Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Matthias Bartelmann
Institut fur Theoretische Astrophysik
Universitat Heidelberg
Contents
1
1.1
Specific Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Relativistic Invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Lorentz Transformation of I . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
1.3.1
Transition Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
10
1.3
Scattering
13
2.1
13
2.2
14
2.3
15
2.3.1
15
2.3.2
16
2.4
17
2.5
Radiation Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.5.1
19
2.5.2
20
Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.6
CONTENTS
2.7
3
2.6.1
Energy-Momentum Conservation . . . . . . .
21
2.6.2
Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
24
27
3.1
27
3.2
29
3.3
Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.4
Bremsstrahlung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.4.1
34
3.4.2
Hyperbolic Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.4.3
37
40
4.1
Synchrotron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
4.1.1
40
4.1.2
41
4.1.3
Synchrotron Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Photo-Ionisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.2.1
Transition Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
4.2.2
Transition Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
4.2.3
48
4.2.4
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
4.2
Spectra
52
5.1
52
5.2
52
5.2.1
Transition Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
5.3
55
5.4
56
5.5
57
CONTENTS
5.6
6
61
6.1
61
6.1.1
Boltzmann Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
6.1.2
62
6.1.3
Energy-Momentum Tensor . . . . . . . . . . .
64
68
6.2.1
A Corollary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.2.2
68
71
7.1
Ideal Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
7.1.1
Energy-Momentum Tensor . . . . . . . . . . .
71
7.1.2
Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
7.1.3
Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
Viscous Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
7.2
7.2.1
7.3
58
6.2
76
7.2.2
78
7.2.3
80
7.2.4
Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Generalisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
7.3.1
82
7.3.2
83
7.3.3
84
86
8.1
86
8.1.1
86
8.1.2
Bernoullis Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
8.1.3
Hydrostatic Equlibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
CONTENTS
8.1.4
8.2
8.3
8.4
4
Curl-Free and Incompressible Flows . . . . . .
90
91
8.2.1
91
8.2.2
92
93
8.3.1
Linear Perturbations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
8.3.2
Sound Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
Supersonic Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
8.4.1
96
8.4.2
Spherical Accretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
9.2
9.3
102
9.1.2
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.3.2
118
CONTENTS
11 Collision-Less Plasmas
5
133
147
159
CONTENTS
163
171
184
CONTENTS
195
Chapter 1
Macroscopic Radiation
Quantities, Emission and
Absorption
1.1
Specific Intensity
h
;
c
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
the energy flowing through the screen per unit time, frequency
and solid angle is
2
X
dE
h3
=
n~p 2 cos I cos ,
dtddAd =1
c
(1.4)
1.2
1.2.1
2h3
n~p ;
c2
(1.5)
Relativistic Invariant
Lorentz Transformation of I
(1.6)
is relativistically invariant;
let us assume two observers O and O0 , which are moving relatively to each other with velocity v in x3 direction; O0 is collecting
photons on a screen dA0 in the x10 -x20 plane which move under the
angle 0 with respect to the area normal into the solid angle d0 ;
he finds
p02 dp0 d0 0
dN 0 = 2
n p0 dA0 c cos 0 dt0
(1.7)
(2~)3
photons on his screen;
likewise, observer O expects the same screen to collect the photon
number
p2 dpd
dN = 2
n p dA(c cos v) dt0
(1.8)
(2~)3
and of course the two numbers must be equal, dN 0 = dN;
0 0
0 1 0 0
0
0
1
0
0 0
(1.9)
(1.10)
p3 = (p00 + p03 ) ,
(1.12)
p3 p00 + p03
+ cos 0
=
=
p0
p00 + p03 1 + cos 0
(1.13)
cos
)
p
dp
{z
} 2 (1 + cos 0 )2
h3 |
|
{z
}
=p2 dp
=d2
! #
"
+ cos 0
0
v dt0 ;
n p |{z}
dA c
(1.15)
|{z}
1 + cos 0
=dA |
{z
} =dt
dN =
=c cos v
(1.17)
1.2.2
0 0 E/c
0 0 p1
p0 =
2
0
0
1
0
p
3
0 0 0 1
p
p2
p3
i.e. the energy in the primed system is
E
E
E 0 = c + cos = (1 + cos )E ;
c
c
the frequency is thus increased to
0 = (1 + cos ) ;
(1.20)
(1.21)
(1.23)
1.3
1.3.1
(1.25)
N2 A21
=
N1 B12 N2 B21
A21
A21
,
=
N1
N1
B
1
B
12
21
21 N2
N2
(1.26)
where we have used that B12 = B21 (E1 and E2 are eigenstates of
the Hamilton operator);
according to the definition of A21 and B21 , we must have
[cf. Eq. (1.5)]
h3
A21 = 2 2 B21 ;
(1.27)
c
if there is thermal equilibrium between the states E1 and E2 , we
have the Boltzmann factor between N1 and N2 ,
!
N2
h
,
(1.28)
= exp
N1
kT
where E2 = E1 + h;
under this condition, (1.28) implies
I =
2h3
1
B ,
2
h/kT
c e
1
(1.29)
2h3 h/kT
e
c2
for
kT
h
(Wiens law)
(1.30)
22
kT
c2
for
kT
h
(Rayleigh-Jeans law)
(1.31)
dE
dE
I 2
=
=
d ,
ddx3 ddA(cdt)
c
thus
cU =
I d2 ,
(1.32)
(1.33)
1.3.2
W
erg
= 1023
;
2
m Hz
cm2 s Hz
(1.34)
(1.35)
(1.36)
(1.37)
(1.39)
U 4.0 1013
erg
;
cm3
(1.40)
the Rayleigh-Jeans law is often used to define a radiation temperature T rad by requiring
22
!
kT rad = I ;
2
c
(1.41)
1.4
the absorption coefficient is defined in terms of the energy absorbed per unit volume, time and frequency from the solid angle
d2 ,
!
dE
;
(1.42)
I = 3
d xdtdd2 abs
since the stimulated emission is also proportional to I , an analogous definition applies for the induced emission,
!
dE
ind
I = 3
;
(1.43)
d xdtdd2 ind
for the spontaneous emission, we define the emissivity
!
dE
,
j = 3
d xdtdd2 spn
(1.44)
i.e. the spontaneous energy emission per unit volume, time and
frequency into the solid-angle element d2 ;
the effective net absorption is
ind
net
= ;
(1.45)
energy
,
time area frequency solid angle
(1.46)
(1.47)
(1.48)
j = net
I ;
(1.49)
j
h3 N1
I = net = 2 2
1
c N2
(1.50)
i.e. if the occupation numbers are known, the emission and absorption properties in equilibrium can be calculated, and vice
versa;
in particular, in thermal equilibrium with matter, we have
I = B
1.5
net
=
j
;
B
(1.51)
(1.52)
absorption
d ln I = dl ,
thus
I = C1 exp
(1.54)
!
dl ;
(1.55)
!
dl = j ,
(1.57)
(1.58)
j l
e ,
I (l) =
j
C2 e l ;
(1.60)
L 1
j
( L) = j L ,
j
I (L) =
I (L) =
(1.62)
the former is the optically thin, the latter the optically thick
case; this amounts to comparing the mean free path 1
to the
total path length L;
which implies that the source emits at most the intensity of the
Planck spectrum
we consider optically thin, thermal emission of radio waves; optically thin implies L 1 and I = j L, thermal equilibrium
requires I = B , and in the radio regime we have
h
1,
kT
22
kT ;
c2
(1.64)
22
22
kT
L
=
kT b ,
c2
c2
(1.65)
(1.66)
1.6
in the discrete case, the energy balance for the emitted energy was
N2 A21
h12
= E
|{z}
|{z}
transition number energy per transition
(1.67)
N2 A21 h12
N2 A21 h
D ( 12 ) ,
4
4
(1.68)
N1 B12
h () ;
4
(1.70)
(1.71)
per unit time and unit frequency; let further f (~p) be the momentum distribution of the electrons, then the number of electrons
with energies between E and E + dE is
n(E)dE = f (~p)
d3 p
dp
dE = 4p2
f (~p) dE ,
dE
dE
(1.72)
p2 f (p)
(1.73)
dp
P(, E)dE
dE
(1.74)
(1.75)
i.e. electrons with the energy E2 can emit in transitions to all possible states with E1 < E2 ; thus
Z
2h3 E2
P(, E2 ) = h 2
B21 ()dE1 ;
(1.76)
c
0
likewise, the net absorption coefficient is
Z
Z
h
=
dE1 dE2 n(E1 )B12 n(E2 )B21 () ;
| {z }
4
| {z }
absorption stim. emission
(1.77)
the second term in this expression can be written
Z
Z
h
dE1 dE2 n(E2 )B21 ()
4
Z
Z E2
h
=
dE1 B21 ()
dE2 n(E2 )
4
0
Z
c2
=
dE2 n(E2 )P(, E2 ) ,
8h3
(1.78)
(1.79)
(1.80)
in thermal equilibrium and far from the Fermi edge, the electron
number density is
E
n(E) exp
,
(1.81)
kT
thus
"
!
#
h
1 ,
n(E h) n(E) = n(E) exp
kT
(1.82)
Z
c2 h/kT
=
e
1
dE n(E) P(, E)
8h3
j
c2 h/kT
,
e
1
j =
=
3
2h
B
(1.83)
Chapter 2
Scattering
2.1
we use cgs units, i.e. the dielectric constant and the magnetic permeability of the vacuum are both unity, 0 = 1 = 0 ; Maxwells
equations in vacuum then read
~ E~ = 4 ,
~ B
~=0,
~
~
~ E~ = 1 B ,
~ B
~ = 4 ~j + 1 E ,
c t
c
c t
(2.1)
(2.2)
1 ~ 2 ~ 2
E +B ;
8
(2.3)
~ have dimension
consequently, the field components E~ and B
!1/2
erg 1/2
g 1/2
g cm2
=
=
(2.4)
cm3
s2 cm3
cm s2
forces have the dimension
g cm
dyn ;
s2
(2.5)
g 1/2
g cm
= [q]
,
s2
cm s2
13
(2.6)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
14
g1/2 cm3/2
;
s
(2.7)
cm3/2 g1/2
;
s
(2.8)
the Poynting vector, i.e. the vector of the energy current density
of the electromagnetic field, is
c ~ ~
S~ =
EB ,
(2.9)
4
with dimension
cm erg
[S~ ] =
(2.10)
s cm2 s
which is obvious because the unit of E~ 2 is
erg
;
(2.11)
[E~ 2 ] =
cm3
2.2
far from its source, the electric field of an accelerated charge is,
in the non-relativistic limit |~| 1
q
~
~
~e ~e ,
E=
(2.12)
cR
where ~e is the unit vector pointing from the radiating charge to
the observer, and R is the distance;
~ = ~e E~ and E~ = B
~ ~e in vacuum, the B
~ field is
since B
~ = q ~e ~ ,
B
cR
and the Poynting vector is
i
h
i
c h ~
~ = c B
~ 2~e ( B
~ ~e) B
~ = c B
~ 2~e
S~ =
B ~e B
4
4
4
~ = 0;
because ~e B
(2.13)
(2.14)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
15
2.3
2.3.1
(2.19)
using the dipole moment d~ q~x, we can write eq. (2.13) for the
magnetic field in the form
~e d~
~
B= 2 ;
cR
(2.20)
E
=
E sin , (2.22)
4c3 m2
4c3 m2
where was introduced as the angle between the incoming electric field E~ 0 and the direction of the outgoing radiation, ~e;
the incoming energy current density is
S0 =
c ~ 02
E ;
4
(2.23)
(2.24)
;
(2.25)
re
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
16
re =
e2
2.8 1013 cm ;
me c2
(2.26)
d
= r02 sin2 ;
d
the total cross section is
Z
Z
2
2
2
= r0 sin d = 2r0
0
sin3 d =
(2.28)
8 2
r ;
3 0
2.3.2
(2.29)
(2.30)
cos
~e0 = sin ,
(2.31)
0
if ~e0 is parallel to the x3 axis; the outgoing direction of the scattered radiation is
sin
~e = 0 ;
(2.32)
cos
using this, one obtains the differential scattering cross section
h
i
d
= r02 sin2 = r02 (1 cos2 ) = r02 1 (~e ~e0 )2 ;
d
(2.33)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
17
(2.34)
2.4
an accelerated charge radiates energy and thus damps the incoming, accelerating wave; the non-relativistic Larmor formula
asserts that a non-relativistic, accelerated charge q emits the
power
2q2 2
P = 3 ~v ;
(2.35)
3c
this is interpreted as damping with a force F~D ,
F~D ~v = P
2q2 2
~v F~D = 3 ~v ;
3c
(2.36)
(2.37)
the first term vanishes for bound charges and large T , thus
D
E 2q2 D... E
F~D ~v = 3 ~x ~v ;
3c
(2.38)
(2.39)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
18
(2.41)
2q2 2
;
3c3 0
(2.42)
the first term on the right-hand side of (2.41) is the external excitation, the second is the damping; this equation models a driven,
damped harmonic oscillator, whose solution is known to read
q
E~ 0 eit
~x =
;
m 20 2 i
(2.43)
(2.44)
the incoming energy current is |S~ | = cE~ 02 /(4), and thus the scattering cross section becomes
1 dE 8 2
4
=
=
r
3 0 (2 20 )2 + 2 2
|S~ | dt
(2.45)
0 :
0 :
8 2
r = T ;
3 0
(binding forces are then irrelevant)
!4
T
;
0
(Rayleigh scattering)
20
T
4( 0 )2 + 2
#
"
22 q2
/(2)
=
,
(2.46)
mc ( 0 )2 + (/2)2
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
2.5
2.5.1
19
Radiation Drag
Time-Averaged Damping Force
(2.47)
(2.48)
q ~ ~ ~ ~x ~
E + B + B
=
m
c
q ~ ~ ~ ~
q ~ ~ ~
E+B B ;
E+B+
=
m
mc
(2.49)
!2
~ ;
hE~ Bi
(2.52)
=0
using
~ = hE~ + (~e E)i
~ = E~ 2~e (E~ ~e) E~
hE~ Bi
|{z}
=0
= 4U~e ,
(2.53)
we finally find
8 2
r U~e = T U~e
3 q
for the time-averaged damping force;
hF~D i =
(2.54)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
2.5.2
20
~ 2i ;
hE~ 2 i = 4U = h B
(2.55)
(2.56)
= 3 ~x , ~x =
;
(2.58)
dt
3c
m
in a first step, we compute
q2
m2
q2
=
m2
q2
=
m2
q2
=
m2
D E
~x0 =
h
i2
~ + E~ k
(E~ + ~ B)
h
i2
~
~
~
~
~
(E Ek + B) + Ek
h
i2
~ + (1 )E~ k
(E~ + ~ B)
(2.59)
h
i
~ 2 ihsin2 i + (1 2 )hE~ k2 i ,
2 hE~ 2 i + 2~2 h B
(2.60)
(2.62)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
21
according to the radiation damping, the energy which is on average absorbed by the charge is
!
dE
= T Uc ,
(2.63)
dt abs
and thus the total energy change of the radiation field per unit
time is
!
#
"
4
2
dE
2
1 = T Uc2 2 ;
= T Uc 1 +
(2.64)
dt
3
3
this amount of energy is added to the radiation field per unit time
by a single charge;
the number of collisions between the charge and photons per unit
time is
dNc
U
= T c ;
(2.65)
dt
h
combining this with (2.64), we find the energy gain of the radiation field by scattering of the charge per scattering process,
D
E dEc dNc !1 4
4
= h2 2 = 2 2 E ;
E =
(2.66)
dt
dt
3
3
2.6
2.6.1
Compton Scattering
Energy-Momentum Conservation
h + E = h0 + E 0 ,
(2.67)
where
E 2 = c2 p2 + m2 c4
according to the relativistic energy-momentum relation;
(2.68)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
22
(2.69)
(2.70)
(2.71)
mc
(2.73)
2.6.2
E2
mc2
(1 cos )d(cos ) =
E2
mc2
(2.74)
Energy Balance
the total energy transfer to the radiation field due to the motion of
a single charge is given by the difference between the energy gain
(2.66) per scattering and the energy loss per Compton scattering
(2.74),
!
D
E
4 2 2 E
E = 2 E ;
(2.75)
3
mc
for photons with E mc2 in the relativistic limit, 1, and
D
E 4
E 2 E ,
3
(2.76)
which can become a very large number; in that way, for example,
CMB photons can be converted to X-ray photons;
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
23
E
=
4kT
E
;
(2.77)
3c2 mc2
mc2
thus, the photons gain energy (on average), if
4kT e > E
(2.78)
E
3 mc2
mc2
=
= 4
;
dE/dt
Uc2 2 4 2 T U
3 T
(2.79)
3
kT e c2
2
4
Ucv2
3 T
9 mc
;
8 T U
(2.80)
after Ns scatterings, the total energy transfer from thermal electrons to the photons is
E0
4kT e
= 1+
E
mc2
!Ns
!
4kT e Ns
exp
e4y ,
mc2
(2.81)
4kT e Ns
mc2
(2.82)
was introduced;
if the electron number density is ne , the number of scatterings per
path length dl is
Z
dNs = ne T dl Ns =
T ne dl ,
(2.83)
and thus the Compton-y parameter becomes
Z
kT e
y=
T ne dl ;
mc2
(2.84)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
2.7
24
(2.87)
quantifies the opposite scattering, i.e. scattering processes increasing the occupation number at frequency ; of course, the
energy difference between photon frequencies and 0 must be
balanced by the difference between the energies E and E 0 ; the integral over d3 p integrates over the electron distribution, and the
factor
d
d
(2.88)
d
specifies the probability for scattering photons from frequency
to frequency 0 or backward;
we assume thermal photon and electron distributions, and restrict
ourselves to the limit of Thomson scattering, which applies if
h mc2 ;
(2.89)
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
25
(2.91)
(2.92)
2 2
N
1 2 N 2 2
0
h + O(3 ) ,
N(E ) = N(E)
h +
2
E
2 E
where (2.91) allows us to use
n(0 ) = n() +
N
N(E)
=
,
E
kT e
N(E)
2 N
=
;
2
E
(kT e )2
(2.94)
for simplification, we now define the dimension-less photon energy, scaled by the thermal electron energy
x
h
kT e
(2.95)
and find
1 2 n 2
n
x ,
n(x0 ) n(x) + x +
2
x
2
x
#
"
x2
0
N(E ) N(E) 1 + x +
;
2
(2.96)
(2.98)
h =
h
(~e ~e0 ) ~p
mc
x =
(2.99)
x
(~e ~e0 ) ~p ; (2.100)
mc
CHAPTER 2. SCATTERING
26
using this result, the integrals Ii can be carried out straightforwardly; with the unpolarised Thomson cross section (2.34), we
first find
kT e x2
;
(2.101)
I2 = 2T ne c
mc2
for evaluating I1 , we note that I1 is the mean rate of relative energy transfer, quantified by x from the electrons to the photons,
and therefore the mean energy transfer rate, divided by kT e ; from
(2.77), we know that this is
D
E x(kT e )2
(4 x)
E =
me c2
(2.102)
kT e
ne T c x(4 x) ;
me c2
(2.103)
kT e
ne T c dt
me c2
(2.105)
(2.106)
the hot gas in galaxy clusters is much hotter than the cosmic background radiation; then, we can approximate the right-hand side of
(2.106) to lowest order in x,
2 n
n
n
x2 2 + 4x ;
y
x
x
(2.107)
Chapter 3
Radiation Transport and
Bremsstrahlung
3.1
(3.2)
(3.3)
(3.4)
P,i j
1 F,i
+c
=0;
c t
x j
(3.7)
this equation describes the change of the momentum current density, because
U
(c~e)
(3.8)
c
is the momentum density of the radiation field, and thus
Z
1 F~
1
d I~e
(3.9)
= 2
c t
c t
is c times the temporal change of the momentum current density;
Eq. (3.7) expresses momentum conservation;
in presence of emission, stimulated emission and absorption, we
know from the first chapter that the energy equation must be augmented by source and sink terms on its right-hand side; we had
dI
1 dI
= j I =
;
dl
c dt
(3.10)
(3.12)
(3.13)
(3.14)
1 dF~
= F~ = F~ ,
(3.16)
c dt
where we have assumed again that j and are isotropic
including the emission and absorption terms, the transport equations are modified to read
U ~ ~
+ F = ( j cU )
t
P,i j
1 F,i
+c
= F,i ;
c t
x j
(3.17)
3.2
(3.19)
c P,i j
x j
(3.21)
U
i j
3
(3.22)
c U
c U
,
xi
R
(3.23)
,
|F,i | cU
R
(3.24)
(3.25)
R R
(3.26)
!2
~ F~
~ F~ ;
(3.27)
4
=
B (T ) ,
c
c
(3.28)
as anticipated;
accordingly, if R and tevol /c, the solutions of the
moment equations are
F,i
c P,i j
,
x j
4
B (T ) ;
c
(3.29)
4
U
i j
B (T ) i j ,
3
3c
!
4 B T
F,i
,
3 T xi
(3.30)
(3.31)
d 1 T
0
(3.32)
R1 R B (T ) ;
d
T
0
here, we can use the fact that
!
!
Z
Z
B (T )
caT 4
d
=
,
d B (T ) =
T
T 0
T 4
0
(3.33)
where
2 k4
erg
= 7.6 1015 4 3
3
15 (~c)
K cm
is the so-called Stefan-Boltzmann constant;
a
(3.34)
(3.35)
B T
d F~ =
d
f~rad =
c 0
c 3 0
T ~x
1~
4
~ ,
= (aT
(3.36)
) = P
3
which equals just the negative pressure gradient;
a remark on units: the unit of U is
[U ] =
erg
,
cm3 Hz
(3.37)
cm2
,
g
(3.38)
the unit of is
[ ] =
and thus the unit of F~ is
[F~ ] = [c][U ] =
erg
,
cm2 t Hz
(3.39)
[ f~rad ] =
as it should be;
3.3
Scattering
so far, we have only considered emission and absorption, but neglected scattering; scattering changes the distribution function of
the photons by exchanging photons with different momenta; if we
assume for simplicity that the scattering process changes the photons momentum, but not its energy, we can write the scattering
cross section in the form
d(~e ~e0 )
= (~e, ~e0 ) ,
d
(3.41)
(3.43)
(3.50)
i.e. the scattering opacity is simply added to the absorption opacity here; with a suitable modification of the Rosseland mean opacity, the diffusion approximation remains valid which we have obtained above;
3.4
3.4.1
Bremsstrahlung
Spectrum of a Moving Charge
2
~x ,
(3.51)
2
we first have
Z
d h 2 i it
~x =
~x() e
2
~x = 2 ~x() ,
(3.53)
(3.54)
(3.55)
(3.56)
and, by differentiation,
dE
2e2 4 2
~x() ;
=
d 3c3
(3.57)
3.4.2
Hyperbolic Orbits
2Lz2 E
and 1 + 2
m
!1/2
,
(3.59)
(3.60)
(3.61)
cos =
cosh
,
cosh 1
(3.62)
2
2
E + x 2mx2
Ex + x 2m
m
m
(3.63)
where
Lz2 = ma( 2 1)
(3.64)
was used from (3.59); furthermore, we have
a=
Lz2 2 m
p
=
=
2
2
1 m 2Lz E 2E
E=
;
2a
(3.65)
(3.66)
(3.68)
y = r sin = a 2 1 sinh ,
where we have used (3.61) and (3.62); with these expressions, we
return to the Fourier transform of x and y
since
x = i x() ,
(3.69)
we have
Z
i
i
x() =
x() =
dt x(t)eit
Z
dx d it()
i
dt
e
=
d dt
Z
ia
=
d sinh eit() ;
using (3.67), we can write
r
ma
it()
( sinh ) ;
e
= exp i
(3.70)
(3.71)
,
mv2
(3.72)
m2
= 3 ,
3
6
m v mv
(3.73)
moreover,
r
and thus
ma3
=
(3.74)
Z
ia 2 1
y () =
d cosh ei( sinh ) ; (3.75)
these expressions can be analytically integrated and lead to firstorder Hankel functions, which will not be discussed in detail here;
forming
|~x()|2 = x() x () + y ()y ()
(3.76)
3.4.3
b2 m2 v4
b2
=
1
+
,
2
a2
(3.78)
such that the integration over b can be transformed into an integration over ,
d =
bdb bdb
= 2
a2
a
bdb = a2 d ,
(3.79)
dE
16Z 2 e6 n2
ln Ze2 Ze2
,
(3.80)
dVdtd
3m2 c3 v
mv
Ze2
3
where 1.78 is Eulers constant;
we write this result as
16Z 2 n2 e6 1
dE
=
gff (v, ) ,
dVdtd
3 3m2 c3 v
(3.81)
(3.83)
dE
16Z 2 n2 e6
2mkT
2
T;
(3.85)
j=
=
g
(v,
)
n
ff
dVdt
3~m2 c3
!1/2
kT
20
6.69 10
erg
n 2
!1/2
2
kT
24
j = Z gff
2.68 10
cm3
keV
T 1/2
28
7.86 10
K
(3.86)
(3.88)
1.6 1052 1
s 1 s1
1.2 1054
(3.89)
i.e. this enormous X-ray luminosity produces a flux of approximately one photon per second in a typical X-ray detector;
Chapter 4
Synchrotron Radiation,
Ionisation and Recombination
4.1
4.1.1
Synchrotron Radiation
Electron Gyrating in a Magnetic Field
a further very important radiation process is the emission of radi~ in such a field,
ation by electrons moving in a magnetic field B;
electrons spiral around field lines, with their angular frequency
given by
ceB
eB
B =
=
,
(4.1)
E
mc
where E is the electron energy, and is the usual Lorentz factor;
numerically, we have
B
1
,
(4.2)
B 17.6 MHz
1G
i.e. synchrotron radiation is typically emitted at radio frequencies;
the radius of the projection of the spiral orbit perpendicular to the
magnetic field is
v
mcv
rB =
=
,
(4.3)
B
eB
~ superand the complete motion is the circular motion around B,
~
posed by a drift along B;
we employ Larmors equation
dE 2e2
= 3
dt
3c
40
2
~x
(4.4)
|~x| =
(vB sin )2 ,
(4.6)
mc
and, from Larmors equation (4.4),
2e4 2 v2 B2 sin2
dE
=
(4.7)
dt
3m!2 c5
2 e2
B2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2
c
B
sin
=
2c
=
sin ,
T
3 mc2
8
where we have identified the Thomson scattering cross section;
averaging over all pitch angles , finding
Z
1 3
2
2
hsin i =
sin d = ,
2 0
3
(4.8)
(4.9)
4.1.2
d
;
2 (1 cos )2
(4.10)
,
1 cos 2(1 )
(4.11)
2
2(1 ) ,
2
(4.12)
(4.13)
t=
rB
;
v
(4.15)
!1
v 1
v 1 1
v 1
= 1
1+
1
c
c
2
c
(4.19)
2vtobs 2
,
rB
(4.20)
4
2vtobs 3
= tobs 2B 3 sin c tobs ,
rB
3
(4.21)
4.1.3
Synchrotron Spectrum
since the electric field can depend on only through the factor
and depends only through the factor c tobs on the observing time, a Fourier transform must find that the spectrum of
synchrotron radiation can depend on frequency only through
the ratio
;
(4.23)
c
qualitatively, synchrotron radiation is determined by the following properties:
the basic frequency for 1 is the cyclotron frequency
cyc =
eB
;
mc
(4.24)
(4.25)
1
B 3 ;
t
(4.26)
(4.27)
(4.28)
more precisely
E 4c1/2 B1/2 erg ,
(4.29)
4.2
4.2.1
Photo-Ionisation
Transition Amplitude
many astrophysical radiation processes are accompanied by ionisation and recombination; in ionising processes, a sufficiently energetic photon removes an electron from a bound state and places
it into an unbound state, and the reverse process happens in recombinations;
as an example, we consider the cross section for ionising a hydrogen atom from its ground state; for doing so, we first need
to compute the transition rate between bound and unbound states
which is caused by a perturbing photon;
according to the quantum-mechanical perturbation theory, the
transition probability within a time interval t is given by
P(t) = |a2 (t)| ,
where a is the probability amplitude
Z t
dt 0
hE |H|Ei ,
a(t) =
~
0
(4.30)
(4.31)
~p
H=
=
2m 2m
e 2 A
~2
~p2
e ~ 2
e ~
A =
A ~p +
; (4.33)
c
2m mc
c 2m
(4.36)
(4.37)
eA i(t~k~x)
~e ~p ;
e
mc
(4.39)
|E 0 i = 0 (~x)eiE t/~ ,
(4.40)
in which (~x) and 0 (~x) are the spatial amplitudes, and the phase
factors describe the time evolution; using these, the probability
amplitude (4.31) turns into
Z t Z
~
0
A
e eik~x
3
0
~e ~p (~x) ei(E /~E/~)t ;
a(t) =
dt d x (~x)
~c 0
m
(4.41)
4.2.2
Transition Probability
we abbreviate the notation by introducing the matrix element between the initial and the final state,
~ Z
e eik~x
e
~
Mfi
d3 x 0 (~x) ~p (~x) ,
(4.42)
m
m
in terms of which we can write the probability amplitude (4.41)
as
Z t
A
0
~
(~e Mfi )
a(t) =
dt ei(E /~E/~)t ;
(4.43)
~c
0
the time integral can be evaluated as follows:
Z t
Z t
E0 E
it
dt e =
dt (cos t+i sin t) , ; (4.44)
~ ~
0
0
taking the absolute square of this expression, which we shall later
need, we find
Z t
!2
sin(t/2)
it
;
(4.45)
dt e =
/2
0
in the limit of t this expression approaches a function,
sin2 (t/2)
lim
2tD () ;
t
(/2)2
(4.46)
(4.49)
(4.50)
is
~k (t)
1 A
iAk~e i(t~k~x)
E~ k =
=
e
,
(4.51)
c t
c
and the energy density in an electromagnetic field in vacuum can
be written as
~ 2 E~ 2
E~ 2 + B
U=
=
;
(4.52)
8
4
similarly, the energy density in photons of angular frequency is
1 N~
,
2 V
(4.53)
where the factor 1/2 appears because the two independent polarisation directions need to be distinguished; we set N = 1 so that
we shall only have to multiply with the number of photons in the
volume V later; thus, we find by comparing (4.51), (4.52) and
(4.53)
r
2~c2
N~ A2k 2
=
A
=
(4.54)
k
2V
4c2
V
for a single photon (N = 1); the unit of Ak is
erg s cm2 s
[Ak ] =
cm3 s2
!1/2
=
erg 1/2
cm
g1/2 cm1/2
,
s
(4.55)
(4.56)
as it must be;
for the transition rate (4.48), we now have
42 ~ 2
R=
~e Mfi D (fi ) ;
~V
(4.57)
(4.58)
in which n() is the occupation number of photons with frequency and polarisation state ~e, i.e. the photon number density
per phase-space cell;
since = ck, the volume element in k-space is
d3 k = k2 dkd =
2 d
d ,
c3
(4.59)
4.2.3
~ fi as defined in
finally, we have to calculate the matrix element M
(4.42); if the wave length of the incoming light, = 2/k, is much
larger than the extent of the wave function of the bound electron,
we can approximate
~
eik~x 1
(4.61)
and are left with
~ fi
M
d3 x 0 (~x)
e
~p (~x) ;
m
(4.62)
this approximation is called dipole approximation for the following reason: the momentum operator ~p can be expressed by
the commutator
~p =
im
im
[H, ~x] = (H ~x ~xH) ;
~
~
(4.63)
~2
= 4.7 108 cm ,
me2
(4.66)
eike ~x
(~x) = ,
V
0
(4.67)
where ~ke is the wave vector of the free electron, which is related
to the momentum by ~pe = ~~ke ;
we first confirm that the dipole approximation can be applied
here; for short-wave light, 1000 = 105 cm, which is
almost three orders of magnitude larger than Bohrs radius a0 ,
a0 ;
now, the transition probability between the initial and the final
state equals the reverse transition rate,
2
final|~e ~p|initial = initial|~e ~p|final ,
(4.68)
~ we find
and inserting the momentum operator ~p = i~,
~~e ~ke
initial|~e ~p|final = q
Va30
d3 x ex/a0 eike ~x ;
(4.69)
(4.71)
4.2.4
Cross Section
(4.73)
this means that the flux of incoming photons, cn() times the
number density of states in phase space, multiplied with the cross
section, is the number of transitions per unit time; this must equal
the transition rate times the number of available final states for
the electron;
in order to obtain the cross section, we first need to integrate the
expression
dP Vd3 ke 4~e2 n()a30 |~e ~ke |2 d3 ke
=
D (fi ) (4.74)
dtdd (2)3
3 m2 c3
(1 + ~ke2 a20 )4
over all solid angles; we had assumed that the electron is photoionised into a free final state, and thus we must have ke2 a2
0 ;
using that, we can approximate
(1 + ke2 a20 )4 a80 ke8 ,
(4.75)
sin cos
~ke = ke sin sin ,
(4.76)
cos
and
(4.77)
(4.78)
(4.79)
~2 ke2
pe
=
,
2m
2m
!1/2
and
and
~
dke
=
4
ke
2m
!5/2
dke =
(4.80)
md
,
~ke
md
;
~
(4.81)
(4.82)
using
d3 p
2 d
=
,
(2~)3 (2c)3
we finally obtain from (4.73)
(4.83)
!5/2
dP Vd3 ke
16e2 n() ~
d
=
dtd (2)3
32 mc3 a50 2m
2 d
!
= () cn()
(2c)3
(4.84)
!5/2
;
(4.85)
e2
,
~c
(4.86)
and Bohrs radius (4.66), we finally write this in the intuitive form
() =
with 0 c/a0 ;
a20
(2)9/2 0 7/2
,
3
(4.87)
Chapter 5
Spectra
5.1
5.2
(5.1)
for the dipole transition probability, where |~xfi | is the matrix element of the position operator ~x between the two bound states;
since the photon flux per unit frequency can be expressed by
the occupation number n() times the number of states in phase
space,
n()c
n()c 4 k2 dk n()2
d3 k
=
=
,
(2)3 d
(2)3 d
22 c2
(5.2)
ffi () ,
mc
(5.3)
in which
() = 2D ( fi )
52
(5.4)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
53
mc 4mfi
4e2 fi
|~xfi |2 2 =
|~xfi |2 ;
3~c
e
3~
(5.7)
(5.8)
5.2.1
Transition Probabilities
1
~
E ~ ;
(5.9)
an X
=
hn|H|mi am ei(En Em )t/~ ,
t
m
(5.10)
where H is again the interaction Hamiltonian between the electron and the electromagnetic field;
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
54
modeling the transition between the states |2i and |1i, we can set
a2 = 1 and am = 0 for m , 2; due to the finite life time of the state
|2i, we can use the ansatz
a2 (t) = et/2
(5.11)
and obtain
a1
i~
= h1|H|2i a2 (t) ei[(E1 E2 )/~]t
t
)
( "
#
E1 E2 + ~
t
= h1|H|2i exp i
t
~
2
#
"
t
= h1|H|2i exp i( 12 )t
(5.12)
2
where
E1 E2
(5.13)
~
is the angular frequency corresponding to the transition energy;
upon integrating (5.12) with the boundary condition a1 (t = 0) =
0, we find
12
a1 (t) =
(5.14)
(5.15)
|a1 (t)|
|h1|H|2i|2
=
~2
|h1|H|2i|2
=
~2
12 + i/2
1
;
( 12 )2 + 2 /4
(5.16)
,
( 12 )2 + (/2)2
(5.17)
e2 212
;
mc3
(5.19)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
55
e2
e2
; (5.20)
f12 () =
f12
mc
mc
( 12 )2 + (/2)2
mc
using from (5.18), we find
!2
c
4e2 mc3
= 4
212 ,
12 =
mc e2 212
12
12 =
(5.21)
(5.22)
i.e. the cross section in the centre of the line is proportional to the
square of the absorbed wave length;
5.3
D
E
i(t)
until time t
e
=
,
0 else
i~
(5.23)
(5.24)
which means that the average phase factor (5.24) expresses the
probability that the individual system under consideration experienced no collision until time t; in this way, (5.23) formalises the
expectation that (sufficiently energetic) collisions can change the
phase of a1 completely;
extending this consideration from a single system to an ensemble
of systems and averaging over them, the ensemble average will
turn into an exponential if we assume that the number of collisions in the ensemble until time t follows a Poisson distribution,
D
E
ei(t) ec t/2 ,
(5.25)
in which 1
c is the mean time between collisions; using this, we
find the change in a1 after time t to be proportional to the integral
of (5.23),
"
#
Z
t
a1
dt exp i( 12 )t + i(t) ;
(5.26)
2
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
56
the averages over time and over all systems in the ensemble then
yield, using (5.25),
"
#
Z
t D i(t) E
dt exp i( 12 )t
e
ha1 i
2
#
"
Z
t c t
; (5.27)
=
dt exp i( 12 )t
2
2
obviously, therefore, the sum of the mean decay and collision
rates and c now takes the role that had before, i.e. the collisions shorten the mean life time to
1
1
1
1
+ c 1 + c /
(5.28)
5.4
22v
where v is the mean velocity of the emitting system, and v is the
velocity dispersion of its particles; using the identity
1
D (ax) = D (x) ,
a
(5.31)
!2
1 0
1
c
exp 2
c v
p
0 22v
2v
0
!
c2 2
c
1
=
exp 2
p
0 22v
2v 0
(5.32)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
57
(5.33)
!
c2 2
e2
c
1
;
=
exp 2
f12
(5.34)
p
mc
0 22v
2v 0
if the motion of the particles in the medium is thermal, we obtain
for the velocity dispersion
m 2 kT
=
2 v
2
2v =
kT
,
m
!
mc2 2
e2
1
mc2
;
=
f12
exp
mc
0 2kT
2kT 0
(5.35)
(5.36)
5.5
Z
v2k
1
() =
exp 2 dvk ,
p
2
2
2v
( 12 ) + (/2)
22v
(5.38)
where we have neglected for simplicity that the line may be
shifted as a whole due to the mean motion with velocity v;
in (5.38), we need to replace 12 by
vk
12 1 +
c
(5.39)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
58
to take the Doppler shift of the emission frequency into consideration; this yields
Z
() =
2
2
( 12 12 vk /c) + (/2)
v2k
1
exp 2 dvk ;
(5.40)
p
2v
22v
we now set
v0
2v ,
and
12 c
,
12 v0
c
212 v0
vk
vk
q
=
2v v0
(5.41)
(5.42)
and obtain
2ac
() =
v0 12
eq dq
,
(u q)2 + a2
(5.43)
5.6
Equivalent
Growth
Widths
and
Curves-of-
(5.45)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
59
(5.46)
(5.47)
(5.51)
behaves like a step function across the absorption line whose step
width is determined by how approaches unity; let be this step
width in frequency space, then
W 2 ;
(5.52)
(5.53)
(5.54)
exp
2
2kT 0
NL mc0
2kT
C2 NL
with the abbreviations
r
C1
2kT
0 ,
mc2
C2
e2
f12 ;
mc
(5.55)
CHAPTER 5. SPECTRA
60
=
mc2 0
C1
!
C1 1/2 NLC2
= ln
,
C1
(5.56)
,
( 12 )2 + (/2)2
(5.57)
=
=
;
(5.58)
f12
2
mc
( 12 )
( 12 )2
again, we conclude from
!
= N L =
NLC2 = 2
NLC2 ,
(5.59)
N;
N
small N
1/2
ln
N
intermediate
N
W(N)
N
large N
(5.60)
Chapter 6
Energy-Momentum Tensor and
Equations of Motion
6.1
6.1.1
Boltzmann Equation
Momentum Tensor
and
Energy-
Boltzmann Equation
(6.2)
(6.3)
(6.4)
~
or, using (6.2) and ~p = F,
f ~
~ f = 0
+ ~x f U
t
~p
(6.5)
(6.6)
,
,
f (~x, ~p2 , t) f2
f (~x, ~p02 , t) f20 ,
(6.7)
(6.8)
this is a result of kinetic theory; we shall later see that this term
drops out when moments of the Boltzmann equation are formed;
6.1.2
(6.9)
(6.11)
J c
we find
J =
0
d3 p
p f (x , ~p) ,
E(~p)
Z
d3 p f (x , ~p)
(6.12)
(6.13)
(6.14)
or, using the expressions E = mc2 and ~p = m~x which are valid
for relativistic and non-relativistic particles alike,
Z
~x
J~ =
d3 p f (x , ~p) ;
(6.15)
c
(6.16)
the spatial vector J~ turns out to be the average particle current n~v
divided by the light speed c; therefore, the first moment equation
can be written in the form
J 0 J i n ~
+ i =
+ (n~v) = 0 ,
x0
x
t
(6.17)
(6.19)
6.1.3
Energy-Momentum Tensor
we now consider the second moments, which are obtained by applying the second integral operator from (6.10) to the Boltzmann
equation (6.9); we first study the tensor
Z 3
d p
2
c
p p f T ;
(6.20)
E(~p)
in the non-relativistic limit, we have
~x2
E mc2
p = =
= mc 1 + 2 ,
c
c
2c
0
~x2
00
2
3
T
= mc
d p 1 + 2 f
2c
Z
m~x2
= c2 + d3 p
f = c2 + n ,
2
where is the mean kinetic energy of the fluid particles
R
Z
d3 p m2 ~x2 f
1
m
R
=
d3 p ~x2 f ;
3
n
2
d pf
(6.21)
(6.22)
(6.23)
!i
Z
~x2
~q
3
i
d p 1 + 2 mc x f = c~v +
, (6.24)
2c
c
where ~q is the current of the kinetic energy
2
Z
m~x
3
~x f ;
~q
d p
2
(6.25)
the first term on the right-hand side of (6.24), c~v, is the mass
current times the light speed;
finally, the space-space components of T are
Z 3
Z 3
d p
d p i j
2
ij
2
pp f =c
T = c
m2 xi x j f
mc2
E(~p)
Z
d3 p m xi x j f ,
(6.26)
which can be interpreted as the (three-dimensional) stress-energy
tensor;
we now return to the (simplified) Boltzmann equation (6.9) and
rewrite it somewhat, using
E = mc2 ,
~p = m~x
~p
~x
= 2
E c
(6.27)
(6.28)
~p ~
p0 f
+ c2
f = C[ f ] ;
0
E x
E
(6.29)
c
and from that,
c2
p
2p
2~
fc
+
= C[ f ] ,
(6.30)
fc
x0
E
E
~x
R
and an integration over d3 p p yields
T 0
=0,
x
(6.31)
f
~ f = cpi f + pi x j f = C[ f ] pi
+ pi ~x
0
x
x0
x j
and insert
x j = c2
to find
pj
E
(6.32)
(6.33)
j
E f
2 i p f
c p
+c p
= C[ f ] pi ,
0
j
cE x
E x
(6.34)
c2
c2 0 i f
f
p p 0 + pi p j j = C[ f ] pi ;
E
x
E
x
(6.35)
2 i
which equals
(6.36)
(6.37)
this indicates how the hydrodynamical equations can be relativistically generalised; we now return to the non-relativistic expressions for T ;
the time-component of the divergence equation implies
!
~
1 2
q
~ c~v +
c + n +
=0;
c t
c
(6.38)
(n ) ~
+ ~q = 0 ;
(6.40)
t
this is the continuity equation for the energy, i.e. the expression
of energy conservation;
1
i
cv +
+ j Tij = 0 ;
c t
c
x
(6.41)
here, we can neglect the term ~q c2 because the energy flow will
be much slower than the speed of light, and obtain
(vi ) T i j
=0,
+
t
x j
(6.42)
,
,
2
m~x
~x f
with ~q
d p
2
Z
ij
with T
d3 p m xi x j f (6.43)
Z
we now split the velocities ~x of the particles into the mean velocity
~v and a (usually thermal) velocity ~u about the mean,
~x = ~v + ~u ;
(6.44)
nm D 2 E
~u ,
(6.46)
n = ~v2 +
2
2
D E
where ~u2 is the mean-squared thermal velocity,
R
D E
d3 p ~u2 f
~u2 R
;
d3 p f
(6.47)
the second term in (6.46) is the internal energy , the first is the
kinetic energy of the mean fluid motion; if the internal energy is
thermal,
3
= nkT ;
(6.48)
2
6.2
6.2.1
(F)
3
3
~
d x F =
+ ~v
d x F =
d3 x
(6.50)
dt V
t
t
V
V
because the integration over d3 x removes the dependence on ~x
and makes the gradient vanish; then, the remaining integral over
the partial time derivative is
!
Z
Z
F
3 (F)
3
~ (~v)
d x
=
d x
F
t
t
V
V
!
Z
F ~
3
~
(F~v) + ~v F
=
d x
t
V
!
Z
F
3
~
=
d x
+ ~v F
t
V
Z
dF
,
=
d3 x
(6.51)
dt
V
where Gauss theorem was employed again to remove the divergence term; this completes the proof;
6.2.2
Ii j
(6.52)
,
dt2
dt dt V
dt V
dt
(6.53)
where the theorem (6.49) was used with F = xi x j ; notice that the
volume V is fixed, so that the coordinates xi introduced in (6.52)
do not explicitly depend on time;
(6.56)
(6.57)
,
L
1
(6.60)
(6.61)
Chapter 7
Ideal and Viscous Fluids
7.1
7.1.1
Ideal Fluids
Energy-Momentum Tensor
(7.2)
(7.3)
the two latter terms vanish because f0 is isotropic, the first term is
Z
i j
mv v
d3 p f0 = vi v j ,
(7.4)
and the second term is
Z
m d3 p ui u j f0 = 0
71
for i , j
(7.5)
72
and
nm D 2 E
~u
3
which is the gas pressure P,
P=
for i = j
D 2E
~u ;
3
(7.6)
(7.7)
2 i 2 i
= ~v v + ~v hu i + vi h~u2 i + hui~u2 i
2
2
2
2
+ vi v j hu j i + v j hui u j i ,
(7.9)
(7.10)
(7.11)
(7.14)
(7.15)
+P
(7.16)
7.1.2
73
Equations of Motion
~ +
~ ~v = d +
~ ~v = 0 ; (7.17)
+ (~v) =
+ (~v )
t
t
dt
next, the equation of energy transport,
!
" 2
! #
~
v
~v2
~
+ +
+ w ~v = 0 ,
t 2
2
(7.18)
(7.19)
(7.20)
(7.21)
+
t
t
vi
v j P
+ vi v j j + v j j + v j j + j i j ,
x
x
x
x
0 = vi
(7.22)
~v
+
t
t
~
~ v + ~v(
~ ~v) + P
~ ;
+ ~v(~v ) + (~v )~
0 = ~v
(7.23)
~ +
~ ~v = 0
+ ~v
(7.24)
t
74
to get rid of the first, third, and fifth terms on the right-hand side
of (7.23); we thus obtain
~v
~ v + P
~ =0;
+ (~v )~
t
!
~
~v ~ ~v
~ ~v) ~v = P ;
+
+ (
t
2
(7.25)
(7.26)
(7.27)
(7.28)
(7.29)
using here the energy per mass, /, this equation reads
() ~
~ (~v) + ~v
~
+ (~v) = + +
t
t
t !
~ = P
~ ~v ;
(7.30)
=
+ ~v
t
we have now arrived at Eulers equations,
~
+ (~v) = 0
t
~
~v
~ v = P
+ (~v )~
t
~
~ ~v ,
+ (~v) = P
t
(7.31)
which described the conservation laws for mass, energy, and momentum in the approximation of an ideal fluid;
had we allowed (conservative) external forces, with
~
F~ext = m~v = m
(7.32)
(7.33)
7.1.3
75
Entropy
(7.34)
s
P
+ (~v )s
=
P
(7.35)
t
P
t
t
!
!
P
i
+ v i ln
x
1 P
=
P t t
!
P
i
1
+ v
P i
P
xi
x
i
1 P v P vi
=
;
P t t P xi
xi
according to the continuity equation, we can simplify
"
#
"
#
~
~ (~v)
~ ~v = ~
~ v , (7.36)
+ (~v )
=
+
t
t
and we further had
2
P = nkT = ,
3
(7.37)
and therefore
1 P 1
=
P t
t
and
1 P 1
=
;
P xi xi
(7.38)
(7.39)
finally, we use
!
5 3
5
3
= nkT = nkT =
+ 1 nkT = + P ,
3 2
2
2
which allows us to conclude
"
#
s
1
~ =
~ (~v) + P
~ ~v = 0 ,
+ (~v )s
+
t
t
(7.40)
(7.41)
76
(7.42)
7.2
7.2.1
Viscous Fluids
Stress-Energy Tensor; Viscosity and Heat Conductivity
vi
,
x j
(7.43)
vi ~
= ~v ;
xi
(7.44)
77
the tensor vij from (7.43) can be split into a symmetric and an
antisymmetric part:
!
!
1 vi v j
1 vi v j
vi
=
+
+
;
(7.47)
x j 2 x j xi
2 x j xi
if the velocity field is caused by rigid rotation,
~v =
~ ~x ,
vi = ijk j xk ,
!
j
1 vi v j
1 (kli k xl ) (kl k xl )
2 x j xi
2 x j
xi
1 i
=
k j kij k
2
= ijk k , 0 ,
(7.48)
(7.49)
(7.51)
T
;
xi
(7.52)
(7.53)
(7.54)
78
the additional contributions are thus characterised by three coefficients, i.e. the heat conductivity , and the two viscosity coefficients and ;
the form of these coefficients can be computed by inserting the
ansatz f = f0 + f1 for the phase-space distribution function into
the Boltzmann equation and iteratively searching for solutions,
evaluating the collision terms;
must have the dimension (energy density velocity)/(temperature gradient), hence
[] =
erg cm cm
erg
=
;
cm3 s K
cm s K
(7.55)
7.2.2
erg s
erg s
=
;
3
cm cm
cm3
(7.56)
we consider a gaseous system in thermal equilibrium with a temperature T whose particles are moving randomly in all directions;
let A be the area of a screen perpendicular to the y axis;
per unit time,
n v A
(7.57)
6
particles will fly through the screen, either from left to right or
the other way round; the factor of 1/6 is owed to the fact that
typically only 1/3 of the particles is flying along the y axis, and
of those, only 1/2 in either direction;
2 ,
6
6
6 y
(7.58)
79
(7.62)
(7.63)
(7.64)
(7.65)
(7.66)
7.2.3
80
(7.70)
~
~ ~v)
vi j 1 (
+ ( ~v) ;
= 2 j
x
3 xi
xi
(7.71)
x x j xi
3 xi x j
xi x j
(
~ ~v)
2 i
~
(7.72)
+
;
= v +
3
xi
the left-hand side of (7.71) can be transformed by means of the
continuity equation,
~v
~ + (~v )~
~ v + ~v (
~ ~v) =
+ ~v + ~v (~v )
t
t
!
~v
~
~
~ v=
= + ~v
+ (~v ) + ~v + (~v )~
t
t
d~v
= ;
(7.73)
dt
~
d~v
~ +
~ 2 vi + + ( ~v) ,
= P
dt
3
xi
(7.74)
T
i
ij
+ + i
+w v
v j = 0 ;
t 2
x
2
xi
this expression can be simplified as follows:
(7.75)
81
(7.76)
T
~ i j v j = 0 ; (7.78)
(~
v
)P
t
xi
xi xi
xi
using the definition of the enthalpy (7.16), we can transform
(wvi ) [( + P)vi ]
~ + P) + ( + P)
~ ~v , (7.79)
=
= (~v )(
xi
xi
and the energy conservation equation can be cast into the form
~
~ ~v =
~ (T
~ ) + i j vi ;
+ (~v) + P
t
x j
7.2.4
(7.80)
Entropy
~
+ (~v) =
+ (~v) +
+ ~v
t
t
t
d
(7.81)
= ;
dt
this first implies the equation
d
~ ~v =
~ (T
~ ) + i j vi ;
+ P
dt
x j
(7.82)
(7.83)
(7.84)
82
thus, the left-hand side of the energy equation (7.82) can be cast
into the form
!
ds
d
d
dV
~ ~v =
= T
+ P
+P
dt
dt
dt
dt
"
#
s
~
(7.85)
+ (~v )s
,
= T
t
where s is again the specific entropy; therefore, we finally obtain
"
#
ds
s
~
~ (T
~ ) + i j vi ;
(7.86)
T
= T
+ (~v )s =
dt
t
x j
this describes how the entropy is changed due to heat conduction
and viscous dissipation; obviously, the entropy is conserved if
= 0 = i j ;
7.3
7.3.1
Generalisations
Additional External Forces; Gravity
(7.88)
(7.89)
whose trace is
T ii
!
1
1 3
=
;
=
i
k
4G x xi 2 xk x
8G xi xi
(7.90)
83
(7.92)
and dropped the boundary term which results from the divergence
~ ()
~ when we use Gauss theorem;
(7.93)
~ 2
()
= ~v + 3P
,
8G
whose volume integral is
!
Z
Z
1
3
i
3
2
d x T i ges =
d x ~v + 3P +
2
V
V
Z
= 2T + U + 3 d3 x P ,
T ii ges
(7.94)
(7.95)
= 2 d3 x T ii ;
2t
dt2
d
V
V
(7.96)
which means that the integral over the trace of T i j must vanish if
the system under consideration is static;
7.3.2
(7.97)
84
M
GM 2
+ 3PV = 0
m
R
(7.99)
for a static configuration; with V = 4R3 /3, we find for the pressure
!
1 GM 2 3kT M
;
(7.100)
P=
4
R4
mR3
the external pressure must thus be reduced by the amount of the
gravitational force compared to the thermal pressure NkT/V of
the gas in the sphere;
at the critical mass
Mcr =
3kT R4
3kT R
=
,
3
mR G
mG
(7.101)
7.3.3
(7.102)
where Uint is the internal energy of the gas and the adiabatic
index; for such a static system, the tensor virial theorem requires
3( 1)Uint + Ugrav = 0 ,
(7.103)
3 4
Ugrav ;
3( 1)
(7.104)
(7.105)
4
;
3
(7.106)
85
(7.107)
for 4/3, the first term on the right-hand side vanishes, and
because of E < 0, we must have
d2 I
<0,
dt2
which typically implies a collapse;
(7.108)
Chapter 8
Flows of Ideal and Viscous
Fluids
8.1
8.1.1
(8.1)
(8.2)
(8.4)
(8.5)
86
(8.6)
87
(8.7)
~ P
~ (~v )
~
=
t
~
~
~ (~v )
~ + P ;
=
2
(8.8)
~
~ =0;
P
(8.9)
(8.10)
we consider now the so-called circulation, which is the line integral over the velocity along closed curves,
I
~v d~l ;
(8.11)
C
(8.12)
A
~ is the directed
where A is the area enclosed by the contour C; dA
area element pointing along the local normal to the area A;
the total time derivative of now is
Z
Z
~
d
~
~ A ,
=
dA +
dt
t
A t
A
(8.13)
and the change of the area due to the deformation of the contour
is
I
~ (~v d~l) ,
(8.14)
C
for (~vdt) d~l gives the differential change of area per time interval
dt;
Z ~
~
~ ~v) dA
=
+ (
~=0,
t
88
(8.15)
~ (~v )
~ (
~ ~v) =
~ ;
(8.16)
8.1.2
Bernoullis Constant
(8.17)
thus
~ =0
(~v )s
(8.18)
(8.19)
+P
P
=+ ,
(8.20)
and with
d = T ds PdV = T ds Pd(1 )
(8.21)
dw = T ds + 1 dP = 1 dP ,
(8.22)
we find
since ds = 0 along flow lines;
89
(8.23)
~v2
+w+
2
(8.24)
(8.25)
(8.26)
8.1.3
Hydrostatic Equlibrium
(8.27)
~ 2 = 4G
(8.28)
relates the gravitational potential to the density; taking the divergence of (8.27) yields
~
~ P = 4G ;
(8.29)
only assumptions on mechanical, but not on thermodynamical
equilibrium entered here; the curl of (8.27) shows that
~ ()
~ =
~
~ ,
0=
(8.30)
which shows that the gradients of and are then parallel to each
other, i.e. and have the same iso-surfaces, i.e. equipotential
surfaces are then also iso-density contours;
90
2
~ f~ = 1 d(r fr )
r2 dr
with
fr f~ ~er ,
!
1 d r2 dP
= 4G ;
r2 dr dr
(8.31)
(8.32)
gas
kT ,
m
(8.34)
(8.35)
8.1.4
~ ~v = 0 = ,
~ the velocity field
if the velocity field is curl-free,
~ and
can be written as the gradient of a velocity potential, ~v = ,
Eulers equation (8.6) then reads
~
~
()
1~ 2
P
~ ,
+ ~
v =
t
2
(8.37)
v
~
+w+ + =0;
t
2
91
(8.38)
the quantity
~v2
+w+ +
t
2
can then only be a function of time,
B0
B0 = f (t) ,
(8.39)
(8.40)
which can be set to zero because it can be absorbed into the ve~ thus,
locity potential without changing the relation ~v = ;
~v2
B =
+w+ +=0,
t
2
0
(8.41)
(8.42)
i.e. the flow is then described solely by one equation for the ve~ ~v = 0;
locity field, because the continuity equation shrinks to
~ ~v = 0, i.e. if the flow is
if the velocity field is also curl-free,
~ ~v = 0 and ~v =
~ imply that the
incompressible and curl-free,
velocity potential has to satisfy the Laplace equation,
~ 2 = 0 ;
8.2
8.2.1
(8.43)
(8.44)
taking the curl of this equation and using the vector identity
h
i
h
i
~ (~v )~
~ v =
~ ~v (
~ ~v) ,
(8.45)
92
~ (~v )
~ 2
~ =
~
~
~ ~
2
~
~
P ~v + ( ~v) ;
+
2
3
(8.46)
here, the first term on the right-hand side describes the diffusion
of vorticity caused by the viscosity , and the second term arises
exclusively through the density gradient;
thus, if the flow is incompressible, = const., the second term
on the right-hand side of (8.47) drops out, and the equation is
reduced to
~
~ (~v )
~ 2
~ =
~ ;
(8.47)
t
~ (~v )
~ v (~v )
~
~ = (
~ )~
~ ,
(8.48)
~ v + (~v )
~
~ 2
~ )~
~ =
~ ,
(
t
(8.49)
~
or, if we identify the total time derivative of ,
~
d
~ v =
~ 2
~ )~
~ ;
(
dt
(8.50)
~ ~v = 0 for
the divergence of Eulers equation implies, with
incompressible fluids,
h
i
~2
~ (~v )~
~ v = P ;
(8.51)
8.2.2
,
(8.52)
93
whose dimension is
erg s cm3 cm2
=
,
cm3 g
s
(8.53)
thus squared length over time; a body characterised by a geometrical dimension L moving with velocity u through a viscous fluid
thus introduces the length scale L and the time scale L/u; from
them and , we can form the following dimension-less quantity:
L2 1
uL uL
R=
=
,
L/u
(8.54)
8.3
8.3.1
(8.55)
the background density 0 must also satisfy the continuity equation, which reads
0
=0
(8.56)
t
94
(8.57)
(8.58)
t
0
(8.62)
P0 = 0
;
(8.63)
t
we thus find the wave equation
!
2
P ~ 2
=0;
(8.64)
t2
s
8.3.2
95
Sound Speed
this is the usual dAlembert equation, whose solutions are arbitrary functions f (x) which propagate with a velocity cs in either
direction, f (x cs t), where
"
! #1/2
P
cs
(8.65)
s
is the sound speed; obviously,
2 f (x cs t) [cs f 0 (x cs t)]
=
= c2s f 00 (x cs t)
2
t
t
(8.66)
and
2 f (x cs t)
= f 00 (x cs t) ,
(8.67)
2
x
if the primes denote derivatives of f (x) with respect to its argument; these solutions represent arbitrarily shaped waves propagating at the sound speed cs into the positive or negative x direction;
the condition imposed during the derivation of this wave equation
was that the perturbations are small; since
v0x =
as well as
P0 = 0
= f 0 (x cs t)
x
(8.68)
= 0 f 0 (x cs t)
t
(8.69)
P0 = c2s 0 ,
(8.70)
and
we find
P0
cs 0
=
;
(8.71)
0 cs
0
thus, this condition is satisfied as long as |v| cs , i.e. for subsonic flows;
v0x =
8.4
96
Supersonic Flows
8.4.1
cs
;
v
(8.73)
this means that sound waves cannot reach an area in the direction
of the flow because they are passed by the flow; from the point
of view of a body which is at rest in the laboratory frame, this
implies that the flow is meeting with the body blindly, without
having been informed about its presence by sound waves; this
has far-reaching implications;
as an example for the (steady) transition from sub- to supersonic
flow, we consider a nozzle with variable circular cross section A;
mass conservation requires
vA = const.
(8.74)
or
d(v)
dA
=
;
v
A
from Eulers equation, we obtain in the stationary case
~v
~
~v P
d~v
1 dP
=
=
,
dt
dt
(8.75)
(8.76)
for P/t = 0 due to the assumed stationarity; in the rotationallysymmetric and thus effectively one-dimensional case considered,
this implies
dv
1 dP
=
dt
dt
!
c2
1 P
dP
vdv =
=
d = s d ,
(8.77)
d
vdv
= 2 ;
cs
97
(8.78)
v
cs v
or
!
c2s
d
dA
1 2 ;
=
A
(8.79)
(8.80)
dv
>0
v
(8.82)
and
dA
dv
<0
<0,
(8.83)
A
v
i.e. a supersonic flow accelerates in a widening nozzle; we now
consider a nozzle which is assembled as follows (graphic to be
inserted); if sub-sonic gas is entering the nozzle, v < cs , it accelerates; if it remains subsonic up to the smallest cross section,
its velocity decreases again; however, if it reaches v = cs at the
narrowest cross section of the nozzle, the gas accelerates further
beyond the sound speed;
8.4.2
Spherical Accretion
(8.84)
98
if the accretion flow is stationary and thus /t = 0; the quantity r2 v is therefore spatially constant, and we set it equal to the
accretion rate,
,
4r2 v M
(8.85)
i.e. the mass accepted by the central body per unit time, which is
defined with a negative sign because v < 0; likewise for a stationary, spherically-symmetric flow, Eulers equation says
~ v=v
(~v )~
dv
1 dP GM
=
,
dr
dr
r
(8.86)
GM
r
d
~ = GM ;
= ~er
dr
r2
(8.87)
(8.88)
we now use these three equations and rewrite them; first, we can
conclude from the continuity equation
"
#
1 d(r2 v)
1 d(r2 v)
2 d
=0 = 2
+r v
r2 dr
r
dr
dr
2
d
d(r v)
+v ,
(8.89)
= 2
r dr
dr
thus
1 d(r2 v)
1 d
= 2
;
dr
r v dr
(8.90)
dv c2s d
dv c2 d(r2 v) GM
+
= v 2s
+ 2 =0,
dr dr
dr r v dr
r
(8.91)
dv 1 dv2
v =
dr 2 dr
to arrive at the more convenient equation
!
!
c2s dv2
2c2s r
GM
1
1 2
= 2 1
;
2
v dr
r
GM
(8.92)
(8.93)
99
(8.94)
GM
;
2c2s
(8.96)
c2s =
(8.97)
yields
rc =
GMm
;
2kT
(8.98)
this critical radius is typically far beyond the radius of the central
object, i.e. the accretion flow passes into the supersonic regime
there;
Eulers equation can be integrated; first,
"
! #
Z
Z
Z
dr dP
dr d
P0
d
P0
=
=
dr 2
dr
dr
0
dr
! 0
Z
1
1
P0
d
P0
=
dr
=
, (8.99)
dr 1
0
( 1)0
then, we can use the squared sound speed
P0 1
(8.100)
c2s
dr dP
=
,
dr
1
(8.101)
c2s =
from (8.97) to find
Z
100
(8.102)
(8.103)
at r = rc =
GM
,
2c2s
(8.104)
(8.105)
!
c2 ()
1
1
= s
2+
,
1
2
1
(8.106)
and thus
"
1
cs (rc ) = cs ()
1 3/2( 1)
#1/2
2
;
5 3
= cs
(8.107)
(8.109)
and therefore
=
M
4rc2 ()
2
5 3
!1/(1)
2
cs ()
5 3
()
2
= G M 3
cs () 5 3
!1/(1)+1/22
2
()
= G M 3
cs () 5 3
!(53)/[2(1)]
!1/2
(8.110)
the solution for the velocity finally follows from mass conservation,
4r2 v = M
v =
4r2 (r)
(8.111)
M
cs ()
4r2 () cs (r)
"
#2/(1)
;
101
inserting this into equation (8.102) yields the solution for v(r),
and mass conservation then yields (r); indeed, the maximum
accretion rate at given r is reached exactly when that radius is
critical, r = rc ; i.e. if the flow velocity reaches the sound velocity
there;
Chapter 9
Shock Waves and the Sedov
Solution
9.1
9.1.1
(9.2)
dt + dx ,
t
x
(9.3)
=
t
!1
=
d(v)
dv
=v+ ,
d
d
(9.4)
(9.5)
(9.6)
however, since is a function of v alone, the change of x with constant must equal the change of x with constant v, and therefore
the two partial derivatives (9.4) and (9.6) must equal,
v+
1 dP
1 dP d
dv
=v+
=v+
;
d
dv
d dv
(9.7)
!2
=
c2s
,
2
(9.8)
cs
for our polytropic equation of state,
!
P = P0
and
0
P=
kT
,
m
(9.9)
(9.10)
P
1
=
= P0 = P0
0
0
!
=
kT
,
m
(9.11)
or T 1/(1) ,
(9.12)
(9.15)
cs
d
= d ln
= d ln
0
c0
2 dcs
cs
2
,
d ln =
=
1
c0 1 cs
(9.16)
1
2
putting this into (9.15) finally yields
!
+1
x = c0 +
v t + f (v) ;
2
9.1.2
(9.18)
Specific Example
a
xp = t2 ,
2
(9.19)
and since the velocity of the gas has to equal the velocity of the
piston vp at the pistons position xp , we find from (9.18) at the
position of the piston
!
a2
+1
t = c0 +
at t + f (v) ;
(9.20)
2
2
using t = v/a, we can solve for f (v),
v v
c0 v v2
f (v) = c0 +
=
,
2 a
a
2a
(9.21)
which gives us the general solution for the relation between x and
t to the right of the piston
!
c0 v v2
+1
v t
;
(9.22)
x = c0 +
2
a
2a
the velocity at position x and time t is thus determined by
!
v2
c0 1
+
t v (c0 t x) = 0 ,
(9.23)
2a
a
2
which can be solved for v to yield
s
!
!2
1 +1
+1
v =
at c0
at c0 + 2a(c0 t x) ;
2
2
(9.24)
this is the velocity of the gas for all points x to the right of the
piston, i.e. for x at2 /2;
for x = 0 and t = 0, the velocity must vanish, which selects from
the two branches of the solution (9.24) the one with the positive
sign,
s
!
!2
1 + 1
+1
v =
at c0
at c0 + 2a(c0 t x) ;
2
2
(9.25)
a discontinuity is formed where the velocity changes suddenly,
which is where
!
!
v
x
=
=0
(9.26)
x t
v t
!
!2
!
3c0 4t
4t
10 t
x
v=
1 +
1 +
, (9.30)
5 3
3
3 c0
where x must obey
x
at2 c0 t2 c0 t 2
=
=
2
2
2
1 t 2
x
;
c0 2
(9.31)
now, we define
x
2
t
v
;
; ,
c0 2
c0
which enables us to write (9.22) as
s
!
!2
!
4
10
2
3 4
=
1 +
1 +
,
5 3
3
3
2
(9.32)
(9.33)
(9.34)
(9.35)
c2
= c
2
15
;
32
(9.36)
1
v = c0 1 +
2
3
(9.37)
c =
(9.38)
9.2
9.2.1
Shock Waves
The Shock Jump Conditions
~v21
(9.40)
the enthalpy and the sound speed for a polytropic gas are
w=
P
,
1
c2s =
P
;
(9.41)
(9.42)
with the Mach number M1 > 1, the equations (9.40) can be rewritten in the following way
( + 1)M21
2
v1
=
=
2
1
( + 1) + ( 1)(M1 1) v2
( + 1) + 2(M21 1)
P2
=
,
P1
+1
(9.43)
(9.44)
(9.46)
for a gas with adiabatic index = 5/3, the maximum density ratio
is therefore
+1
=4,
(9.47)
1
which is called the maximum shock strength; in the same limit,
P2
,
P1
9.2.2
T2
;
T1
(9.48)
v02 = u vs = u + v01 ,
(9.49)
(9.50)
(9.51)
(9.52)
and therefore
1h
i
1 2 02
2
02
1 v1 + 22 v02
=
j
+
(P
P
)
+
v
, (9.53)
j2 =
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
where we have used the jump condition for the momentum from
(9.40); we thus obtain
"
#
1 2
2
2 1
j =
j + (P2 P1 )1 + j
(9.54)
2
2
or
j2 =
P1 P2
1 2 ;
1 2
(9.55)
v01
1 v02 1 v01
1 1 0
=
2 v2 1 v01
= u=
1
1 2
1 2
= j
;
1 2
(9.56)
(9.57)
(9.58)
(9.59)
1
;
1+
4c2s
2c2s
the pressure ratio needs to exceed unity, 1, which excludes
the negative branch; the solution for the pressure ratio can thus be
simplified to
s
( + 1)u2 u
( + 1)2 u2
=1+
+
1
+
;
(9.62)
4c2s
cs
16c2s
note that, if the piston is at rest, u = 0 and = 1, as expected;
equations (9.56) and (9.58) together yield v01 ,
u = 2v01
1
,
1 + ( + 1)
(9.63)
(9.64)
this is the velocity of the unshocked gas in the rest frame of the
shock front; obviously, the velocity of the shock front in the rest
frame of the unshocked gas is
vs = v01 ,
(9.65)
hence (9.65) also yields the (negative) velocity of the shock front
in our laboratory system;
the physical conditions in the unshocked gas, expressed by
(1 , P1 , T 1 ) and the velocity u of the piston, first yield P2 /P1
from (9.62), from which 2 and T 2 immediately follow using the
shock jump conditions; the velocity of the shock relative to the
velocity of the piston is given by (9.64); if u cs , we find
( + 1)u2
,
2c2s
(9.66)
9.2.3
v
v
v
v
v
,
x
x
x
(9.71)
v2 4 v
2
3 x
8 v
;
3v v
(9.72)
8
;
3v
(9.73)
9.3
9.3.1
Dimensional Analysis
,
(9.74)
2 P1 ( 1) + P2 ( + 1) + 1
which implies that 1 and 2 are completely determined by one
another; the behaviour of the shock must thus be entirely determined by the explosion energy E and the surrounding matter density 1 ;
if we now consider the shock at a time t when it has reached
the radius R(t), the only quantity with the dimension of a length,
which can be formed from E, t and 1 is
Et2
1
!1/5
;
(9.75)
Et2
1
!1/5
(9.76)
!1/5
2t2/51 2 R
=
;
5
5t
(9.77)
we now use the jump conditions which we had obtained for the
piston in the tube; first, the velocity of the piston is, according
to (9.67),
2vs
u=
,
(9.78)
+1
(9.80)
(9.81)
(9.82)
(9.83)
R5
;
t2
(9.85)
(9.86)
i.e. the scaling relation (9.76) simply expresses energy conservation within the shock;
we now know how the velocity, the radius, the pressure and the
density at the shock; they are completely determined by the release of an amount of energy E into surrounding material with
the density 1 whose energy can be neglected;
9.3.2
Similarity Solution
(9.87)
R
as a dimension-less radial variable; we will now use to express the radius in v(r, t), (r, t) and P(r, t) and solve the hydrodynamic equations to determine the properties of the gas everywhere within the shock;
the velocity at the shock is given by (9.76); imitating this behaviour, we put
2r
v(, t) =
V()
(9.88)
5t
with a dimension-less function V() which needs to be determined; the gas velocity at the inner rim of the shock, given by
(9.78), requires that V() satisfy the boundary condition
V(1) =
2
;
+1
(9.89)
(9.90)
for the density and must, because of (9.74), satisfy the boundary
condition
+1
G(1) =
(9.91)
1
for the as yet unknown function G();
we finally express the pressure by the sound speed, using (9.42)
together with (9.74), (9.77) and (9.79) to write
c2s
21 2 2( 1) 2 R
P2
=
=
v =
2
( + 1)2 s
( + 1)2 5 t
!2
,
(9.92)
4 r2
Z() ,
25 t2
(9.93)
2( 1)
;
( + 1)2
(9.94)
(9.96)
(9.97)
(9.98)
c2
P
+P
=
= s ,
1 1
(9.99)
c2s
1 P
=
=
;
1 ( 1)
(9.100)
(9.101)
where we now insert the ansatze for v and c2s , (9.88) and (9.93);
the result can be written as
!
Z
V2
Z
V2
V
+
=
+
,
(9.102)
1
2
( 1)
2
from which follows
Z=
( 1)(1 V)V 2
;
2(V 1)
(9.103)
ln = 0 ,
+v
t
r
(9.104)
=
=
t t d
5t d
(9.105)
G0
+ 3V = 0
G
(9.106)
noticing that
1
P
P 1 c2s 1 4r2 1
= = =
ZG1
25t2
(9.107)
t
and substituting this into the entropy-conservation equation
(9.104) yields
Z 0
G0 5 2V
+ (1 )
+
=0;
Z
G
1V
(9.109)
eliminating G0 /G from the continuity equation (9.106), this latter equation becomes
5 2V
Z 0 1
+
3V + V 0 +
=0,
Z
1V
1V
which is supplemented by (9.103), which implies
!
Z 0
2
1
V 0 ;
Z
V 1 V V 1
(9.110)
(9.111)
Chapter 10
Instabilities, Convection, Heat
Conduction, Turbulence
10.1
Rayleigh-Taylor Instability
+ w + gz = 0 ;
(10.1)
t
for an incompressible fluid, and the enthalpy turns into
w=
P
P
;
1
118
(10.2)
+ P + gz = 0
t
P = gz
;
t
(10.3)
(10.4)
(10.5)
(10.7)
= 2 2 1 2
g(1 2 )
(10.8)
z
t 2
t 1
~ ~v = 0, implies that the velocity potential
the incompressibility,
~ 2 = 0, and since is indepen satisfies Laplaces equation,
dent of y by construction, we can set
= f (z) cos(t kx) ;
(10.9)
(10.10)
(10.12)
if we insert these solutions into the equation (10.8) for the pressure balance, we find
g(1 2 )A1 sinh[k(z + h1 )] k cos(kx t) =
1 A1 cosh[k(z + h1 )]2 cos(kx t)
(10.13)
+ 2 A2 cosh[k(z h2 )]2 cos(kx t) ;
from (10.13), we obtain the ratio A1 /A2 ,
A2 g(1 2 ) k sinh[k(z + h1 )] + 1 2 cosh[k(z + h1 )]
=
,
A1
2 2 cosh[k(z h2 )]
(10.14)
and a similar expression follows if 1 and 2 are swapped; equating both yields the dispersion relation
2 =
kg(1 2 )
;
1 coth kh1 + 2 coth kh2
(10.15)
kg1
= kg tanh kh1 ,
1 coth kh1
(10.16)
(10.17)
(10.18)
1 2
;
1 + 2
(10.19)
this is the limiting case of very deep layers; in the limit of long
waves, kh1 1 and kh2 1, the dispersion relation becomes
2 k2
g(1 2 )h1 h2
;
1 h2 + 2 h1
(10.20)
10.2
Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability
we now consider a situation in which one fluid flows with a velocity ~v parallel to the surface of a fluid at rest, for instance like
wind over a lake;
we choose the coordinate system such that the z axis is orthogonal
to the boundary surface and direction of motion (i.e. the direction
of ~v) points into the x direction;
writing Eulers equation in the form
~
d~v
P
=
dt
(10.21)
and taking the divergence, we see that the pressure must satisfy
Laplaces equation
~ 2P = 0
(10.22)
~ ~v = 0 and = const.;
if the fluid is incompressible,
as before, the ansatz P = f (z) exp[i(kx t)] leads to the oscillator equation
d2 f (z)
k2 f (z) = 0 ,
(10.23)
dz2
with the solutions f (z) exp(kz); the exponentially growing
solution exp(kz) is ruled out physically because it diverges at
large distances from the boundary surface, and thus the pressure
perturbation must behave as
P2 ekz ei(kxt)
above the boundary surface;
(10.24)
(10.25)
kP2
,
2
kP2
;
i2 (kv )
(10.26)
(10.27)
let now again (x, t) be the boundary surface between the two
fluids, then we must have
d
= vz =
+v
(10.28)
dt
t
x
to linear order, and the ansatz exp[i(kx t)] implies
i + ikv = vz = i(kv ) ,
(10.29)
2
(kv )2 ;
k
(10.30)
vz =
k P1 ik P1
=
;
i1
1
(10.31)
or
= i = vz ,
t
(10.32)
1 2
P1 =
;
k
(10.33)
=
2 i 1 2 ;
1 + 2
(10.35)
=()
1
1 + 2
;
kv 1 2
(10.36)
2
1
(10.37)
if 1 2 ,
ikv
follows, which holds for example for wind blowing over water;
10.3
Thermal Instability
(10.38)
L(, T ) = C T (heating) ;
(10.39)
this cooling function L(, T ) can adopt various forms, in particular because cooling processes are often related to thermal occupation numbers and atomic or molecular excitations; because of the
Boltzmann factor, sometimes small temperature changes can give
rise to large changes in occupation numbers, and the atomic or
molecular energy levels introduce discrete thresholds; the curve
L(, T ) = 0 thus typically looks as shown in the figure (to be
inserted);
at the same time, let the system be in pressure equilibrium with
its surroundings, i.e. the pressure P be externally regulated; for
an ideal gas, we have
P T ,
(10.40)
such that pressure equilibrium may be represented by a straight
inclined line; in this example, the curve P = const. intersects the
curve L = 0 in three points where both mechanical and thermal
equilibrium are possible;
~ 2
~
~v v
~ ~v) = P
+
~v (
t
2
#
"
s
~
+ (~v )s
= L(, T ) ,
T
t
(10.41)
!
(10.42)
kT
= RT
m
(10.43)
with the mol number and the gas constant R; the specific heat
capacities at constant volume and constant pressure are
cv =
R
1
(10.44)
and
!
1
R
cp = cv + R = R
+1 =
= cv
1
1
(10.45)
~
~v
P
=
t
0
(10.46)
= cv ln(P0 + P) ln(0 + )
( "
!#
"
!#)
P
= cv ln P0 1 +
ln 0 1 +
P0
0
#
"
= cv ln P0 ln 0 +
P0
0
!
P
= s0 + cv
cp ; (10.48)
= s0 + cv
P0
0
P0
0
this allows us to write the left-hand side of the entropy equation
(10.41) as
!
!
P
~
(T 0 + T )
+ ~v s0 + cv
cp
(10.49)
t
P0
0
!
!
s0
~
= T0
+ ~v s0 + cv
cp
+ T
;
t
P0
0
t
equilibriums requires that
!
~ s0 = 0
T0
+ ~v
t
T0
s0
=0
t
(10.50)
T0
cv
cp
;
(10.51)
t
P0
0
on the right-hand side, we have
L
L
L(0 + , T 0 + T ) = L(0 , T 0 )
T ; (10.52)
| {z }
T
=0
L
=
dP +
dT +
dT
T P T
T P
T
!
!
L
L
=
(10.53)
dT P +
dT ;
T P
T
at constant pressure or constant density ,
dT P = T
d
,
dT = T
dP
,
P
0
T
(10.54)
and thus
cv P cv
L
=
P0 t
0 t
T
!
P
P
;
P0
(10.55)
" 2
#
P0 ~ 2
cv 2 cp =
t
t
0
!
!
L P0 ~ 2
L 2
;
(10.56)
T 0
T P t2
dividing by cv , recalling that
cp
=,
cv
P0
= c2s ,
0
(10.57)
(10.58)
(10.59)
(10.60)
which yields
(c2s k2 2 )i = Nv 2 N p c2s k2 ;
(10.61)
iN p ,
(10.62)
(10.63)
(10.65)
(10.66)
10.4
10.4.1
Heat conduction
i
ds ~
~ ) + i j v ;
= (T
dt
x j
(10.67)
ds = cp d ln T ;
(10.69)
dT
~ 2T
=
dt
or
dT
~ 2T
=
dt
with
; (10.70)
cp
c ~
~ ,
(aT 4 ) T
3cond
(10.71)
4caT 3
;
3cond
(10.72)
eff =
rad cond
;
rad + cond
(10.73)
1
,
ni
(10.75)
where ni and are the number density and the scattering cross
section of the ions;
typically, an electron will approach an ion up to a distance ri
where the kinetic and potential energies equal,
mv2 Ze2
2
ri
ri
2Ze2
;
mv2
(10.76)
(10.77)
!
ne
cv v5e
ni
(10.78)
3kT e
,
me
(10.79)
ne
ni
3kT e
me
!5/2
(10.80)
for classical (non-degenerate) electrons; if we identify the Thomson cross section T , we can alternatively write
!
!5/2
3 3kc ne kT e
= 2
(10.81)
Z T ni me
with the obvious unit
erg
;
cm s K
[] =
(10.82)
numerically,
5.5 10 Z
12
10.4.2
ne
ni
kT e
1 keV
!5/2
;
(10.83)
Convection
(10.84)
ds
s = s + z
dz z
(10.85)
for stability;
with
and because of
cp dT = T ds
V
s
!
P
T V
=
cp T
!
>0,
P
(10.86)
V
s = V(P , s) +
s
P
ds
z ;
dz z
(10.87)
(10.88)
(10.89)
(10.90)
<
(10.91)
d ln z
d ln z
for the gas stratification to be stable against convection; the quantity
1
ad
(10.92)
is often called the adiabatic temperature gradient (nabla adiabatic); using this, we stability condition is written
d ln T
< ad ;
d ln P
(10.93)
10.5
Turbulence
uL
& Rcr ;
(10.94)
(10.95)
2
v
|{z}
|{z}
typical energy time scale
energy is being fed into the turbulent cascade on the macroscopic
scale L where the typical velocity is u; from there, the energy cascades through the turbulent eddies to progressively smaller scales
until it is finally viscously dissipated on a scale v ; in between,
i.e. on scales satisfying
s < < L ,
(10.96)
1/3
;
(10.98)
L
the largest eddies thus carry the highest velocities, but the smallest
have the highest vorticity,
v
u
2 1/3 ;
( L)
(10.99)
v 2
v3
!2/3
4/3 = 2/3 4/3 ;
(10.100)
(10.101)
2/3 4/3
v v =
(10.102)
1/3
or, because of
u3
,
L
(10.103)
(10.104)
(10.105)
(10.106)
(10.107)
(10.108)
Chapter 11
Collision-Less Plasmas
11.1
Basic Concepts
11.1.1
(11.1)
(11.2)
(11.3)
134
!
(11.5)
kT
(11.6)
2r
q
,
= exp
r
D
(11.7)
!1/2
T 1/2 n 1/2
= 6.9 cm
;
K
cm3
(11.8)
3
r
4n
!1/3
;
(11.10)
4n
3
!1/3
4ne2 3
=
3kT 4n
!2/3
1 r2
=
1
3 2D
(11.11)
for D r;
11.1.2
kT
,
me
(11.12)
135
which means that an electron passes the Debye length in the time
r
r
D
kT me
me
;
(11.13)
tD p
=
4ne2 kT
4ne2
hv2 i
this is the time sale on which the thermal motion of the electrons
can compensate charge displacements by shielding;
the time tD can be transformed into a characteristic frequency for
plasma oscillations,
s
n 1/2
4ne2
1
=
5.6 104 Hz
,
(11.14)
p
tD
me
cm3
which is the frequency with which charge inhomogeneities can
oscillate against each other; with D and p , we now have two
essential parameters for describing plasmas at hand;
11.2
11.2.1
(11.15)
(11.16)
changes to
~ E~ = 4( + pol ) = 4 4
~ P
~;
(11.17)
~ E~ + 4P,
~ is defined as an auxilthe dielectric displacement, D
iary field which satisfies
~ D
~ = 4 ;
(11.18)
~
~
P
P
~
+ ~jpol = 0 or ~jpol =
;
t
t
(11.19)
(11.20)
136
~ 4
P
1 E~ 4 ~ ~ 1 E~
~
~
j + jpol =
B=
+
+ 4 + ~j (11.21)
c t
c
c t
t
c
can then be written as
~
~ B
~ = 1 D + 4 ~j
c t
c
(11.22)
11.2.2
we now need a relation between the external field E~ and the po~ for sufficiently weak fields, we assume this relation
larisation P;
to be linear and write for the Fourier-transformed quantities
D i (, ~k) = ij (, ~k) E j (, ~k) ,
(11.23)
(11.24)
in Fourier space;
the principal-axis directions of the tensor ij can only depend on
the vector ~k, so that we can start from the ansatz
ij (, ~k)
ij +
= A
ki k j
B
k2
(11.25)
(11.26)
!
ki k j j
2 k = ki ki = 0
k
(11.27)
137
(11.29)
(11.30)
11.3
Dispersion Relations
11.3.1
the dielectric tensor determines which kinds of wave can propagate through the plasma; we shall now derive the dispersion relations between the wave vectors ~k and the frequencies of such
possible waves;
if the fields are decomposed into Fourier modes exp[i(~k~xt)],
Maxwells equations in the plasma read
~
~
~k E~ = B , ~k B
~ = D ,
c
c
~k D
~ = 0 , ~k B
~=0,
(11.31)
138
~ ;
D = k2 E~ ~k(~k E)
2
c
(11.33)
!
ki k j
2 i j
2 2 2 j E = 0 ;
k
ck
(11.34)
(11.35)
11.3.2
ij
ki k j
2
k
!
#
2
2 ki k j
1 t 2 2 2 4 l = 0 ;
ck
c k
(11.38)
for transversal waves, ki E i = 0, and the corresponding terms disappear from the matrix equation (11.35); what remains is
!
2 i
(11.39)
1 t 2 2 E = 0 ,
ck
which implies the dispersion relation
2 =
c2 k2
;
t
(11.40)
(11.41)
139
(11.42)
11.4
Longitudinal Waves
11.4.1
(11.43)
~ will change
i.e. we expect that sufficiently weak fields E~ and B
the phase-space distribution function only little away from a homogeneous and isotropic distribution function f0 ; to first approximation, Boltzmanns equation then reads
!
~
f
v
~ f e E~ + B
~ f0 = 0 ;
(11.44)
+ ~v
t
c
~p
for an isotropic distribution f0 , we must further have
f0
k ~v
~p
(11.45)
(11.46)
(11.47)
(11.48)
eE~
f0
;
i(~k ~v ) ~p
(11.49)
140
f0
2
~
~
ik P = e
d3 p E~
;
~p i(~k ~v )
(11.52)
1
i(~k ~v i)
(11.53)
which has no poles any more on the real axis, and later sending
to zero;
~ = D
~ E~ = (l 1)E~ and
for longitudinal waves, we have 4P
E~ = E~k/k; inserting this into (11.52) allows us to write the longitudinal part l of the dielectricity as
Z
1
4e2
f0
l = 1 2
d3 p ~k
;
(11.54)
k
~p (~k ~v i)
if we now place the coordinate system such that ~k points into the
positive ~x direction, the integral can be split up; we then have
~k f0 = k d f0
dp x
~p
(11.55)
and
f0
1
d3 p~k
~p i(~k ~v i)
Z
1
d f(p x )
= k
dp x
,
dp x i(kv x i)
Z
(11.56)
(11.57)
11.4.2
141
Landau Damping
obviously, the longitudinal dielectricity l has a real and an imaginary part; the latter implies dissipation of electrical energy, as we
shall shortly see; to begin with, the dissipation follows from
E~ 2 ~ ~ E~ E~ ~ ~
+ E j =
Q =
+EP
t 8
4
E~ D
~
E~ ~
~
,
=
E + 4P =
4
4
(11.58)
~ are to be taken as
where the missing hats indicate that E~ and D
functions of ~x and t here;
we consider the contribution of individual Fourier modes (, ~k) to
the dissipation Q, i.e. we set
~
E~ = E~ ei(k~xt) ,
~ =D
~ ei(~k~xt) ,
D
(11.59)
(11.60)
where the minus sign on the second term comes from the change
in sign in the phase factor exp[i(~k ~x t)] due to the complex
conjugation of the E~ field; inserting this into Q from (11.58) gives
Q=
i ~ ~ ~
E + E l E l E~ ;
16
(11.61)
(11.63)
~ 2 ;
=l |E|
8
(11.64)
and so we find
Q=
142
=
,
~k ~v i
(~k ~v )2 + 2 (~k ~v )2 + 2
(11.65)
and in the limit 0 this turns into a Dirac delta function,
=
==
(~k ~v )2 + 2
D (~k ~v ) ;
(11.66)
(11.67)
(11.68)
11.5
11.5.1
(2mkT
)
n
e
x
f(p x ) =
exp
=
,
(2mkT )3/2
2mkT
(2mkT )1/2
(11.69)
(11.70)
(11.71)
143
(11.74)
kve
and y
kve
(11.76)
z ez /2
dz
zx
(11.77)
dz
,
(11.78)
zx
zx
C
144
Z Z
i
2
dt
dz zez /2+i(zx)t
2 Z0
Z
i
2
ixt
dt e
dz zez /2+izt ; (11.80)
2 0
carrying out the z integration first, and splitting the remaining exponential exp(ixt) into trigonometric functions, yields
Z
2
W(x) =
dt t (cos xt i sin xt) et /2
0
r
Z x
x2 /2
y2 /2
x2 /2
xe
; (11.81)
= 1 xe
dy e
+i
2
0
series expansions of W(x) are useful for practical calculations; for
small x, |x| < 1,
r
r
x4
x2 /2
x4
2
2
W(x) 1 x + + i
xe
1 x + +i
x (11.82)
3
2
3
2
while, for large x,
3
1
W(x) 2 4 + i
x
x
x2 /2
xe
;
2
(11.83)
substituting this back into (11.75) and expanding the abbreviations (11.76), we find the longitudinal dielectricity
"
1
(kve )2 3(kve )4
l = 1
+
(kD )2 2
4
#
2 /(2k2 v2e )
i
e
2kve
!
2
3(kve )2
p
1
1+
2p 2 /(2k2 v2 )
e ;
e
+ i
(11.84)
3
2(kve )
in the limiting case kve ; we have inserted the plasma frequency p = ve /D in the first term here;
145
2
1
1
l = 1 +
+i
1 2 2
(kD )2
(kve )2
2k ve
2kve
!2
!2
1
;
+i
(11.85)
1+
kve
kve
2kve
a similar calculation leads to the transversal dielectricity
"
!
#
2p
t = 1 + 2 W
1 ;
(11.86)
kve
if ions need to be taken into account in addition to the electrons,
the dielectricities are summed according to
X
1 =
(i 1) ;
(11.87)
i=species
11.5.2
2p
2
(11.88)
2 = 2p + k2 c2 ;
2
p
2p
kc
cg =
=
=
=c 1 2 ;
(11.89)
(11.90)
Z
Z
Z
2p L 2e2
dl
t =
dl n , (11.91)
dlc 1 +
= +
cg
22
c mc2
where the quantity
Z
dl n DM
(11.92)
146
(11.93)
(11.95)
p 60 MHz ,
(11.96)
thus
which corresponds to a wavelength of
c
5m ,
p
(11.97)
2p
2
= p ;
(11.98)
"
#
3(kve )2 !
<l 1 2 1 +
=0,
2
implies
2p
34p k2 2D
+
1=0;
2
4
this quadradatic equation in 2 has the solutions
2 =
2p
2
q
1 + 12k2 2D
(11.99)
(11.100)
(11.101)
or
p 1 + 3k2 2D ;
(11.102)
Chapter 12
Magneto-Hydrodynamics
12.1
12.1.1
Assumptions
147
|~j0 |
;
c
(12.2)
148
~ B
~ 0 = 4 ~j0 ;
(12.5)
the rest frame of the plasma and the observers laboratory frame
are related by the Lorentz transformation, which can be written,
to lowest order in v/c, as
0 =
~j ~v
,
c2
~j0 = ~j ~v ;
(12.6)
(12.7)
c
~ | B|;
~
this also implies |E|
thus, the assumptions of magneto-hydrodynamics lead to the conditions
~
~
|~j|
~ | B|
~ , E j , |~v| 1 ;
, |E|
(12.8)
t c
c
c
from here, we can now derive the equations of magnetohydrodynamics;
12.1.2
(12.9)
~
v
~j ~j0 = E~ 0 = E~ +
,
c
(12.10)
and
149
~j ~v B
~
E~ =
(12.11)
~
~
~j ~v B
B
,
~
= c
t
(12.12)
(12.13)
and thus
!
~
B
c2 ~ ~
~
~ (~v B)
~
=
B +
t
4
2 h
i
~
~ B)
~ 2B
~ (~v B)
~
~
~ c (
=
4
2
~ (~v B)
~ 2B
~,
~ + c
=
4
(12.14)
~ B
~ = 0; this induction equation determines the evobecause of
lution of the magnetic field embedded into a plasma flow with the
velocity ~v; moreover, we have assumed that is spatially con~ = 0;
stant,
12.1.3
Eulers equation
we now need equations for the back reaction of the magnetic field
on the flow of the plasma; first, there is the continuity equation
for the mass density , which is of course unalteredly valid,
~
+ (~v) = 0 ;
t
(12.15)
Eulers equation which describes the conservation of momentum or, more precisely, the transport of the specific momentum
density, must be modified because of the Lorentz equation; the
Lorentz force on a charge e is
e
~ ;
(~v B)
c
(12.16)
(12.17)
d~v
~ + 1 (
~ B)
~ B
~;
= P
dt
4
(12.18)
150
the Lorentz force density on the right-hand side can also be rewritten,
!
1 ~ ~
1 i jl Bm k
~
B
( B) B =
4
4 jk m xl
Bm
1 il
km im lk Bk l
=
4
! x
i
1
B
B
k
=
Bk k Bk
4
x
xi
1 ~ ~2
1 ~ ~ ~
=
( B ) B
B ;
(12.19)
4
8
~ changes along B,
~ i.e. it quantifies
the first term specifies how B
the tension of the magnetic field lines, which obviously tend to
be as straight as possible; the second term is the gradient of the
magnetic energy density and augments the pressure gradient in
Eulers equation;
we had seen in normal, viscous hydrodynamics that Eulers equation can be written in the form
(vi ) T i j
+
=0,
t
x j
(12.20)
(12.21)
~ 2 i j
1 i j B
ij
ij
B B ,
T T
4
2
(12.22)
(12.23)
12.1.4
151
ds
vi ~
~ ),
(T
= i j j +
dt
x
(12.24)
162
(12.25)
2
2
ds
vi ~
~ )+ c
~ B
~ ;
(T
= i j j +
dt
x
162
(12.26)
~ 2
B
~v2
~ ~q = 0
+ + +
(12.27)
t 2
8
with the extended energy current density vector
!
~v2
T
c
i
+ w vi
ij v j + ijk E j Bk ,
q =
2
xi
4
which now contains the Poynting vector
~
c ~ ~
c ~j ~v B
B
~
~
S =
EB=
4
4
c
c2 ~ ~
~ 1 (~v B)
~ B
~,
( B) B
=
2
16
4
(12.28)
(12.29)
162
4
~ ~v = 0, these equations simplify
for incompressible flows with
somewhat; then, we first have to satisfy
~ B
~=0,
~ ~v = 0 ,
(12.31)
152
c2 ~ 2 ~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
= ~v( B) B( ~v) + ( B )~v (~v ) B +
B
4
2
~ v (~v )
~ B
~ 2B
~ )~
~+ c
~,
(12.32)
= (B
4
thus
2
~
B
~ B
~ v+ c
~ 2B
~ = (B
~ )~
~,
+ (~v )
t
4
~ ~v = 0
and Eulers equation reads with
(12.33)
~ 2
1
B
~v
~ v=
~ P + + 1 ( B
~ B
~ 2~v , (12.34)
~ )
~ +
+ (~v )~
t
8
4
where = / is the specific viscosity per unit mass; likewise, the
viscosity tensor ij in the energy conservation equation simplifies;
12.1.5
and
c2 ~ 2 ~
B;
4
(12.35)
~ (~v B),
~ determines the transport of the magnetic
the first term,
field with the fluid flow; it is called advection term; its order-ofmagnitude is
vB
,
(12.36)
L
if L is a typical length scale of the flow;
~ 2 B/(4),
~
the second term, c2
determines the diffusion of the
magnetic field due to the finite conductivity of the plasma; its
magnitude is of order
c2 B
,
(12.37)
4 L2
and it vanishes if the conductivity is ideally (infinitely) large;
the ratio of the two orders-of-magnitude,
advection 4 L2 vB 4vL
= 2
=
RM ,
diffusion
c B L
c2
(12.38)
153
(12.39)
t
in this case, there is no diffusion, and the magnetic field is
frozen into the plasma; the physical reason for that is that, if
the conductivity is ideally high, , each motion of the magnetic field with respect to the plasma immediately induces strong
currents which counter-act their origin, i.e. the motion of the field;
this is the typical case in astrophysical plasmas;
in the opposite limit, RM 1, which occurs of the conductivity
is small, the induction equation reads
~
B
c2 ~ 2 ~
=
B;
t
4
(12.40)
L2
;
c2
(12.41)
12.2
the induction equation constains no source term, i.e. it only de~ = 0 initially,
scribes how existing magnetic fields change, but if B
this remains so; this is a consequence of the assumption that ions
and electrons are ideally (tightly) coupled to each other;
if that is not the case, the motions of the electrons and the ions
need to be considered separately, in particular with different velocities ~ve and ~vi ; then, the two separate Euler equations for the
electrons and the ions are
!
~
d~ve
v
e
~ e ne e E~ + B
~ ,
~ ne me
ne me
= P
dt
c
!
~
d~vi
v
i
~ i ni e E~ + B
~ ; (12.42)
~ ni mi
ni mi
= P
dt
c
we divide these equations by ne me and ni mi and subtract the sec-
154
E+ B
me
c
!
e ~ ~vi ~
E+ B ;
mi
c
(12.43)
since the ion mass mi is much larger than the electron mass me ,
but ne = ni n, equation (12.43) can be approximated by
!
~ e
d(~ve ~vi )
P
e ~ ~ve ~
=
E+ B ;
(12.44)
dt
nme me
c
this equation must be accomplished by a phenomenological collision term through which different electron and ion velocities can
be justified or produced in the first place; introducing a collision
time , we write
!
~ e
~ve ~vi
d(~ve ~vi )
P
e ~ ~ve ~
=
E+ B
;
(12.45)
dt
nme me
c
dt
the current is
~j = eni~vi ene~ve = en(~vi ~ve ) ,
(12.46)
(12.47)
me
(~vi ~ve )
e
me ~j
;
ne2
(12.48)
this implies
~ e ~ve
~
~j
P
B
m
e
~ E~ = c
~
~
= c
en + c B
t
ne2
e
=
~ e
~
c ~ P
~ (~ve B)
~ j ; (12.49)
~ me c
+
2
e
ne
e
n
~
~
~ Pe = P
~ e n
ne
n2
155
(12.50)
~ P
~ e vanishes identically, and
because
~ ~
~
~
~ j = ~j n + j
n
n2
n
~
c ~
~ B)
~ + ~j n ;
=
(
4n
n2
(12.51)
n)
+
(~
v
B)
+
= 2 (P
B;
e
e
t
en
4ne2
(12.52)
ne2
(12.53)
me
of the conductivity, this equation is identical to the previous form
of the induction equation, except for the first term,
c ~
~ ,
(Pe n)
(12.54)
en2
whcih now appears as the source of the magnetic field; mechanisms like this for creating magnetic fields are called battery
mechanisms;
12.3
Ambipolar Diffusion
12.3.1
(12.55)
156
and thus
hvi = hvi = hvi(ri + rn )2 ;
(12.56)
(12.57)
(12.58)
(12.59)
Ze
Z e
F~ = ZeE~ n = 2Ze 5 ~er = 2 5 ~er
r
r
(12.60)
Z 2 e2
;
2 r4
(12.61)
the motion of the ion past the neutral particle can be characterised
by the minimum separation r0 , the impact parameter b and the
velocity v at infinity;
angular-momentum conservation requires
v b = r0 v0
(12.62)
mi mn
;
mi + mn
(12.63)
Z 2 e2
;
v = v20
2
2
2r04
(12.64)
bv
,
r
(12.65)
157
b2
=
Z 2 e2
,
v2
b4 Z 2 e2
;
4
v2
(12.66)
(12.67)
2
both roots are mathematically possible, but physically, only r0,+
is
relevant because in the limiting case of vanishing coupling , the
minimum radius must equal the impact parameter, r0 = b, since
then the ion is not scattered at all; r0 will become minimal of the
impact parameter is
!1/4
4Z 2 e2
b0 =
;
(12.68)
v2
since the force between the ion and the neutral particle decreases
very steeply with r, by far the strongest effect occurs for close
encounters; thus, we estimate the cross section as
r
2Ze
2
= b0 =
(12.69)
v
hv i = 2Ze
;
(12.70)
12.3.2
(12.71)
and the scattering rate per volume is ni nn hv i, thus the momentum transfer per time and volume is
f~r = ni nn hv i(~vi ~ve ) ,
(12.72)
(12.73)
(12.74)
hv i
;
mi + mn
(12.75)
158
in the two limiting cases of very small or very large relative velocity, we find
(ri + rn )2
|~vi ~vn | or
mi + mn
r
2Ze
=
mi + mn
(12.76)
if the Lorentz force and the friction force balance each other, the
relative drift velocity between the ions and the neutral particles is
correspondingly established; the Lorentz force density is
~j B
~
1 ~ ~
~,
f~L =
=
( B) B
c
4
(12.77)
1 ~ ~
~;
( B) B
4
(12.78)
~ B)
~ B
~
(
;
4i n
(12.79)
B2
;
4i n L
(12.80)
(12.81)
~ B)
~
~ B
~
B
~ B
+
(12.82)
~ 4 = 0 ;
t
i n
the second term is of order
B3
,
4i n L2
(12.83)
B2
vd L ;
4i n
(12.84)
Chapter 13
Waves in Magnetised Plasmas
13.1
13.1.1
(13.3)
i 0 0 0
3 2
0 i 0 3 0
1 M ,
(13.4)
1
0 0 i
0
159
160
(13.5)
Bi
eB0 Bi0
= B 0 ;
mc B0
B0
(13.6)
B
and used the definition
i
21
1 2 i3 1 3 i2
i
2 22
1 3 i2
1 2
3
1 3 i2 1 3 i2
2 23
(13.7)
det M = i(2 2B ) ,
(13.8)
with
which can be written in components as
j 1
i
j l
2 j
j
Mk
=
i
;
k
k
kl
(2 2B )
(13.9)
i
E
, (13.11)
vj =
k
kl
m(2 2B )
or, written in vector notation,
"
#
2B
ie
iB ~
~
~
~v =
E 2 (E ~eB )~eB
E ~eB ,
m(2 2B )
(13.12)
(13.13)
(13.14)
161
"
#
4e2 ne ~ 2B ~
iB ~
E 2 (E ~eB )~eB
+
E ~eB ;
m(2 2B )
if we can write this in the form D j = kj E k , we can read off the
dielectric tensor; we thus obtain
"
#
4e2 ne
4e2 ne 2B j
j
j
k = k 1
+
e eBk
m(2 2B )
m(2 2B ) 2 B
4ie2 ne B j l
+
e ,
(13.16)
m(2 2B ) kl B
which we abbreviate as
kj kj + (k )eBj eBk + igklj elB ;
if we identify the plasma frequency there,
r
4e2 ne
p =
,
m
(13.17)
(13.18)
,
2 2B
2p 2B
k = + 2
2B 2
!
2p
2p
2B
= 1 2
1
=
1
,
2
2
2B
2p B
;
g =
2 2B
= 1
13.1.2
(13.19)
Contribution by ions
(13.20)
there, the plasma and Larmor frequencies of the electrons and the
ions will then have to be distinguished;
162
ZeB0 Zme
=
Be Be ;
mi c
mi
(13.21)
4Z 2 e2 ni 4Z 2 e2 ne Zme 2
=
=
,
mi
mi
mi pe
(13.22)
(13.23)
Zme
mi
(13.25)
f (2 2Be ) 2 f 2 2Be
(13.26)
is satisfied, or
2
f f2 2
Be f (1 f )2Be ;
1+ f
(13.27)
13.1.3
!4
kc
+B
!2
+C = 0 ,
(13.29)
163
ki k j ek ~k
i jk 2 B =
k
k
(13.31)
~k
~eB = 0 ;
k
(13.32)
(13.33)
similarly, we find
and
C = k (2 g2 ) ,
(13.34)
13.1.4
B = 2 k ,
C = k (2 g2 )
(13.35)
2k
2p B
2p
= g = 1 2
2B 2 2B
2p
B
= 1 2
1
2B
= 1
2p
( B )
(13.36)
ki k j Ek j
Ek j kk
= E + (k ) 2
+ ig ijk
,
k k
k k
i
(13.38)
164
(13.40)
(13.41)
~k
1
E~ + ig E~ = 0 ;
E~
g
k
(13.42)
Ex
(13.43)
which is solved if
E x = iEy ,
(13.44)
13.1.5
Faraday rotation
the two solutions (13.36) for the dispersion relation thus describe
the propagation of left- and right-circular polarised transversal
waves which obey different dispersion relations; left- and rightcircular polarised light thus propagates differently along the magnetic field; the polarisation direction of linearly polarised light is
thus rotated; this effect is called Faraday rotation;
in the limit of p , we have
2
2
2
2
p
p
B
1
k2 = 2 1
1
,
2
2
c
( B )
c
(13.45)
165
or
k
2p
2p
2p B
B
1
=
c
22
c 2c 22 c
k0 k ;
(13.46)
the first term k0 corresponds to the wave vector in the unmagnetised medium, which the second term k causes a phase shift
between left- and right-circular polarised light, and therefore to a
rotation of linear polarisation by the angle
Z
Z 2
Z
p B
4e2 ne eB dz
=
kdz =
dz
=
22 c
m mc 22 c
Z
2e3
dz ne B ;
=
(13.47)
m2 c2 2
obviously, the Faraday rotation is proportional to 2 or, equivalently, to the squared wave length 2 ; the expression
Z
dz ne B RM
(13.48)
is called the rotation measure;
13.1.6
B = k 2 + g2 ,
C = k (2 g2 ) ;
+
k
2 2 k 2
k
2
C
g
= k or
=
,
k
where
B = k
C
k
(13.49)
(13.50)
(13.51)
was used;
the first of these solutions is a dispersion relation which is ob~ perpendicular to the magnetic field,
viously independent of B;
wave propagation is thus possible as in an unmagnetised plasma;
~ the
these waves are transversal and polarised in the direction of B;
other dispersion relation corresponds to waves with longitudinal
and transversal components;
13.2
Hydro-Magnetic Waves
13.2.1
166
~ B
~=0,
0 ,
P0 ,
~v0 = 0 ,
(13.53)
~v ;
(13.54)
P ,
~
B
~ (~v B)
~ ,
=
t
~
+ (~v) = 0 ;
(13.55)
t
with = const. for the homogeneous equilibrium solution, the
last equation implies
~ ~v = 0 ;
+
(13.56)
t
finally, Eulers equation reads to first order in the perturbations
~ + P)
~v
(P
=
t
+
nh
i
o
1
~ (B
~ + B)
~ B
~ + B
~
+
4( + )
~
~ B)
~ B
~
P
(
+
,
(13.57)
167
again under the assumption that the equilbrium solution is homo~ =0=
~ B;
~
geneous, thus P
again, we decompose the perturbations Q into plane waves,
h
i
Q exp i(~k ~x t) ,
(13.58)
and find
~=0,
i~k B
~ = i~k (~v B)
~
i B
(13.59)
i~v =
~ B
~
i~kP (i~k B)
+
(13.60)
~ B
~
ic2s ~
(i~k B)
k +
;
(13.62)
~k ~v
kv x
=
;
(13.63)
,
k
(13.64)
v x
;
ck
(13.65)
By =
v x By vy Bx
,
ck
Bz =
vz Bx
ck
(13.66)
168
kBy By
c2s k
=
,
4
kBx By
vy =
,
4
kBx Bz
vz =
;
4
(13.67)
with (13.64) and (13.65), we obtain from here the two sets of
equations
ck Bz = vz Bx ,
ck vz =
Bx Bz
4
(13.68)
and
Bx By
ck vy =
,
4
!
By By
c2s
c2s
=
ck v x v x = v x ck
;
(13.69)
ck
ck
4
ck By = v x By vy Bx ,
13.2.2
Alfven waves
vz B2x
4ck
ck =
Bx
= p
k
4
(13.70)
(13.71)
!1/2
(13.72)
169
(13.73)
~
B
;
= p
4
~k
(13.74)
13.2.3
v x By vy Bx
ck
(13.75)
c2k vy =
c2k c2s v x
(13.76)
further eliminating
Bx By v x 2
B2
vy =
ck x
4
4
!1
=
Bx By v x
4c2k B2x
(13.77)
(13.78)
!
B2x
1+
4
4c2k B2x
B2y
c2k
=
170
s
!2
c2s
c2s
B2 c2
B2
B2
(13.80)
=
+
+
x s
2 8
2 8
4
s
!2
2
2
c2s + c2A
cs + cA
=
c2s c2A cos2 ;
2
2
2
2
c2s + c2A
c2k =
c2s c2A
2
k
2
( c2 or
1 2
2
2
2
s
(13.81)
cs + cA |cs cA | =
=
2
c
2
A
to first order in ; accordingly, the fast wave propagates with the
faster of the sound and the Alfven speeds, the slow wave with the
slower;
in this approximation, By B, and the Alfven mode has
v x =
c3A
c2A
c2s
B
,
B
vy =
Bx By
,
4cA
(13.82)
vy cA
B
;
B
(13.83)
vy =
c2 B
Bx By
A
;
4cs
cs B
(13.84)
~ ~k, we find
if, finally, cos2 = 0 or B
c2k, =
1 2
cs + c2A c2s + c2A ,
2
thus
ck =
c2s + c2A
(13.85)
(13.86)
Chapter 14
Jeans Equations and Jeans
Theorem
14.1
14.1.1
171
further reading:
Binney,
Tremaine, Galactic Dynamics,
sections 4.14.4
(14.1)
of course, the directions of all forces cancel in the mean, but the
contribution of arbitrarily distant rings diverges logarithmically,
Z
Z
dr
2
dF = 2Gnm
= 2Gnm2 ln r ;
(14.3)
r
thus, the structure of the entire stellar system is important for the
dynamics of the stars in the gravitational field;
in the spirit of our distinction of microscopic and macroscopic
forces, which we had made when introducing hydrodynamics, the
forces in a system which is dominated by self-gravity are also
macroscopic; therefore, the collision terms, which describe the
interaction on a microscopic scale, can be neglected here at least
to first order of approximation;
thus, we begin our treatment of self-gravitating systems with the
collision-less Boltzmann equation,
d f (~x,~v, t) f ~
f
=0;
=
+ ~x f + ~v
dt
t
~v
14.1.2
(14.4)
Gm
Gm2 b
~ | =
F = |
= 2
,
(14.5)
b b2 + x2 (b + x2 )3/2
where is the gravitational potential;
(14.6)
(14.7)
let N be the number of stars in the galaxy and R be its radius, then
the fiducial test star experiences
N = 2bb n = 2bb
2N
N
= 2 bb
2
R
R
(14.8)
2Gm
.v
bv
b & bmin =
Gm
,
v2
(14.10)
GMm
R
GNm
;
v2
(14.13)
;
v2
N
(14.14)
(14.15)
;
v2
N
(14.16)
after ncross passages through the galaxy, the total relative velocity
change will approximately be
ncross
8 ln N
;
N
(14.17)
R
,
v
(14.19)
(14.20)
10 kpc
5 107 yr ,
200 km s1
(14.21)
trelax
in a galaxy, we have
tcross
(14.22)
which is much more than the age of the Universe; this illustrates
that in many astrophysically relevant systems, the collision-less
Boltzmann equation can be used;
in a globular cluster, on the other hand, N 105 and tcross
105 yr, and thus
trelax 108 yr ,
(14.23)
which is short compared to the life time of the globular cluster; in
such cases, therefore, collisions do play a role;
14.2
14.2.1
(14.24)
3
3
~ f
~ d3 v f = 0 ;
(14.27)
d v f + d v~v
t
~v
the last term here leads to boundary terms which vanish under the
assumption that there are no infinitely fast point masses,
f (~x,~v, t) 0
for |~v| ;
(14.28)
d3 v, f~v ,
(14.30)
and so we find the continuitiy equation for the point masses in the
form
n ~
+ (nh~vi) = 0 ,
(14.31)
t
as expected;
f
3 f i j
3
j
d v fv + d v iv v i
d3 v i v j = 0 ; (14.32)
t
x
x
v
partial integration of the third term yields
Z
Z
v j
3
3 f j
d v i v = d v f i = nij ;
v
v
(14.33)
+
n
=0,
+
t
xi
x j
(14.34)
where
Z
1
hv v i
d3 v f vi v j
n
is the correlation matrix of the velocity components;
i j
(14.35)
(nhvi i)
n
+ vj
=0,
t
xi
(14.36)
(nhvi i) (nhvi v j i)
hv j i
hv j i
+
= n j ;
i
i
t
x
x
x
(14.37)
(14.38)
= n j
(14.39)
x
which we can reduce to
n
hv j i
hv j i
+ nhvi i i = n j i (2 )i j n ;
t
x
x
x
(14.40)
(14.41)
2 ij
vi
j v
=
+v
( ) n ;
t
x j
xi x j
(14.42)
these are the Jeans equations which were derived for the first time
by Maxwell, but first applied to stellar-dynamical problems by
Sir James Jeans; obviously, the second equation corresponds to
Eulers equation in ideal hydrodynamics, where the divergence of
the tensor (2 )i j n takes the role of the pressure gradient,
~
P
1 P
= ij j j (2 )i j n ;
x
x
14.2.2
(14.43)
it is useful for many applications to write the distribution function f as a function not of cartesian, but of curvilinear coordinates, such as cylindrical or spherical coordinates; for instance,
in cylindrical coordinates, we first have
(14.44)
x = r cos , y = r sin ,
x = r cos r sin , y = r sin + r cos
and thus in the plane perpendicular to the z axis
!
!
sin
cos
e
~v = r
+ r
= r~er + r~
cos
sin
(14.45)
as well as
x = r cos 2r sin r sin r 2 cos ,
y = r sin + 2r cos + r cos r 2 cos , (14.46)
and thus
e ;
~a = (r r 2 )~er + (2r + r)~
(14.47)
r
r
z
(14.48)
v = r , vz = z ,
r r 2 =
r
2
v
2
+ r =
+
,
r
r
r
1
2r + r =
r
1 vr v
r + r =
, az = z = vz =
;
r
r
z
!
v f
vr v 1 f
f
r
r vr
r
r v z z
= 0;
(14.49)
in the same way, we can transform Boltzmanns equation to
spherical coordinates;
from Boltzmanns equation in spherical coordinates, we find after
integration over vr and under the practically important assumption
hv i = 0 = hv i
(14.50)
the equation
i
d(n2r ) n h 2
d
+ 2r (2 + 2 ) = n
,
dr
r
dr
where 2r,, are the velocity dispersions
Z
1
2
r,,
d3 v v2r,, ;
n
14.2.3
(14.51)
(14.52)
(14.53)
(14.54)
(14.55)
(14.56)
r2
n
dr
dr
r r
#
"
d ln 2r
2 d ln n
+
+ 2 ;
(14.57)
= r
d ln r
d ln r
here, vc is the orbital velocity on a circular orbit with radius r
around the centre of the galaxy; given an assumption for , such
as = 0, this equation allows us to determine the mass of a
galaxy, for instance if the surface-brightness profile is used as
a measure for d ln n/d ln r and the profile of the radial velocity
dispersion is measurable;
14.3
14.3.1
(nhv j i) (nhvi v j i)
+
+n
=0;
i
t
x
x j
(14.58)
3
k (hv v i)
3
k (hv i)
= d xx
d3 x xk
;
d xx
i
t
x
x j
(14.59)
the second term on the right-hand side is Chandrasekhars tensor
of the potential energy,
Z
i
Wj
d3 x xi j ,
(14.60)
x
whose trace is the systems potential energy;
3 0 (x x )(~
=
G
d
x
;
(14.62)
x j
|~x ~x0 |3
then, Chandrasekhars tensor becomes
Z
Z
xi (x j x0 j )
i
3
;
W j = G d x d3 x0 (~x)(~x0 )
|~x ~x0 |3
(14.63)
we now swap ~x and ~x0 and change the order of integrations, obtain
Z
Z
x0i (x j x0 j )
i
3
W j = +G d x d3 x0 (~x)(~x0 )
;
(14.64)
|~x ~x0 |3
and add this to the previous expression (14.63) to find
Z
Z
G
(xi x0i )(x j x0 j )
i
3
Wj =
d x d3 x0 (~x)(~x0 )
; (14.65)
2
|~x ~x0 |3
first, this shows that W ij is manifestly symmetric, W ij = Wij , and
its trace is the potential energy,
Z
Z
Z
x)(~x0 ) 1
G
3
3 0 (~
i
d x d x
=
d3 x (~x)(~x) ,
Wi =
0
2
2
|~x ~x |
(14.66)
as claimed;
14.3.2
now we return to the first term on the right-hand side of the spatial
integral (14.58),
Z
Z
i j
k
i j
3
k (hv v i)
3 (x hv v i)
d xx
=
d
x
xi
xi
Z
xk
d3 x hvi v j i i ; (14.67)
x
the first term on the right-hand side is a divergence and vanishes
upon integration over a closed system; the second is the tensor of
the kinetic energy, multiplied by 2,
Z
1
i
Kj
d3 x hvi v j i ;
(14.68)
2
(14.69)
(14.70)
(14.72)
or
Z
1
d3 x xk v j + x j vk ;
(14.73)
2 t
the partial time derivative can again be replaced by a total time
~ vanishes when
derivative because the convective derivative ~v
applied to the volume integral, and this finally yields
Z
1d
d3 x xi v j + x j vi = T ij + ij + W ij ,
(14.74)
2 dt
+
W
(14.77)
j
j
j ;
dt2
T ii + ii + Wii = 0 ;
(14.78)
ii
2Kii
d3 x v2
(14.79)
is twice the kinetic energy, and Wii is the total potential energy, as
we saw before; thus
2K = W ,
(14.80)
which is the scalar virial theorem;
14.4
(14.82)
(14.83)
(14.84)
Chapter 15
Equilibrium, Stability and
Disks
15.1
15.1.1
further reading:
Binney,
Tremaine, Galactic Dynamics,
sections 4.5, 4.7, 5.1 and 5.3
r2 dr
dr
the equation for the gravitational potential
!
!
Z
1 d 2 d
mv2
3
r
= 4Gm d v f
+ m, m|~x ~v|
r2 dr
dr
2
(15.2)
(15.3)
(15.4)
185
E
v2
+ 0 = ;
m
2
(15.5)
4n1 e/
=
(22 )3/2
2 v2 /(22 )
dv v e
(22 )3/2
4
= n1 e/ n ,
2
(15.7)
15.1.2
Isothermality
(15.8)
or, using
n
= 2 (ln n ln n1 ) ,
n1
we find an equation for the number density n,
!
1 d 2 dn
4G
r
= 2 n,
2
r dr
dr
= 2 ln
(15.9)
(15.10)
(15.11)
186
kT
;
m
(15.14)
2
1
4
(15.15)
22
15.1.3
(15.16)
one solution of the equation (15.10) for the density of the isothermal sphere follows from the ansatz
n = Cr ;
(15.17)
,
r2
(15.18)
r
,
r0
,
0
(15.20)
187
where 0 is meant to be the finite central density; then, the equation for the scaled density y is
!
d 2 d ln y
4G
(15.21)
x
= 2 0 r02 yx2 ;
dx
dx
92
,
4G0
(15.22)
(15.23)
15.2
188
causes the averaged phase-space distribution f to decrease, because the averaged phase-space density is progressively diluted;
thus, the macroscopic entropy
Z
S d3 xd3 v f ln f
(15.27)
does indeed increase;
this process of phase mixing is in fact hardly different from the
thermodynamical trend to equilibrium; there, too, the increase of
entropy is caused by macroscopically averaging over processes
which are otherwise reversible;
if the potential is changed while the particles are moving through
it, energy can be transported from particles to others; if, for example, the system contracts while a star approaches its centre, the
potential deepens and the star looses energy; other stars can gain
considerable amounts of energy; this process is called violent relaxation (Lynden-Bell);
15.3
Stability
15.3.1
as before in hydrodynamics, we consider an equilibrium solution f0 , 0 of the coupled system of the collision-less Boltzmann
equation and Poissons equation,
f
~ f
~ f = 0 ,
+ ~v
t
Z~v
~ 2 = 4Gm d3 v f ;
(15.28)
in equilibrium, f /t = 0;
then, we perturb f0 , 0 by small amounts f , and linearise the
equations in f , :
f
~ f
~ 0 f
~ f0 = 0 ,
+ ~v
t
~v
Z ~v
~ 2 = 4Gm d3 v f ;
(15.29)
as an equilibrium solution, we adopt an infinitely extended, homogeneous distribution f0 , which implies a density 0 and a potential 0 given by
~ 2 0 = 4G0 ;
(15.30)
189
(15.31)
(15.32)
f = fv (~v)ei(k~xt) ,
= v ei(k~xt)
(15.33)
(15.34)
1
f0
~v ~k ~v
(15.35)
dv
3
v~k
f0
~v
~k ~v
(15.36)
d3 v
~k
f0
~v
~k ~v
=0
(15.37)
Z
3
d p
~k
f0
~p
~k ~v
(15.38)
15.3.2
190
~v
if ~k is chosen parallel to the positive x axis, the condition
Z
v2x /(22 )
4Gmn0
3 kv x e
1 2 2
dv
(15.41)
k (22 )3/2
kv x
follows; for = 0, the integral is
Z
2
2
d3 v evx /(2 ) = (22 )3/2 ,
(15.42)
and we find
4G0
4G0
1 2 2 = 0 k2 ( = 0) kJ2 =
; (15.43)
k
2
instability sets in for smaller k or wave lengths larger than J =
2/kJ ; the quantity
2
2
= p
=
J
(15.44)
kJ
G0
4G0
is called the Jeans length;
the Jeans length defines the volume
!3
3
(15.45)
J =
G0
and thus the mass
!1/3
!1/3
GM2J
MJ
3
MJ 0 J
J
=
0
2
GM
J
(15.46)
;
2
according to the virial theorem,
GM
GM
2
R 2 ;
(15.47)
R
191
15.4
15.4.1
as an example for a rotating system with flat geometry, we consider an infinitely thin disk (with thickness zero) which is rigidly
~ = ~ez ; the
rotating around the z axis with an angular velocity
disk thus fills the x-y plane and have a surface-mass density 0 ;
we consider perturbations in the plane of the disk and neglect
warps or twists; furthermore, we transform into a co-rotating coordinate frame and study the disk in the (simpler) fluid approximation;
then, the continuity equation, Eulers and Poissons equations
read
~
+ (~v) = 0 ,
t
~
~v
~ v = P
~ 2
~ ~v +
~ 2~r ,
+ (~v )~
t
~ 2 = 4GD (z) ;
(15.48)
here, we had to take into account in Eulers equation that Coriolis
and centrifugal forces occur in the co-rotating coordinate frame;
the physical quantities occuring here are two-dimensional,
~v(x, y, t), (x, y, t) and so on, and for the pressure we assume a
barotropic equation-of-state,
P(x, y, t) = P[(x, y, t)] ;
(15.49)
(15.50)
~ 2 0 = 4G0 D (z) ;
(15.51)
~ 0
since no direction can be preferred on a homogeneous disk,
must point along the z axis, which contradicts Eulers equation;
thus, there is no gravitational force yet to balance the centrifugal force; therefore, we assume that the disk is embedded into a
surrounding gravitational field which compensates the centrifugal
force, such as the halo of a galaxy;
15.4.2
192
Analysis of perturbations
~ ~v = 0 ,
+ 0
t
c2 ~
~v
~
~ ~v ,
= s
2
t
0
~ 2 = 4GD (z) ,
(15.52)
(15.53)
~v = ~vA ei(k~xt) ,
~
= A ei(k~xt) ,
~
= A ei(k~xt)
(15.54)
(15.55)
=0
(15.56)
while
(15.57)
and
2
y2
(15.58)
(15.60)
193
(15.61)
thus, we find
=
2GA i(kxt)|kz|
e
;
|k|
(15.62)
0
i ik0
A
2
ik cs 2G i 2 vAx = 0
(15.64)
0
|k|
v
Ay
0
2 i
makes it immediately obvious that non-trivial solutions exist if
and only if the determinant of the matrix vanishes, hence
!
#
"
c2s 2G
2
2
i( 4 ) + ik0 ik
(i) = 0 ;
(15.65)
0
|k|
this means that either = 0 or
2 = 42 + k2 c2s 2G|k|0 ;
(15.66)
15.4.3
Toomres criterion
(15.68)
and the growth is exponential, et ; obviously, small perturbations with |k| , 0, grow particularly violently, i.e. the
cold, non-rotating disk fragments violently on small scales;
194
(15.69)
(15.70)
which yields
2|k|c2s = 2G0
|k| =
G0 kJ
=
;
c2s
2
(15.71)
cs
> 1.57 ;
(15.73)
G0 2
this is Toomres criterion, which can also be applied to collisionless systems (recall that we had adopted the fluid approximation!); then,
cs
& 1.68
(15.74)
G0
is the condition for stability;
Chapter 16
Dynamical Friction,
Fokker-Planck Approximation
16.1
Dynamical Friction
16.1.1
further reading:
Binney,
Tremaine, Galactic Dynamics,
sections 7.1 and 8.3
an interesting effect occurs if a mass M moves through an environment of masses m which are homogeneously distributed
around the mass M; although the motion of the masses can be
considered collision-less, a deceleration occurs which is called
dynamcial friction;
let ~vm and ~v M be the velocities of one of the masses m and of the
mass M, respectively; ~xm and ~x M are their locations; further,
~r ~xm ~x M
(16.1)
(16.2)
~r = 2 ~er 2 ~er ,
(16.3)
m+M
r
r
where ~er is the unit vector in radial direction away from M;
obviously, the change of ~v equals the difference of the changes in
~vm and ~v M ,
~v = ~vm ~v M ,
195
(16.4)
~ = 0
X
~ = m~vm + M~v M ,
X
m~vm + M~v M = 0 ;
(16.5)
(16.6)
~v M =
m
~v ;
m+M
(16.7)
1
= ,
2
(16.8)
1
1 2
cos = 1 sin2 = 1 2 =
1,
(16.9)
2
2
and thus
tan
1
=
;
2
2 1
(16.10)
generally, the treatment of the Kepler problem shows that the eccentricity is related to energy E and angular momentum ~L through
s
2L2 E
= 1+ 2 ;
(16.11)
(16.12)
mM v2 2
E=
v
m+M 2
2
(16.13)
L=
and the energy is
mM
m+M
(16.14)
(16.15)
(16.16)
1
= q
2
b2 v4
G(M + m)
;
bv2
(16.17)
G2 (M+m)2
16.1.2
Velocity changes
v = v sin = v
(16.18)
b2 v4
G(M + m)
bv
b2 v4 + G2 (M + m)2
1
#2
"
bv3
bv2
= 2
1+
;
G(M + m)
G(M + m)
= 2
the velocity change of the mass M perpendicular to its initial direction of motion is thus
m
v
(16.19)
v M =
M+m
"
#2 1
2bmv3
bv2
=
1
+
;
G(M + m)2
G(M + m)
in parallel direction, we have
vk = v cos
or
vk
!
1 tan2 /2
2 tan2 /2
=
v
= v 1
1 + tan2 /2
1 + tan2 /2
2v
2v
=
=
(16.21)
h 2 i2 ;
2
1 + tan /2 1 + bv
G(M+m)
m
2mv
1
vk =
h 2 i2 ;
M+m
M + m 1 + bv
(16.22)
G(M+m)
16.1.3
Chandrasekhars formula
(16.23)
= ~v f (~vm )d3 vm
bmax
(16.24)
2mv
db 2b
m+M
1
#2
"
bv2
1+
G(M + m)
bmax
db
0
b
1+
bv2
i2 =
G(M+m)
bmax
db
0
1
=
2a
Z
1
b
1 + ab2
1+ab2max
d
, (16.25)
bmax
db
0
where
b
1+
i2
bv2
G(M+m)
"
#2
1 G(M + m)
=
(16.26)
2
v2
"
#
b2max v4
,
ln 1 + 2
G (M + m)2
v2
a
G(M + m)
"
#2
(16.27)
bmax v2
,
G(M + m)
(16.28)
(16.30)
(16.31)
(16.35)
(16.36)
similarly, in this case the friction force os proportional to M 2 because the deceleration is proportional to M;
16.2
Fokker-Planck Approximation
16.2.1
(16.41)
~ in phase space
collisions transport particles from one position w
~ + ~
t another position w
w; within a time interval t, this may
happen with a probability
(~
w, ~
w)d6 ~
wt ;
(16.42)
(16.43)
(16.44)
(16.45)
(16.46)
d6 ~
w (~
w ~
w, ~
w) f (~
w ~
w) (~
w, ~
w) f (~
w) ;
16.2.2
2Gm Gm 2v
bmin
= 2
= 2v
,
bv
v b
b
(16.47)
and thus
v bmin
;
(16.48)
v
b
the relative velocity change thus decreases like b1 while the number of collisions increases with b proportional to b2 ; thus most
collisions cause only small velocity changes;
we can use that to simplify the master equation; for small v, ~
w
is also small, and the first term under the integral in the master
equation can be expanded into a Taylor series,
(~
w ~
w, ~
w) f (~
w ~
w) (~
w, ~
w) f (~
w)
(~
w, ~
w) f (~
w) wi +
i
w
1 2
(16.49)
(~
w, ~
w) f (~
w) wi w j ,
i
j
2 w w
if we stop after the second order; now, we can integrate over ~
w,
which yields the scattering term
"
#
Z
6
i
C[ f ] = i f (~
w) d w w (~
w, ~
w)
(16.50)
w
"
#
Z
1 2
6
i
j
+
f (~
w) d w w w (~
w, ~
w) ;
2 wi w j
d6 w wi w j (~
w, ~
w)
(16.51)
(16.52)
which enable us to bring the master equation into the FokkerPlanck form
f ~
~ f
+ ~x f
t
~v
i
h
i
f
(~
w
)D(w
)
(16.53)
wi
h
i
2
f (~
w)D(wi w j ) ;
i
j
w w
=
the great advantage of the Fokker-Planck approach is that the diffusion approximation in phase space depends only on the local
~ of a test particle, such that the integrophase space coordinates w
differential master equation turns into a pure differential equation;
the diffusion coefficients can now further be approximated by several simplifying assumptions;