was a

philosopher and theologian[5] from India who consolidated the

doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.[1] He is credited with unifying and
establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism.[6][7][8]
His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity of the tman and Nirguna
Brahman "brahman without attributes".[9] He wrote copious
commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutras, Principal
Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. His works
elaborate on ideas found in the Upanishads. Shankara's publications
criticised the ritually-oriented Mmms school of Hinduism.[10] He

also explained the key difference between Hinduism and Buddhism,

stating that Hinduism asserts "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", while
Buddhism asserts that there is "no Soul, no Self
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and
engineering that studies the physical and chemical
behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic
compounds, and their mixtures, which are called
alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the
way in which science is applied to the production of
metals, and the engineering of metal components for
usage in products for consumers and manufacturers.
The production of metals involves the processing of
ores to extract the metal they contain, and the
mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to
produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the

craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on

metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for
technical advancement

The culture of
India is the way of living of the people of India. India's
languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and

customs differ from place to place within the country. The

Indian culture, often labelled as an amalgamation of
several cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and
has been influenced by a history that is several millennia
old.[1][2] Many elements of India's diverse cultures, such as
Indian religions, Indian philosophy and Indian cuisine, have
had a profound impact across the world

Culture[edit]
India is one of the world's oldest civilizations.[3] The Indian culture,
often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans
across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped
by a history that is several thousand years old.[1][2] Throughout the
history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by
Dharmic religions.[4] They have been credited with shaping much of
Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music.[5] Greater

India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian
subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism,
Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from
India to other parts of Asia through the Silk Road by the travellers
and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era.
[6][7]
To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the
Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains.[8] During the medieval period,
Islam played a significant role in shaping Indian cultural heritage[9]
Over the centuries, there has been significant integration of Hindus,
Jains, and Sikhs with Muslims across India[10][11]

The Rigvedi

Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan language,

and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European
language family. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European
explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology.
The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far reaching
similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the

classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that

followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative
languages belong to the family which includes English, German,
French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian,
Tocharian and other Indo-European languages.[97]
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra. Another major
Classical Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically
from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada
flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. As a
spoken language, some believe it to be even older than Tamil due to
the existence of words which have more primitive forms than in
Tamil. Pre-old Kannada (or Purava HazheGannada) was the
language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and
Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.[104][105]

[106][107]

The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated 230 BCE)

has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.[108]
Odia is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil,
TeluMusic is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to
classify musical instruments.[130] One of these ancient Indian systems
classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four
primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air.
According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of
organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a
3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone
in the highlands of Odisha.[131]
The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of
the Samaveda (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic rauta
sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns.[132] It

proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were

named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya,
Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswr. These refer to the notes of a flute,
which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and
other Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's classical music
tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic and
Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music
systems are based on the melodic base (known as Rga), sung
gu, Kannada and Malayalam.[109] It is also one of the 22 official
languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Oriya's
importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its
presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X at Kalsi palitiditu (Dhauli,
Jaugada palitiditu), dated to be from 2nd century BC.[110][111]

Music is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000-yearold Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify
musical instruments.[130] One of these ancient Indian systems
classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four
primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air.
According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of
organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a
3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone
in the highlands of Odisha.[131]

The oldest preserved examples of Indian music

are the melodies of the Samaveda (1000 BC)
that are still sung in certain Vedic rauta
sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian
musical hymns.[132] It proposed a tonal structure
consisting of seven notes, which were named, in
descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya,
Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswr. These
refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only
fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and
Painting[edit]
Main article: Indian painting

Ajanta CavePainting[edit]
Main article: Indian painting
The Jataka tales from

The Jataka tales from Ajanta Caves.

Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and
Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love
of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in
India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made

coloured floor design (Rangoli) is still a common

sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South
Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of
the classical painters from medieval India.
Pattachitra, Madhubani painting, Mysore
painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting,
Mughal painting are some notable Genres of
Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S.
H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B.
[136]
Venkatappa
are some modern painters. Among
the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose

Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu

Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where
global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian
classical styles. These recent artists have acquired
international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery,
Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few
good Indian paintings
s.
Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and
Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love

of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in

India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made
coloured floor design (Rangoli) is still a common
sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South
Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of
the classical painters from medieval India.
Pattachitra, Madhubani painting, Mysore
painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting,
Mughal painting are some notable Genres of
Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S.
H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B.

[136]

Venkatappa
are some modern painters. Among
the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose
Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu
Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where
global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian
classical styles. These recent artists have acquired
international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery,
Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few
good Indian paintings
other Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's
classical music tradition, which is known today in

two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani

music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani
music systems are based on the melodic base
(known as Rga), sung
amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These
recent artists have acquired international
recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai,
Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian
paintings.

Sculpture[edit]

Marble Sculpture of female, c. 1450, Rajasthan

Main article: Sculpture in India

The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilisation, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as
the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock.
Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or
possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the
Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles

and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed t
Considered to be an "unrivaled architectural wonder", [137] the Taj Mahal in Agra is a prime example of Indo-Islamic architecture.
One of the world's seven wonders.

Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time,

constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural
production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of
its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley Civilisation (26001900 BC) which is
characterised by well planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to
have played an important role in the planning and Indian astronomy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

From pre-historic to modern times, Indian astronomy continues to play an integral role.[clarification needed][peacock term] Some of the earliest roots of Indian
astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.[1][2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of the
"auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas,[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.[4][better source needed] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha,
dated to 14001200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700600 BCE).[5]
As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in
the 4th century BCE[6][7][8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka[6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a
Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.[9]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the
time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy,[10] and others. Other
astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.
An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially
within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Calendars

3 Astronomers

4 Instruments used

5 Global discourse

layout of these towns.

The Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, is one of many World Heritage Sites in India.[138]

During the period of the Mauryan and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and
Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur built by Raja Raja Chola, the Sun
Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu.
Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in
styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.
o Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast Central and

Indian astronomy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

From pre-historic to modern times, Indian astronomy continues to play an integral role.[clarification needed][peacock term] Some of the earliest roots of Indian
astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.[1][2] Astronomy later developed as a discipline of Vedanga or one of the
"auxiliary disciplines" associated with the study of the Vedas,[3] dating 1500 BCE or older.[4][better source needed] The oldest known text is the Vedanga Jyotisha,
dated to 14001200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700600 BCE).[5]
As with other traditions, the original application of astronomy was thus religious. Indian astronomy was influenced by Greek astronomy beginning in
the 4th century BCE[6][7][8] and through the early centuries of the Common Era, for example by the Yavanajataka[6] and the Romaka Siddhanta, a
Sanskrit translation of a Greek text disseminated from the 2nd century.[9]
Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th-6th century, with Aryabhata, whose Aryabhatiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the
time. Later the Indian astronomy significantly influenced Muslim astronomy, Chinese astronomy, European astronomy,[10] and others. Other
astronomers of the classical era who further elaborated on Aryabhata's work include Brahmagupta, Varahamihira and Lalla.
An identifiable native Indian astronomical tradition remained active throughout the medieval period and into the 16th or 17th century, especially
within the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 CalendarsIndian mathematics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

History of science

Background[hide]

Theories and sociology

Historiography

Pseudoscience

By era[hide]

Early cultures
Classical Antiquity

Middle Ages

Renaissance

Scientific Revolution

Romanticism

By culture[hide]

Byzantine

African

Chinese
Indian

Medieval Islamic

Natural sciences[hide]

Astronomy

Biology

Botany

Chemistry

Ecology

Evolution

Geology

Geophysics

Paleontology

Physics

Mathematics[hide]

Algebra

Calculus

Combinatorics

Geometry

Logic

Probability
Statistics
Trigonometry

Social sciences[hide]

Anthropology

Economics

Geography

Linguistics

Political science

Psychology
Sociology
Sustainability

Technology[hide]

Agricultural science

Computer science

Materials science

Engineering

Medicine[hide]

Human medicine

Veterinary medicine

Neuroscience

Neurology

Nutrition

Pathology

Pharmacy

Timelines

Anatomy

Portal
Category

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent[1] from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian
mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Mahvra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of
Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji. The decimal number system in use today[3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[4] Indian
mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7] In addition,
trigonometry[8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[9] These mathematical
concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of
mathematics.

Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or
problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for
the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved.[1][10] All
mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The
oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village
of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.[11][12]
A later landmark in Indian

3 Astronomers

4 Indian mathematics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

History of science

Background[hide]

Theories and sociology

Historiography

Pseudoscience

By era[hide]

Early cultures
Classical Antiquity

Middle Ages

Renaissance

Scientific Revolution

Romanticism

By culture[hide]

Byzantine

African

Chinese
Indian

Medieval Islamic

Natural sciences[hide]

Astronomy

Biology

Botany

Chemistry

Ecology
Evolution

Geology

Geophysics

Paleontology

Physics

Mathematics[hide]

Algebra

Calculus

Combinatorics

Geometry

Logic

Probability
Statistics
Trigonometry

Social sciences[hide]

Anthropology

Economics

Geography

Linguistics

Political science

Psychology

Sociology
Sustainability

Technology[hide]

Agricultural science

Computer science

Materials science

Engineering

Medicine[hide]

Human medicine
Veterinary medicine

Anatomy
Neuroscience

Nutrition

Pathology

Pharmacy

Timelines

Neurology

Portal
Category

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent[1] from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian
mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Mahvra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of
Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji. The decimal number system in use today[3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[4] Indian
mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7] In addition,
trigonometry[8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[9] These mathematical
concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of
mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or
problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for
the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved.[1][10] All
mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The

oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village
of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.[11][12]
A later landmark in Indian

usedIndian mathematics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

History of science

Background[hide]

Theories and sociology

Historiography

Pseudoscience

By era[hide]

Early cultures
Classical Antiquity

Middle Ages

Renaissance

Scientific Revolution

Romanticism

By culture[hide]

Byzantine

African

Chinese
Indian

Medieval Islamic

Natural sciences[hide]

Astronomy

Biology

Botany

Chemistry

Ecology

Evolution

Geology

Geophysics

Paleontology

Physics

Mathematics[hide]

Algebra

Calculus

Combinatorics

Geometry

Logic

Probability
Statistics
Trigonometry

Social sciences[hide]

Anthropology

Economics

Geography

Linguistics

Political science

Psychology
Sociology
Sustainability

Technology[hide]

Agricultural science

Computer science

Materials science

Engineering

Medicine[hide]

Human medicine
Veterinary medicine

Neuroscience

Neurology

Nutrition

Pathology

Pharmacy

Timelines

Anatomy

Portal
Category

Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent[1] from 1200 BCE[2] until the end of the 18th century. In the classical period of Indian
mathematics (400 CE to 1600 CE), important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Mahvra, Bhaskara II, Madhava of
Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji. The decimal number system in use today[3] was first recorded in Indian mathematics.[4] Indian
mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number,[5] negative numbers,[6] arithmetic, and algebra.[7] In addition,
trigonometry[8] was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there.[9] These mathematical
concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe[7] and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of
mathematics.
Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit, usually consisted of a section of sutras in which a set of rules or
problems were stated with great economy in verse in order to aid memorization by a student. This was followed by a second section consisting of a
prose commentary (sometimes multiple commentaries by different scholars) that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for
the solution. In the prose section, the form (and therefore its memorization) was not considered so important as the ideas involved.[1][10] All
mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500 BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The
oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript, discovered in 1881 in the village
of Bakhshali, near Peshawar (modern day Pakistan) and is likely from the 7th century CE.[11][12]
A later landmark in Indian

5 Global discourse

The Vedic Period (From B.C. 1000 to B.C. 600):

In ancient Indian literature of the Vedic period the words Siksha and Adhyapana frequently occur. Siksha
means to learn to recite. In those days education consisted of learning to recite the Holy text. The word
Adhyapana which literally means to go near implies the idea of pupils going to some teacher for education.
The ancient Indian education emerged from the Vedas, because the Vedas are the source of Indian Philosophy of
life. Veda means knowledge. During this period education was divided into two kinds of knowledge this worldly and
other worldly. This worldly education dealt with the social aspect, whereas, the other worldly education was related

to intellectual pursuits for achieving salvation. However, the greater emphasis was laid on the latter. Because,
education was considered as a means of emancipation from life bondages.

Objective of Vedic Education:

The main objective of Vedic education was the development of physical, moral and intellectual powers of man and
to achieve salvation through it. In the field of salvation much emphasis was laid on attention, concentration and
yoga. Mans effort was to lift himself above everything through these methods. But according to Shri A.S. Altekar,
there are six main objectives of ancient Indian education, which can be categorized under following heads.