Miners rule. For SLS, reduction of stiffness should be
considered through the conversion factor
. If the fatigue is the dominant design criterion the conversion factor
should be determined by tests!
Mechanical properties of the materials:
Fibres: Characteristic values of material properties (5 % fractile) are obtained by predefined tests
.
Due to large scattering of FRP material properties the characteristic values are rather low compared to the mean. For elastic
modulus the mean values can be used instead of the characteristic.

AXIS ORIENTATIONS: The global principal axis

are always along main fibre direction, and
perpendicular. See my note for the pultruted I-section I
defined the axis orientation.
RESINS:
Effect of additives and fillers on mechanical properties
must be taken into account. Also, Glass transition
temperature
Also,
For strength calculation, we usually assume strain
, and multiply with stiffness i.e.
So all that is needed to calculate FRP strength is the
ultimate strain and stiffness. We can sue 1.8% as strain
at fracture however.
CORES: Typically the rigid, closed-cell, foam core materials are used: PUR (PolyURethane); PS (PolyStyrene); PVC
(PolyVinylChloride); PMI (PolyMethacrylImide)
Just a revision, Minimum number of laminates you need to make [0, 45, 90, -45]. Answer: 8 laminates. Because it must be
symettrical, hence
.
PLIES: The stiffness of plies depends on Fibre properties, Fibre direction (UD, bi-directional, mat), Resin properties,
Volume fraction. The strength is expressed as the strain limit (e.g. 1.8%)!
LAMINATE PROPERTIES can be derived either by tests or using classical laminate theory.
Notice that the quasi-isotropic laminate had lower
stiffness in the main fibre direction than the anisotropic
laminate. Look well at the composition. The anisotropic
laminate had 55% in the principal direction (1). But th
isotropic gav better stiffness in the other direction (2)
and higher shear stiffness.
For the 2nd table, the same thing played out on strength.
Also note that the strengths are calculated using
e.g.
Quasi isotropic laminate better than anisotropic as it
depends on shear modulus and not on compression
modulus.
Design of Pultruded Members:
AXIAL TENSION: Resistance of the gross cross section without holes
. If there openings, the Resistance of
the net-section with openings i.e.
. Design strength of the material
can be obtained from tables.
COMPRESSION MEMBERS: With Highly slender cross sections! Both local and global buckling need to be taken into
account.
where
where
. And
takes into account local
and global buckling.
. For pultruded section, Local buckling is considered
separately for the flanges and the web on the bases of simply supported beams. Global buckling is calculated with regard to
relative slenderness and assumed imperfection coefficient c = 0.65 (thus higher than the imperfection coefficient for steel
which is usually between 0.2 to 0.5)
DESIGN OF BEAMS: Only elastic bending resistance of the cross section is utilised, considering minimum tensile or
compressive strength:
. Resistance of the gross cross section without holes:
.
Where there holes, Resistance of the net-section with openings
.
Local failures of beams: local buckling of the flange in compression; local bearing
failure at the support (shear); local buckling of the flange and web + junction failure.
At the juncture between flange and web, you have only resin there not fibres, thus a
weak point. Flange induced buckling could occur around there. That joint can be
improved as is seen in the picture by the side where angle is joined at both side (in the
1st), and the 2nd with local thickness of that region with a radius at the top of the web.

LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING: Interaction of local and global buckling is taken into account using similar
approach as for the compression members. Critical bending moment for LTB is calculated very similar as in case of steel
structures,
where
SHEAR RESISTANCE: Both shear resistance
of the web
and local buckling of the web
panel
need to be checked:

RESISTANCE TO LOCAL STRESSES: Low material strength of the

pultruded profiles in transverse direction. Resistance to local stresses at load
application points or over the supports need to checked.
. To
avoid local instability, stiffening may be introduced.
LOCAL STABILITY OF COMPRESSIVE PARTS: High
resin concentration in the web-flange junctions may affect the
local buckling and rupture. Because of the resin, it is like a pinned
support between the web and the flange. Thus the buckling length
is higher which is not good for buckling load.
For FRP, always take the interaction of shear and bending into
account even if it is small
Bending and Axial tension Bending and Axial compression (cross section and member)
(cross section only)

Bending and shear

DEFLECTIONS: For SLS verifications, the material partial safety factors

should be put
equal to 1.0. Also, deflection of beams are calculated accounting for both the flexural and the shear
deformability. Thus use Timoshenko beam, or a higher order theory. Total deflection as summation of
flexural and shear part: For GFRP beams with span/depth > 25, shear deformation can be ignored.
FAILURE MODES OF SANDWICH PANELS: Facing Failure, Transverse Shear Failure Flexural Crushing of Core
Local Crushing of Core General Buckling Shear Crimping Face Wrinkling Intracell Buckling or Dimpling
FACING FAILURE: Main failure mode is in bending due to the
FLEXURAL CRUSHING OF THE CORE: Flexural crushing of the core
uniform load. See the rupture at the bottom. Sometime however, is caused by excessive panel deflection. Through thickness pressure in
the compressive strength could be lower compared to tensile!
the core due to the second order effect of bending moment large
curvature.

TRANSVERSE SHEAR FAILURE: occur for

insufficient core shear strength or panel thickness

Local crushing of the core

Shear crimping

CONCLUDING SUMMARY: Improved material models + more test data = reduced safety factor. Slender cross sections of
pultruded profiles lead to problems with local buckling. The design of FRP beams is mostly driven by the SLS criteria (deflections). Due to
low material properties perpendicular to the direction of pultrusion special attention should be given to local application of the load and the
support region. With low stiffness and light weight FRP structures are very susceptible to vibrations.