Cellular Networks

History
The First Generation (AMPS)
The Second Generation (GSM, GPRS, EDGE)
The Third Generation (UMTS, HSPA+)
The Forth Generation (LTE, LTE-A)
The Fifth Generation

Wireless & Cellular Telecommunications, William C. Y. Lee

Wireless Communications, Theodore S. Rappaport
UMTS Networks: Architecture, Mobility and Services, Heikki Kaaranen, et al.
LTE: The UMTS Long Term Evolution From Theory to Practice, Stefania Sesia et al.

Introduction
0G: Mobile Radio System
1947, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service (MTS).
only 5,000 customers placing about 30 000 calls each week.
Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a
button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen.
The call subscriber equipment weighed about 36 kg.
only three radio channels were available only three customers in any given
city could make mobile telephone calls at one time

1965, AT&T introduced Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS).

Competitor: Radio Common Carrier (RCC)
Dr Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at
Motorola, is considered the inventor of the first portable handset and the
first person to make a call on a portable cell phone in April 1973. The first
call he made was to his rival, Joel Engel, Bell Labs head of research.
Name: Motorola Dyna-Tac
Size: 9 x 5 x 1.75 inches
#Circuit Boards: 30
Talk time: 35 minutes
Features: Talk, listen, dial

Weight: 2.5 pounds

Recharge Time: 10 hours
2

Introduction
Basic
Mobility,
basic services

Roaming,
more services
(data)

Seamless
roaming,
global
solution,

IP-based mobility,
very high data rate,
complete
telecom/datacom
convergence

IMT-Advanced:

1964 1974:
HCMTS (highcapacity mobile
telephone system)
1976: AMPS
(Advanced Mobile
Phone Service)
FDMA/FDD

Digital Cellular:
GSM, NA-TDMA,
CDMA, PDC and
1800-DCS.

IMT-2000:
WCDMA
cdma2000
UTRA-TDD

Cordless Phone:
DECT and CT-2

Requirements:
144-384kbps
(mobile)
2Mbps (static)

B2G: GPRS
EDGE, HSCSD,
iDEN, PHS, IS95B (RTT1X)

Wifi, WiMax

Requirements:
1 Gbps (static)
100Mbps
(mobile)
LTE Advanced
(Long Term
Evolution)
- OFDMA,
MIMO, SCFDMA
3

Mobile Telephony Standards

Generation
1G
2G
B2G

3G
B3G
4G

Group

Name

AMPS

AMPS TACS ETACS

GSM/3GPP

GSM CSD

3GPP2

cdmaOne (IS-95)

GSM/3GPP

HSCSD GPRS EDGE/EGPRS

3GPP2

CDMA2000 1xRTT (IS-2000)

GSM/3GPP

UMTS (UTRAN) WCDMA-FDD WCDMA-TDD UTRATDD LCR (TD-SCDMA)

3GPP2

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (IS-856)

GSM/3GPP

HSDPA HSUPA HSPA+ LTE (E-UTRA)

3GPP2

EV-DO Rev. A EV-DO Rev. B

LTE-Advanced

Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)

Analog system
Uses 7-cell reuse pattern, with provisions for sectoring and cell-splitting to
increase capacity.
30kHz channel requires a SIR of 18dB for satisfactory system performance.
European Total Access Communication System (ETACS) is virtually identical
to AMPS, except the channel is 25kHz.

Parameter

AMPS

ETACS

Multiple Access/Duplexing

FDMA/FDD

FDMA/FDD

Channel Bandwidth

30 kHz

25 kHz

Traffic Channel / RF Channel

Reverse Channel

824 849 MHz

890 915 MHz

Forward Channel

869 894 MHz

935 960 MHz

Voice Modulation

FM

FM

# channels

832

1000

3GPP

GSM
Global System for Mobile (GSM), a mobile TDMA system,
developed by CEPT, an European group.
Two objectives:
Pan-European roaming
Interaction with ISDN for multiservice system

GSM Services:
Telephone Services emergency calling and facsimile, videotex and
teletex
Data Services (layer 1, 2 and 3 of OSI model) data rate from 300bps
to 9.6kbps
Supplementary ISDN Services call diversion, closed user group, caller
id, short message service (SMS)

GSM
1. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
memory device that stores information (subscribers id, networks &
countries, privacy keys)
Gives each subscriber unit an identity and allow subscriber to plug their
SIM into any suitable devices.

2. On-the-air Privacy
Encryption of digital bit stream with secret cryptographic key, which
changes with time for each user.
Every carrier and GSM equipment manufacturer must sign MoU to allow
the sharing of cryptographic algorithms between countries and carriers.

GSM System Architecture

BTS: Base Transceiver Station
BSC: Base Station Controller

Network and Switching

Subsystem (NSS)

Public
Network

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

9

GSM System Architecture

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
Provides and manages radio transmission paths between MSs and MSC
Manages radio interface between MSs and all other subsystems
Base Station Controllers (BSCs) connect MS to NSS

Dedicated/lease line.
Uses SS7 called
Signaling Correction
Control Part (SCCP)

Carries traffic and maintenance

data standardize by all
manufacturers (not strictly)
10

GSM System Architecture

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
Manages calls switching of the system
External Access: allows the MSCs to communicate with other
networks (PSTN, ISDN)
3 databases:
i. Home Location Register (HLR): subscriber information and location of users
residing in the same city as the MSC. Each user is assigned an International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
ii. Visitor Location Register (VLR): temporarily stores the information of roamers.
The MSC contacts the roamers MSC to enable appropriate routing of calls to the
roaming mobile.
iii. Authentication Center (AUC): strongly protected; handles the authentication and
encryption keys for every subscriber in the HLR and VLR; Equipment Identity
Register (EIR) to identify stolen or fraudulently altered phones that transmit
identity data that does not match with information in HLR or VLR.

11

GSM System Architecture

Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
Supports one or several Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC)
Monitor, diagnose and troubleshooting the performance of each
MS, BS, BSC and MSC.
Three main functions:
i.

To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations

with a particular market
ii. Manage all charging and billing procedures
iii. Manage all mobile equipment in the system

An OMC also has provisions for adjusting all BS parameters and

billing procedures, as well as providing the system operators with
the ability to determine the performance and integrity of each
piece of subscriber equipment.

12

GSM Radio Subsystem

Two 250MHz cellular bands: 890 915 MHz for reverse link and 935 960
MHz for forward link. Each channel (called ARFCN, Absolute Radio Frequency
Channel Numbers) is 200 kHz with a duplex separation of 45MHz.
FDD with a combination of TDMA and FDMA.
With TDMA, 8 time slots in a frame.
Total duplex channels = 125
(minus 1 guard band)
124 * 8 = 992 duplex channels
Each specific time slot or frame may
be dedicated to either handling
traffic data, signaling data or control
channel data.

13

GSM Parameters
Parameter

Specifications

Reverse Channel Frequency

890 915 MHz

Forward Channel Frequency

935 960 MHz

ARFCN Number

0 124, 975 1023

Tx/Rx Frequency Spacing

45 MHz

Tx/Rx Time Slot Spacing

3 time slots

Modulation Data Rate

270.83 kbps

Frame Period
Users per Frame (Full Rate)

4.615 ms
8

Time Slot Period

576.9 s

Bit Period

3.692 s

Modulation

0.3 GMSK

ARFCN Channel Spacing

200 kHz

Interleaving (max delay)

40 ms

Voice Coder Bit Rate

13.4 kbps

14

GSM Channel Types

1. Traffic Channels (TCHs): carry digitally encoded user speech or
user data and have identical functions and formats on both the
forward and reverse links
i.
ii.

Full-Rate TCH (22.8kbps): TCH/FS (13kbps), TCH/F9.6(9600bps),

TCH/F4.8 (4800bps), TCH/F.2.4(2400bps)
Half-Rate TCH (11.4kbps): TCH/HS (6.5kbps), TCH/H4.8 (4800bps),
TCH/H2.4(2400bps)

2. Control Channels (CCHs): carry signaling and synchronizing

commands between the BS and the MS.
i. Broadcast Channels (BCHs)
ii. Common Control Channels (CCCH)
iii. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)

15

GSM Channel Types

BCH: transmit data only in TS0 of certain frames/forward link
i.

ii.

iii.

Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): forward control channel to broadcast

information such as cell and network identity, and operating
characteristics of the cell. Also broadcast a list of channels that are
currently in use.
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): occupy TS0 of very first GSM
frame and repeat every 10 frames. It allows each subscribers unit to
synchronize its internal frequency standard (LO) to the exact frequency
of BS.
Synchronization Channel (SCH): in the frame immediately following
FCCH. It is used to identify the serving BS while allowing each MS to
frame synchronize with the BS.

Forward link for TS0

16

GSM Channel Types

CCCH: transmit data in TS0 of frames not occupying by BCH
i.

ii.

iii.

Paging Channel (PCH): provide paging signal from BS to MS and notify the MS of
an incoming call from PSTN. Also use to provide cell broadcast ASCII text
messages to all MSs.
Random Access Channel (RACH): reverse link channel used by a MS to
acknowledge a page from the PCH and also used by MS to initiate a call. It uses
slotted ALOHA access scheme. In establishing service, BS must respond to the
RACH by allocating a channel and assigning a stand-alone dedicated control
channel (SDCCH) for signaling during the call. This connection is confirmed over
AGCH.
Access Grant Channel (AGCH): used by BS to provide forward link communication
to MS and carries data which instructs the MS to operate in a particular physical
channel (time slot and ARFCN) with a particular dedicated control channel.

Reverse link for TS0

17

GSM Channel Types

DCCH: bidirectional and same format in both directions.
i.

ii.

iii.

Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH): carry signaling data following

the connection of the MS with BS and just before a TCH assignment is issued by
the BS.
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): . Associated with a traffic channel or
a SDCCH and maps onto the same physical channel. On the forward link, it
carries slow but regular changing control information (transmit power level
instructions, specific timing advance instruction) to the MS. The reverse link is
used to carry information about the received signal strength, quality of the TCH,
and measurement results from neighboring cells.
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH): .carry urgent messages. It is assigned
when a SACCH has not been dedicated for a particular user and there is an
urgent message (such as handoff). It gains access to a time slot by stealing
frames from the traffic channel to which it is assigned. This is done by setting
two stealing bits.

18

GSM Call Setup

i.
ii.

MS must be synchronized to a nearby BS as it monitors the BCH.

By receiving FCCH, SCH and BCCH messages, the MS would be locked on the
system and the appropriate BCH.
iii. To initiate a call, MS sends the connection information via the RACH
message.
iv. BS responds with AGCH message which assigns the MS to a new channel for
SDCCH connection.
v. The MS receives the ARFCN and TS assignment from AGCH and tune to the
assigned ARFCN and TS.
vi. MS then waits for the SACCH frame to be transmitted, which informs the MS
of any required timing advance and transmitter power command.
vii. After receiving the SACCH frame, MS is now able to transmit normal burst
messages.
viii. SDCCH takes care of the authentication and user validation.
ix. After a few seconds, MS is commanded by the BS to return to the TCH for
speech data transmission.
x. SDCCH is vacated.
19

GSM Frame Structure

TCH &
DCCH

20

GSM Frame Structure

Normal Frame

21

GPRS
General Packet Radio Service

Not necessary an efficient system for the support of data traffic.

A solution for GSM to handle data traffic more efficiently and at higher
data rates
4 different channel coding schemes: CS1 CS4
CS2 is the most commonly used and allows each time slot to carry 13.4
kbps.
Uses packet switching technology enables multiple users to share air
interface resources.
Packet Data Channel (PDCH): a time slot carrying GPRS-related data
traffic or control signaling.
A number of new channel types for Packet Common Control Channel
(PCCCH) and for Packet Dedicated Control Channel (PDCC) are
introduced.

22

GPRS

Packet Common Control Channel (PCCCH)

i.
Packet Random Access Channel (PRACH): MS to initiate a transfer of packet
signaling or data in uplink
ii. Packet Paging Channel (PPCH): network to page an MS prior to downlink
packet transfer
iii. Packet Access Grant Channel (PAGCH): network to assign resources to the
MS prior to packet transfer in the downlink
iv. Packet Notification Channel (PNCH): point-to-multipoint multicast (PTM-M)
notification to a group of MSs.
Packet Dedicated Control Channel (PDCCH)
i.
Packet Associated Control Channel (PACCH): bidirectional channel used to
pass signaling and other information between the MS and the network during
packet transfer.
ii. Packet Timing Control Channel (PTCH): control of the timing advance for
MSs.
Packet Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH): transfer of actual user data over the air
interface in either uplink or downlink.
23

GPRS
52 TDMA Frames

RB0

RB1

RB2 T RB3

RB4

RB5 X RB6

X = Idle Frame (2)

RB = Radio Block = 4 TDMA frames

RB7

RB8 T RB9

RB1
0

RB
11

T = Frame used for PTCCH (2)

PBCCH: RB0: broadcast GPRS-specific system information

PACCH: RB1 RB11: signaling
PDTCH: RB1 RB11: data
Channels

GSM

GPRS

Common Control Channel

CCH (RACH)

PCCCH (PRACH, PPCH, PAGCH, PNCH)

Broadcast Channel

BCCH

PBCCH

Dedicated Control Channel

DCCH, FACCH

PDCCH (PACCH, PTCCH), FACCH

Dedicated Traffic Channels

DTCH

PDTCH

24

GPRS Network Architecture

PCU (Packet Control Unit): access control, packet scheduling, and packet
assembly and de-assembly.

SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): connects to the MSC/VLR, to SMS

center (SMSC), HLR, and CGF (Charging Gateway Function)

GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): point of interface with external

packet data networks such as the Internet.

The service area of a SGSN is divided into routing area (RA).

Interfaces:
i. Gb: frame relay-based interface using BSS (Base Station System) GPRS
protocol (BSSGP)
ii. Gr, Gd, Gc, Ga: SS7-based interface using MAP (Mobile Application Part)
iii. Gs: SS7-based interface using Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP)
iv. Gn: IP-based interface using the GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP)
v. Gi: IP based interface between the GGSN and a public data network (PDN)
either directly to the Internet or through a WAP gateway.
25

GPRS Network Architecture

A-bis
BTS

BSC

MSC/VLR

SMSC

HLR

Gs

PCU

Gd

Gc
Gr

Gb

SGSN

Gn

GGSN

Gn
Gi
SGSN

CGF
Ga

Signaling & GPRS user data

Signaling
CGF: Charging Gateway Function

Ga
Billing
System

Packet Data
Networks
26

GPRS Transmission Plane

Sub Network Dependent Convergence Protocol: between IP and LCC to
support multiple network protocols without having to change LCC layer.
Also perform compression.

APP
IP/X.25

IP/X.25

Logic Link Control: A logical link and frame structure

between MS and SGSN

Relay
GTP
SNDCP

Radio Link Control

SNDCP

1 IP for application layer

1 IP between SGSN and GGSN

LLC
RLC

Relay
RLC
BSSGP

MAC

MAC

RF

RF

MS

MAC

UDP/TCP

BSSGP

IP

IP

NS

NS

Layer 2

Layer 2

Layer 1

Layer 1

Layer 1

Layer 1

BSS
Um

LLC

GTP

SGSN
Gb

GGSN
Gn

Gi
27

GPRS Signaling Plane

GMM/SM

GPRS Mobility Management and Session

Management protocol is used for RA updating,
authentication function, PDP context (session)
establishment, modification and deactivation.

LLC

GMM/SM
LLC

RLC

Relay
RLC
BSSGP

MAC

MAC

NS

NS

RF

RF

Layer 1

Layer 1

BSSGP

BSS

MS
Um

SGSN
Gb
28

GPRS Attach Procedure

GPRS performs a GPRS Attach or a Combined GPRS/GSM when the MS

may want to attach a single GPRS network (Class-C MS) or to
simultaneously attach to both GSM and GPRS network (Class-B MS).
A. GPRS Attach

Activated when its power is on or when its browser is activated for

packet traffic.

When a MS sends a packet channel request, the network responds with a

packet uplink assignment, which allocates time slot(s) to the MS. Upon
receipt of the Attach request at BSS, the BSS uses the PACCH to
acknowledge the receipt and forwards the Attach request to an SGSN.
Based on the MM (Mobile Management) message in the request sent by
the MS, the assigned resources will typically be sufficient for MS.
B. Combined GPRS/GSM Attach

SGSN performs the procedures required of a GPRS and also interacts

with the VLR to initiate a GSM Attach through a normal GSM location
update.
29

GPRS PDP Context

The transfer of GPRS packet data is through the establishment of PDP

context (data session), the MS moves from the standby state to the ready
state. This request [include a requested network SAPI (Service Access Point
Identifier), a requested LLC SAPI, a requested QoS, a requested PDP
address, and a requested APN (Access Point Name)] is sent to GGSN via
SGSN. GGSN creates PDP Context Response, and then SGSN sends Activate
PDP Context Accept to MS.
Each PDU to and form the MS is sending data packet individually. No
permanent resource is established between the SGSN and MS. As the MS
moves from one SGSN to another during an active PDP context, a function
needs to be invoked so that packets are not lost during transition RA
Update
i.

ii.

MS notices from BCCH that it is in a new routing area. Then, MS sends an RA

update to new SGSN and sends an SGSN Context Request message to old
SGSN. The GTP message is passed from old SGSN to new SGSN over the IP
network.
New SGSN responds to the old one with an SGSN Context Acknowledge (GTP
message). New SGSN also serving SGSN for the PDP context. The GGSN
responds with the Update PDP Context Response message.

30

EDGE
Enhanced Data Rates for Global/GSM Evolution
EDGE requires no hardware or software changes to be made in GSM core
networks.
EDGE-compatible transceiver units must be installed and the base station
subsystem needs to be upgraded to support EDGE.
New TDM-based radio access technology to enhance packet radio service
that gives GSM and TDMA an evolutionary path toward 3G.
It reuses GSM carrier bandwidth (200kHz) and time-slot structures (8 timeslot), but not restricted to use in GSM only.
Promise data rate of 384kbps, when all 8 time slots are used.
Based on 8PSK (0o, 45o, 90o, 135o, 180o, 225o, 270o, 315o) automatically
adapt to radio circumstances and thereby offers its highest rate in good
propagation conditions close to the site of the BS.
The channel types are the same as those applicable to GPRS.

31

EDGE - Modulation and Coding Schemes

EDGE Radio Block Parameters
Scheme

Payload Size
(bits)

Modulation
Type

Effective Coding
Rate

Data Rate
(kbps)

MCS-1

176

GMSK

0.53

8.8

MCS-2

224

GMSK

0.66

11.2

MCS-3

296

GMSK

0.8

14.8

MCS-4

352

GMSK

1.0

17.6

MCS-5

448

8PSK

0.37

22.4

MCS-6

592

8PSK

0.49

29.6

MCS-7

896

8PSK

0.76

44.8

MCS-8

1088

8PSK

0.92

54.4

MCS-9

1184

8PSK

1.0

59.2

32

Evolved EDGE
Latencies are reduced by lowering the Transmission Time
Interval by half (from 20 ms to 10 ms).
Bit rates are increased up to 1 Mbit/s peak bandwidth and
latencies down to 80 ms using dual carrier, higher symbol rate
and higher-order modulation (32QAM and 16QAM instead of
8PSK), and turbo codes to improve error correction.
Signal quality is improved using dual antennas improving
average bit-rates and spectrum efficiency.
With EDGE Evolution, end-users will be able to experience
mobile internet connections corresponding to a 500 kbit/s
ADSL service.

33

IMT-2000
IMT-2000 is a family of technologies for 3rd Generation
mobile communications, and has been defined by the ITU.
The objectives of this family concept include an assurance of
global roaming and interoperability between the various
technologies.
IMT-2000

Wideband CMDA system

Spectrum bandwidth 5 MHz
Full coverage and mobility for a data rate of 144-384 kbps
Limited coverage and mobility or no mobility for 2 Mbps
High spectrum efficiency
High flexibility to introduce new and multimedia services

TDMA evolution was aimed at W-CDMA(UMTS) where

cdmaOne is aimed at cdma2000.
ITU-R M.1457

34

IMT-2000
IMT-2000 is a family of technologies for 3rd Generation mobile
communications, and has been defined by the ITU.
The objectives of this family concept include an assurance of
global roaming and interoperability between the various
technologies.
IMT-2000

Wideband CMDA system

Spectrum bandwidth 5 MHz
Full coverage and mobility for a data rate of 144-384 kbps
Limited coverage and mobility or no mobility for 2 Mbps
High spectrum efficiency
High flexibility to introduce new and multimedia services

TDMA evolution was aimed at W-CDMA(UMTS) where cdmaOne

is aimed at cdma2000 (1xEV-DO & 1xEV-DV).
35

Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)

Requirements: higher data rate (2Mbps), simultaneous
information flow with differing QoS constraints, and efficient
access to public packet-switched data network (PPSDN).
GPRS core network architecture provided an excellent
prototype for defining a packet-switched gateway to the
PPSDN, but the adoption of a CDMA air interface represented
a substantial difference from prior system.
W-CDMA architecture supports both circuit-switched and
packet-switched data
Uses orthogonal spreading and scrambling codes [Orthogonal
Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) code a type of Walsh
code].

36

Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA)

The standard developed for W-CDMA are comprehensive

and rather complex.
The deployment of W-CDMA was based on a number of
phases releases, each providing additional and enhanced
capabilities.
Two protocol enhancements are preferred:
1.
2.

High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) - 2006

High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) - 2007

The combination of these protocol is termed High-Speed

Packet Access (HSPA+)

37

UMTS
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
Third generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM
standard, developed and maintained by the 3GPP
UMTS is a component of the International Telecommunications Union
IMT-2000 standard set and compares with the CDMA2000 standard set for
networks based on the competing cdmaOne technology.
UMTS uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio
access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth to
mobile network operators.
UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio
access network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN), the
core network (Mobile Application Part, or MAP) and the authentication of
users via SIM (subscriber identity module) cards.
Unlike EDGE (IMT Single-Carrier, based on GSM) and CDMA2000 (IMT
Multi-Carrier), UMTS requires new base stations and new frequency
allocations.
38

UMTS
UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates of 42 Mbps when
HSPA+ is implemented in the network.
Users in deployed networks can expect a transfer rate of up to 384 kbps
for R99 handsets (the original UMTS release), and 7.2 Mbps for HSDPA
handsets in the downlink connection.
Since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the
process of being upgraded with High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G enables downlink transfer speeds
of up to 21 Mbps.
Work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with
High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) uplink speeds up to 5.76
Mbps.
LTE to move UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbps down and 50 Mbps up using
OFDM.

39

UMTS Radio Access Technologies

UMTS uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio
access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and bandwidth to
mobile network operators.
The underlying technique utilised in WCDMA is the Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
WCDMA radio access allocates bandwidth for users and the allocated
bandwidth and its controlling functions are handled using the term
Channel.

40

UMTS Radio Access Technologies

Physical channel: form the
physical existence of the
Uu interface between the
UE domain and access
domain.
RNC deals with transport
channels: carry different
information flows over the
Uu interface and the
physical elements.
Logical channels: different
tasks the network and the
terminal should perform in
different moments of time.

Channel types, their location

in relation to network
elements, and their mapping
in downlink and uplink
directions in UTRAN

41

UMTS Radio Access Technologies

WCDMA EnhancementHSDPA
In the early phase of UMTS development it was envisaged that data trac
would follow the trend experienced from xed networks in which the
share of IP trac was becoming dominant.
3GPP had already initiated the concept of All IP that would lead to the
emergence of IP trac handling in the UMTS Core Network (CN), realised
by introducing new building blocks, such as IP Multimedia Subsystems
(IMSs).
In order to promote the overall data capability of the network, it was
obvious that the development eort should also have focused on UTRAN
evolution and, in particular, its air interface.
3GPP Release 5 specied a new HSDPA to serve high-peak data rate users.
In order to achieve higher data throughput, reduce delay and high-peak
rates, HSDPA employs such techniques as Adaptive Modulation and
Coding (AMC), and Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) combined
with a fast-scheduling and seamless cell change.
42

UMTS Radio Access Technologies

1.

Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC): to compensate for radio

channel instability by ne-tuning the transmission parameters based on
Channel Quality Indicator (CQI)

2.

Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ): HARQ allows the receiving

Network Element (NE) to detect errors and when necessary to request
retransmissions.

3.

Due to radio channel instability, explicit radio measurements may not in

isolation form a reliable basis for AMC operation

Fast Scheduling: packet-scheduling cycle is fast enough to track shortterm variations in a UE fading signal

4.

Allow the use of 16QAM or QPSK (existing)

allows modulation selection to be combined with the channel-encoding
process, occasionally referred to as the Transport Format and Resource
Combination (TFRC)

The Packet Scheduler (PS) in the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) rather than in
the RNC, the delay in the scheduling process is minimised and the radio
measurements also better reect the radio channel condition

Seamless Cell Change: enables the UE to connect to the best cell

available to serve it on the downlink
43

UMTS Radio Access Technologies

44

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

The main task of the UTRAN is to create and maintain Radio Access
Bearers (RABs) for communication between User Equipment (UE) and the
Core Network (CN).
With RAB the CN elements are given a rough idea about a xed
communication path to the UE, thus releasing them from the need to take
care of radio communication aspects.
The UTRAN is located between two open interfaces: Uu and Iu.
From the bearer architecture point of view, the main task of the UTRAN is
to provide a bearer service over these interfaces; in this respect the
UTRAN controls the Uu interface, and bearer service provision in the Iu
interface is done in cooperation with the CN. The RAB fulls the QoS
requirements set by the CN.
The handling of end-to-end QoS requirements in the CN and in the UE is
the responsibility of Communication Management. These requirements
are then mapped onto the RAB, which is visible to the Mobile Terminal
(MT) and the CN.
45

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

One of the main ideas of this layered structure is to encapsulate the
physical radio access; later it can be modied or replaced without
changing the whole system.
This bearer architecture awards the principal role to the Radio Network
Controller (RNC), since the RNC and the CN map the end-to-end QoS
requirements over the Iu interface and the RNC takes care of satisfying
QoS requirements over the radio path.
These two bearers exist in the system because the Iu bearer is more stable
in nature; the RAB experiences more changes during the connection.
For example, one UE may have three continuously changing RABs
maintained between itself and the RNC, while the RNC has only one Iu
bearer for this connection. This kind of situation occurs with soft
handovers.

46

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

The UTRAN consists of Radio Network
Subsystems (RNSs) and each RNS
contains dierent numbers of Base
Stations (ocially NodeBs, which make
the Uu interface a reality) and one RNC.

RNSs are separated from each other by

the UMTS interface which is situated
between RNC (Iur) interfaces that form
connections between two RNCs.
The Iur, which is specied as an open
interface, carries both signalling and
47
trac information.

UMTS Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Source: Huaweis Brochure

48

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Basic Structure of nodeB

The internal structure of the BS is very vendor-dependent but its logical

architecture is generic.

49

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Logical Architecture of nodeB

50

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Logical Architecture of RNC

51

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

As explained earlier, the RNC sees the BS as two entities: common
transport and a collection of Node B communication contexts.
The RNC controlling these for a BS is called the Controlling RNC (CRNC).
As far as the bearers are concerned, the RNC is a switching point between
the Iu bearer and the RB(s). One of the radio connections between the UE
and the RNC that carry user data is an RB. The RB in turn is related to the
UE context, which is a set of denitions required at the Iub interface to
arrange both common and dedicated connections between the UE and
the RNC. Since the UTRAN utilises macro diversity, the UE may have
several RBs between itself and the RNC. This situation is known as a soft
handover The RNC holding the Iu bearer for some UE is called the Serving
RNC (SRNC).
The third logical role the RNC canplay is that ofthe Drifting RNC (DRNC). In
this mode the RNC allocates the UE context to itselfthe request to
perform this activity comes from the SRNC through the Iur interface.

52

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

Radio Resource Management (RRM) is a management responsibility of the
UTRAN.
RRM is located in the UE, the BS and the RNC inside the UTRAN.

53

UMTS Core Network (CN)

The basic platform for all communication services provided to UMTS
subscribers.
The basic communication services include switching of circuit-switched
calls and routing of packet data.
Rel. 5 also introduces a new subsystem called the IP Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS), which opens up IP-based service world for mobile use by
seamlessly integrating the mobile world and the Internet world and
providing sophisticated service mechanisms to be used in the context of
mobile communications.
The CN map send-to-end QoS requirements to the UMTS bearer service.
When inter-connecting with other networks, QoS requirements also need
to be mapped onto the available external bearer service.

54

UMTS Core Network (CN)

the UMTS CN consists of

equipment entities called
domains and subsystems whose
purpose is to describe the trac
characteristics the equipment
takes care of.
55

UMTS Core Network (CN)

Bold lines: user plane
Thinner lines: control
plane

The CS Media Gateway

(CS-MGW) and the
Gateway Mobile
Services Switching
Centre (GMSC) server
can be combined
GMSC.
The CS-MGW and MSC
Server could be
combined MSC/VLR
If the Serving GPRS
Support Node (SGSN)
and MSC/VLR are
combined UMSC
(UMTS MSC).
56

UMTS Core Network (CN)

Home Subscriber Server

Call Session
Control Function
(CSCF)
Customised
Applications for
Mobile network
Enhanced Logic
(CAMEL)
Open Service
Architecture/
Service
Capability Server
(OSA/SCS)
IMS Switching
Function (IMSSF)

57

UMTS Core Network (CN)

Circuit Switching (CS)

Domain

The CS domain is included in 3GPP R5 for backward compatibility.

The aim of CS-MGWMSC server division is to separate the control and
user plane from each other. This introduces scalability to the system, since
a single MSC server could control many CS-MGWs.
Another advantage of this distributed CS domain architecture is that it
opens up the possibilities for user plane geographical optimisation.

58

UMTS Core Network (CN)

Packet
Switching (PS)
Domain

The two main elements of the PS domain are types of mobile networkspecic servers: Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS
Support Node (GGSN).

59

UMTS Core Network (CN)

SGSN contains the location registration function, which maintains data
needed for originating and terminating packet data transfer.
These data are subscription information containing the International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), various temporary identities, location
information, Packet Data Protocol (PDP) addresses (de facto but not
necessarily IP addresses), subscripted QoS and so on.
The tool for data transfer within the PS domain is called the PDP context
In order to transfer data, the SGSN must know with which GGSN the active
PDP context of a certain end-user exists. It is for this purpose that the
SGSN stores the GGSN address for each active PDP context.
One SGSN may have active PDP contexts going through numerous GGSNs.
Packet trac require additional elements/functionalities for addressing,
security and charging.
For security reasons operators now use DHCP for end-users.
In order to address the various elements within this intranet, the Domain
Name Server (DNS) is needed.
60

UMTS Core Network (CN)

When a user has gained a dynamically allocated address and the
connection has been established between the SGSN and GGSN, the user is
ready to access services that are made accessible by the operator.
Service access is arranged through Access Point Names (APNs) which can
be freely dened but very often are service-specic.
For instance, one APN could be the Internet and through this APN the user
is able to start Internet-browsing. Another APN could be, say, the WAP and
this APN leads the end-user to browse WAP menus made available by the
operator.
One GGSN may contain tens of thousands of APN denitions: they could be
company/corporate specic, they could lead to any place, any network, etc.

For security purpose, the GGSN has a FireWall (FW) facility integrated.

61

UMTS Core Network (CN)

UMTS networks bring exible IP bearers and excellent data capabilities to
terminals using the GPRS, EDGE and WCDMA networks. However, the
network lacks a mechanism to connect terminals using IP. This is where
the IMS comes in.
IMS introduces multimedia session control using SIP in the PS domain.
IMS entities and key functionalities :

Session management and routing family (CSCFs).

Databases (HSS, SLF).
Inter-working functions (BGCF, MGCF, IMS-MGW, SGW).
Services (AS, MRFC, MRFP).
Support functions (THIG, SEG, PDF).
Charging.

62

63

UMTS Terminal
Is ocially called User Equipment (UE) in the UMTS.
The following functions are considered mandatory for all UMTS terminals:
An interface to an integrated circuit card for insertion of the Universal Integrated
Circuit Card (UICC) containing Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) and,
optionally, IMS Identity Module (ISIM) application.
Service provider and network registration and deregistration.
Location update.
Originating and receiving of connection-oriented and connectionless services.
An unalterable equipment identication (IMEI).
Basic identication of terminal capabilities.
Support emergency calls without a USIM.
Support for the execution of algorithms required for authentication and
encryption.

Additional functionalities to facilitate future evolution:

An Application Programming Interface (API) capability.
A mechanism to download service-related information (parameters, scripts or
even software), new protocols, other functions and even new APIs into the
terminal.
Optional insertion of several UICC cards.
64

UMTS Services
The UMTS introduces a relatively simple QoS concept consisting of four
trac classes and some QoS attributes to dene the trac characteristics
of the trac classes.

QoS conversational: telephony speech

QoS streaming: real-time audio/video streaming
QoS interactive: classical data communication scheme (delay sensitive)
QoS background: classical data communication scheme (delay insensitive)

65

IMT-Advanced
Mobile systems that include the new capabilities of IMT that go
beyond those of IMT-2000.
Such systems provide
a high degree of commonality of functionality worldwide while retaining
the flexibility to support a wide range of services and applications in a cost
efficient manner
compatibility of services within IMT and with fixed networks;
capability of interworking with other radio access systems;
high quality mobile services;
user equipment suitable for worldwide use;
user-friendly applications, services and equipment;
worldwide roaming capability; and,
enhanced peak data rates to support advanced services and applications
(100 Mbit/s for high and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility were established as
targets for research).
ITU-R M.1645

66

What is LTE?
Specification managed by 3GPP organization

Scope to create global 3G spec based on GSM architecture (until rel 96)
GPRS Rel 97
UMTS Rel 99
(all IP network) Rel 4
HSPDA (High Speed Download Packet Access) Rel 5 (IMS as well)
HSPUA (Upload Access) Rel 6
HSPA+ Rel 7, enhancements in Rel 8

LTE specification in Rel. 8, 4G Scope

LTE-A specification in Rel. 10
ITU defines 4G as 100 Mbps mobile, 1 Gbps stationary
LTE-Advanced & WiMax 2.0 4G certified, theoretically capable
Realistic? Nokia lab demo w/ 8 antennas, 60 MHz & 1 user
Market 4G defined as ~10X 3G or 5-10+ Mbps
Current gen WiMax, LTE & HSPA+

LTE Multiplexing
1G: FDMA 1 user, 1 channel, 30kHz, add channels for more
users
2G: CDMA or TDMA, 200 kHz to 1.25 MHz
3G: CDMA & TDMA hybrid
1.25 to 5 MHz channels
1.2288 to 3.84 MSps

4G: LTE & WiMax = OFDM(A)

Slow down symbol rates, use multiple orthogonal frequencies
15kHz channels Orthogonally spaced. 15 kSps
802.11 A,G,N & HDTV all use OFDM

LTE Channel Sizes

2G; GSM= 200 kHz, 1xRTT = 1.25 MHz
3G; HSPA = 5 MHz, EVDO = 1.25 MH
Wasted spectrum
Guard bands between carriers or left
Leftover spectrum unused Holdings

LTE is Flexible Channel Size

1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 or 20 MHz
~100 subcarriers per MHz (128, 256, 512, 1024, 1536 or 2048)
Subcarriers are 15 kHz

LTE-A can support up to 100MHz (bandwidth aggregation)

LTE Releases
Release 8
Initial LTE release
Up to 4x4 MIMO

Release 9
Minor enhancements

Release 10, LTE Advanced

2013 Commercial Availability
Channel bonding up to 5X
8x8 MIMO, SON

VoLTE
LTE is a data focused technology, 3GPP never specified voice
CSFB-Circuit Switched Fall Back
Use 2G/3G technology to carry Voice, 1xRTT,UMTS, HSPA

SVLTE, Simultaneous Voice and LTE, uses extra power

Currently deployed

VoLTE- Carrier controlled COS VoIP with IMS interconnection

Efficient Cellular codecs, IMS transcodes to SIP or PSTN
Widely agreed upon, most likely future

OTT (Over the Top), Skype, Vonage, etc

No Quality of Service, inefficient codecs

LTE
Requirements for LTE Rel 8
i.

Reduced delays, in both connection establishment and transmission

latency
ii.
Increase user data rate
iii. Increase cell-edge bit-rate, for uniformity of service provision.
iv. Reduced cost per bit, implying improved spectral efficiency
v.
Greater exibility of spectrum usage, in both new and pre-existing
bands
vi. Simplied network architecture
vii. Seamless mobility, including between dierent radio-access
technologies (RATs)
viii. Reasonable power consumption for the mobile terminal
To address these objectives, the LTE system design covers both the radio
interface and the radio network architecture.
72

LTE
Besides the system
requirements given
in the table, other
considerations for
network operators
include reduced
deployment cost,
spectrum exibility
and enhanced
interoperability
with legacy systems
essential
requirements to
enable deployment
of LTE networks in a
variety of scenarios
and to facilitate
migration to LTE.
73

LTE: Multicarrier Technology

The candidate schemes for the downlink were Orthogonal Frequency-Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA) and Multiple WCDMA
The candidate schemes for the uplink were Single-Carrier Frequency-Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA), OFDMA and Multiple WCDMA.
The choice was made in December 2005, with OFDMA being selected for the
downlink, and SC-FDMA for the uplink.

74

LTE: Multicarrier Technology

OFDMA extends the multicarrier technology of OFDM to provide a very
exible multiple-access scheme.
OFDM subdivides the bandwidth available for signal transmission into a
multitude of narrowband subcarriers, arranged to be mutually orthogonal,
which either individually or in groups can carry independent information
streams
In OFDMA, this Subdivision of the available bandwidth is exploited in sharing
the subcarriers among multiple users.
This resulting exibility can be used in various ways:
i.
Dierent spectrum bandwidths can be utilized without changing the
fundamental system parameters or equipment design;
ii. Transmission resources of variable bandwidth can be allocated to dierent
users and scheduled freely in the frequency domain;
iii. Fractional frequency re-use and interference coordination between cells
are facilitated.
75

LTE: Multicarrier Technology

The transmitter design for OFDM is more costly, as the Peak-to-Average
Power Ratio (PAPR) of an OFDM signal is relatively high, resulting in a need
for a highly linear RF power amplier.
However, this limitation is not inconsistent with the use of OFDM for
downlink transmissions, as low-cost implementation has a lower priority for
the base station than for the mobile terminal.
In the uplink, high PAPR is dicult to tolerate for the transmitter of the
mobile terminal, since it is necessary to compromise between the output
power required for good outdoor coverage, the power consumption, and the
cost of the power amplier.
SCFDMA, which has much in common with OFDMA in particular the
exibility in the frequency domain, and the incorporation of a guard interval
at the start of each transmitted symbol to facilitate low-complexity
frequency-domain equalization at the receiver.
SC-FDMA also has a signicantly lower PAPR.

76

LTE: Multicarrier Technology

The use of multiple antenna technology allows the exploitation of the spatialdomain as another new dimension for higher spectral eciencies.
The theoretically achievable spectral eciency scales linearly with the minimum
of the number of transmit and receive antennas employed, at least in suitable
radio propagation environments.
Multiple antenna technology opens the door to a large variety of features, but
not all of them easily deliver their theoretical promises when it comes to
implementation in practical systems.
3 fundamental principles:
1. Diversity gain: use of the spatial diversity provided by the multiple antennas to
improve the robustness of the transmission against multipath fading.
2. Array gain: Concentration of energy in one or more given directions via
precoding or beamforming. This also allows multiple users located in dierent
directions to be served simultaneously (so-called multi-user MIMO).
3. Spatial multiplexing gain: Transmission of multiple signal streams to a single
user on multiple spatial layers created by combinations of the available
antennas.
77

LTE: Multicarrier Antenna Technology

78

LTE: Packet Switched Network

LTE has been designed as a completely packet-oriented multiservice
system, without the reliance on circuit-switched connection-oriented
protocols prevalent in its predecessors.
The route towards fast packet scheduling over the radio interface was
already opened by HSDPA, which allowed the transmission of short
packets having a duration of the same order of magnitude as the
coherence time of the fast fading channel.

79

LTE: Packet Switched Network

In LTE, in order to improve the system latency, the packet duration was
further reduced from the 2 ms used in HSDPA down to just 1 ms.
This short transmission interval, together with the new dimensions of
frequency and space, has further extended the eld of cross-layer
techniques between the MAC and physical layers to include the following
techniques in LTE:
i.
Adaptive scheduling in both the frequency and spatial dimensions
ii. Adaptation of the MIMO conguration including the selection of the
number of spatial layers transmitted simultaneously
iii. Link adaptation of modulation and code-rate, including the number of
transmitted codewords
iv. Several modes of fast channel state reporting
These dierent levels of optimization are combined with very
sophisticated control signalling.

80

LTE: UE Categories

81

LTE: Network Architecture

While the term LTE encompasses the evolution of the radio access through
the Evolved-UTRAN (E-UTRAN), it is accompanied by an evolution of the nonradio aspects under the term System Architecture Evolution (SAE) which
includes the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) network.
Together LTE and SAE comprise the Evolved Packet System (EPS).
EPS uses the concept of EPS bearers to route IP trac from a gateway in the
PDN to the UE. A bearer is an IP packet ow with a dened Quality of Service
(QoS).
The E-UTRAN and EPC together set up and release bearers as required by
applications.
EPS natively supports voice services over the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
using Voice over IP (VoIP), but LTE also supports interworking with legacy
systems for traditional CS voice support (Circuit Switched Fallback, CSFB).

82

LTE: Network Architecture

At a high level, the network is comprised of the CN (i.e.EPC) and the access
network (i.e.E-UTRAN).
While the CN consists of many logical nodes, the access network is made up
of essentially just one node, the evolved NodeB (eNodeB), which connects to
the UEs.
Each of these network elements is inter-connected by means of interfaces
which are standardized in order to allow multi-vendor interoperability.

83

LTE: Network Architecture

Functional Split

84

LTE: Core Network

The CN (the EPC in SAE) is responsible for the overall control of the UE and the
establishment of the bearers.
PDN Gateway (P-GW): responsible for IP address allocation for the UE, as well
as QoS enforcement and ow-based charging according to rules from the
PCRF. The P-GW is also responsible for the ltering of downlink user IP packets
into the dierent QoS-based bearers. This is performed based on Trac Flow
Templates (TFTs). The P-GW performs QoS enforcement for Guaranteed Bit
Rate (GBR) bearers. It also serves as the mobility anchor for inter-working
with non-3GPP technologies such as CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks.
Serving Gateway (S-GW): All user IP packets are transferred through the SGW, which serves as the local mobility anchor for the data bearers when the
UE moves between eNodeBs. It also retains the information about the bearers
when the UE is in idle state (EPS Connection Management IDLE (ECM-IDLE))
and temporarily buers downlink data while the MME initiates paging of the
UE to re-establish the bearers. The S-GW also performs some administrative
functions in the visited network, such as collecting information for charging
(e.g. the volume of data sent to or received from the user) and legal
interception. It also serves as the mobility anchor for inter-working with other
85
3GPP technologies such as GPRS and UMTS.

LTE: Core Network

Mobility Management Entity (MME): the control node which processes the
signalling between the UE and the CN. The protocols running between the UE
and the CN are known as the Non-Access Stratum (NAS) protocols. The main
functions supported are:
i. Functions related to bearer management: establishment, maintenance and
release of the bearers, handled by the session management layer in the
NAS protocol.
ii. Functions related to connection management: establishment of the
connection and security between the network and UE, handled by the
connection or mobility management layer in the NAS protocol layer.
iii. Functions related to inter-working with other networks :handing over of
voice calls to legacy networks.
Evolved Serving Mobile Location Centre(E-SMLC): manages the overall
coordination and scheduling of resources required to nd the location of a UE
that is attached to E-UTRAN. It also calculates the nal location based on the
estimates it receives, and it estimates the UE speed and the achieved
accuracy.
86

LTE: Core Network

Gateway Mobile Location Centre (GMLC): contains functionalities required to
support Location Services (LCS). After performing authorization, it sends
positioning requests to the MME and receives the nal location estimates.
Home Subscriber Server (HSS): contains users SAE subscription data such as the
EPS-subscribed QoS prole and any access restrictions for roaming. It also holds
information about the PDNs to which the user can connect, in the form of an
Access Point Name(APN) (according to DNS naming conventions describing the
access point to the PDN) or a PDN Address (subscribed IP address(es)). It also
holds dynamic information such as the identity of the MME to which the user is
currently attached or registered. The HSS may also integrate the Authentication
Centre (AuC) which generates the vectors for authentication and security keys
Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF): responsible for policy control
decision-making, and for controlling the ow-based charging functionalities in
the Policy Control Enforcement Function (PCEF) which resides in the P-GW. It
provides the QoS authorization (QoS class identier and bit rates) that decides
how a certain data ow will be treated in the PCEF and ensures that this is in
accordance with the users subscription prole.
87

LTE: Non-Access Stratum (NAS) Procedures

The MME creates a UE context when a UE is turned on and attaches to the
network.
It assigns to the UE a unique short temporary identity termed the SAETemporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (S-TMSI) which identies the UE
context in the MME.
This UE context holds user subscription information downloaded from the
HSS.
The local storage of subscription data in the MME allows faster execution
of procedures such as bearer establishment since it removes the need to
consult the HSS every time.
In addition, the UE context also holds dynamic information such as the list
of bearers that are established and the terminal capabilities.
To reduce the overhead in the E-UTRAN and the processing in the UE, all UErelated information in the access network can be released during long periods
of data inactivity. The UE is then in the ECM-IDLE state. The MME retains the
UE context and the information about the established bearers during these
idle periods.
88

LTE: Non-Access Stratum (NAS) Procedures

To allow the network to contact an ECM-IDLE UE, the UE updates the network
as to its new location whenever it moves out of its current Tracking Area (TA);
this procedure is called a Tracking Area Update (TAU). The MME is
responsible for keeping track of the user location while the UE is in ECM-IDLE.
When there is a need to deliver downlink data to an ECM-IDLE UE, the MME
sends a paging message to all the eNodeBs in its current TA, and the eNodeBs
page the UE over the radio interface.
On receipt of a paging message, the UE performs a service request
procedure which results in moving the UE to the ECM-CONNECTED state.
UE-related information is thereby created in the E-UTRAN, and the
bearers are re-established.
The MME is responsible for the re-establishment of the radio bearers and
updating the UE context in the eNodeB. This transition between the UE
states is called an idle-to-active transition.
To speed up the idle-to-active transition and bearer establishment, EPS
supports concatenation of the NAS and AS5 procedures for bearer
activation. For example, bearer establishment can be executed by the
network without waiting for the completion of the security procedure.

89

LTE: Non-Access Stratum (NAS) Procedures

When a UE attaches with the network, a mutual authentication of the UE and
the network is performed between the UE and the MME/HSS. This
authentication function also establishes the security keys which are used for
encryption of the bearers.
The NAS also handles IMS Emergency calls, whereby UEs without regular
access to the network (i.e. terminals without a Universal Subscriber Identity
Module (USIM) or UEs in limited service mode) are allowed access to the
network using an Emergency Attach procedure; this bypasses the security
requirements but only allows access to an emergency P-GW.

90

LTE: Access Network

The access network of LTE, E-UTRAN, simply consists of a network of eNodeBs.
The protocols which run between the eNodeBs and the UE are known as the
Access Stratum (AS) protocols.

91

LTE: Access Network

The E-UTRAN is responsible for all radio-related functions
1. Radio Resource Management: all functions related to the radio bearers, such
as radio bearer control, radio admission control, radio mobility control,
scheduling and dynamic allocation of resources to UEs in both uplink and
downlink.
2. Header Compression: ensures ecient use of the radio interface by
compressing the IP packet headers which could otherwise represent a
signicant overhead, especially for small packets such as VoIP
3. Security: All data sent over the radio interface is encrypted.
4. Positioning. The E-UTRAN provides the necessary measurements and other
data to the E-SMLC and assists the E-SMLC in nding the UE position.
5. Connectivity to the EPC: This consists of the signalling towards the MME and
the bearer path towards the S-GW.

92

LTE: Access Network

On the network side, all of these functions reside in the eNodeBs, each of
which can be responsible for managing multiple cells.
LTE integrates the radio controller function into the eNodeB. This allows tight
interaction between the dierent protocol layers of the radio access network,
thus reducing latency and improving eciency. Such distributed control
eliminates the need for a high-availability, processing-intensive controller,
which in turn has the potential to reduce costs and avoid single points of
failure.
One consequence of the lack of a centralized controller node is that, as the UE
moves, the network must transfer all information related to a UE, i.e. the UE
context, together with any buered data, from one eNodeB to another.
Mechanisms are needed to avoid data loss during handover. (Can use X2)

An eNodeB may be served by multiple MME/S-GWs The set of MME/S-GW

nodes serving a common area is called an MME/S-GW pool , and the area
covered by such a pool of MME/S-GWs is called a pool.
The UE context normally remains with the same MME as long as the UE is
located within the pool area.
93

LTE: Roaming Architecture

94

LTE: User Plane Protocols

95

LTE: User Plane Protocols

An IP packet for a UE is encapsulated in an EPC-specic protocol and
tunnelled between the P-GW and the eNodeB for transmission to the UE.
Dierent tunnelling protocols are used across dierent interfaces.
A 3GPP-specic tunnelling protocol called the GPRS Tunnelling Protocol
(GTP) is used over the core network interfaces: S1 and S5/S8.
The E-UTRAN user plane protocol stack, consists of
i.
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP): IP header compression,
encryption, integrity checking, and sequencing and duplicate detection.
ii. Radio Link Control (RLC): provides three delivery services for radio link
control: TM (Transparent Mode), UM (Unacknowledged Mode) and AM
(Acknowledged Mode)
iii. Medium Access Control (MAC): mapping of information between logical
and transport channels, multiplexing, HARQ, and Radio Resource
Allocation.

96

LTE: Control Plane Protocols

The greyed region of the stack indicates the AS protocols.

The lower layers perform the same functions as for the user plane with
the exception that there is no header compression function for control
plane.
The Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol is known as Layer 3 in the AS
protocol stack. It is the main controlling function in the AS, being
responsible for establishing the radio bearers and conguring all the lower
layers using RRC signalling between the eNodeB and the UE.
97

LTE: Quality of Service and EPS Bearers

Multiple applications may be running in a UE at the same time, each one
having dierent QoS requirements. In order to support multiple QoS
requirements, dierent bearers are set up within EPS, each being
associated with a QoS.
Bearers can be classied into two categories:
1. Minimum Guaranteed Bit Rate (GBR) bearers have an associated GBR
value for which dedicated transmission resources are permanently
allocated (e.g. by an admission control function in the eNodeB) at bearer
establishment/modication. Bit rates higher than the GBR may be
allowed for a GBR bearer if resources are available. In such cases, a
Maximum Bit Rate(MBR) parameter, which can also be associated with a
GBR bearer, sets an upper limit on the bit rate which can be expected
from a GBR bearer.
2. Non-GBR bearers which do not guarantee any particular bit rate. For
these bearers, no bandwidth resources are allocated permanently to the
bearer.
98

LTE: Quality of Service and EPS Bearers

Each bearer has an associated Class Identier (QCI), and an Allocation and
Retention Priority (ARP).
The ARP of a bearer is used for call admission control i.e. to decide
whether or not the requested bearer should be established in case of
radio congestion. It also governs the prioritization of the bearer for preemption with respect to a new bearer establishment request.

99

LTE: Quality of Service and EPS Bearers

Default bearer is assigned to an UE when it attaches to the network for
the first time, it remains as long as the UE is attached. It is best effort
service and non-GBR (QCI 5 to 9).
Dedicated bearer acts as an additional bearer on top of default bearer. It
can be GBR or non-GBR (QCI 1 to 9). For services like VoLTE we need to
provide better user experience and this is where Dedicated bearer would
come handy. Dedicated bearer uses Traffic flow templates (TFT) to give
special treatment to specific services.
The TFTs use IP header information to lter packets such as VoIP from web
browsing trac so that each can be sent down the respective bearers with
appropriate QoS.

100

LTE: Quality of Service and EPS Bearers

An EPS bearer has to cross multiple interfaces. Across each interface, the
EPS bearer is mapped onto a lower layer bearer, each with its own bearer
identity. Each node must keep track of the binding between the bearer IDs
across its dierent interfaces.
(TEID = Tunnel ID)
101

LTE
What else to know?

S1 and X2 interfaces
Various procedures (bearer establishment, handover, etc.)
Downlink physical layer
Uplink physical layer
Radio frequency aspects
Radio resource management
Picocells, femtocells and home eNodeBs
Self-Optimizing Network (SON)

102

UMTS to LTE Network Architecture Evolution

UMTS/HSPA to LTE Migration, Motorola 103

LTE-Advanced
With the completion of LTE Rel 8, 3GPP started to look into
ways to further evolve LTE for the future, in order to build
upon the existing LTE technology and to ensure that LTE
remains the leading global standard for mobile broadband.
Enhanced performance can in principle be achieved in two
ways by using more radio spectrum, and by using the
available spectrum more eciently.
LTE-Advanced is the 3GPP candidate for IMT-Advanced
3GPP set requirements on backward compatibility with earlier
releases of LTE
some of the 3GPP targets exceed the IMT-Advanced
requirements, such as the peak spectral eciency and the
control plane latency targets. (Some have already been
achieved in LTE)
104

LTE-Advanced

Key Radio-Access Targets

Included an FDD
and a TDD RIT
(Radio Interface
Technology)
component
An evaluation of
LTE-Advanced was
carried out by 18
companies in
3GPP, showing
that LTE-A
completely
satises the
criteria set by the
ITU-R for IMT-A.
105

LTE-Advanced

In Feb 2007, NTT DoCoMo announced the completion of a 4G trial where it achieved a
maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink using 12
transmit and 12 receive antennas and 100 MHz frequency bandwidth to a mobile station
moving at 10 km/h.

In Feb 2011 at Mobile World Congress, Agilent Technologies demonstrated the industry's first
test solutions for LTE-Advanced with both signal generation and signal analysis solutions.

On 9 Oct, 2012, Russian carrier Yota launched the first-ever commercial implementation of
the technology, at 11 of its base-stations around Moscow. However compatible handsets
weren't available until the first-half of 2013.

On Jun 25th, 2013, Korea's SK Telecom announced the launching of LTE-Advanced services in
Korea.

On Jun 26th, 2013, Samsung Electronics released an LTE-Advanced version of the Galaxy S4.

On Jul 18th, 2013, Korea's LG U Plus unveiled an LTE-Advanced network.

On Aug 18th, 2013, Philippines SMART Communications tests the LTE-Advanced network.

On Nov 5th 2013, two major carriers in the United Kingdom (Vodaphone and EE) announced
they would be holding LTE - A trials in the London area.
[wiki]
106

LTE-Advanced
The main components of LTE-A in Rel 10 are:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Carrier aggregation
Enhanced downlink multiple antenna transmission
Uplink multiple antenna transmission
Relaying
Support for heterogeneous network deployments
Enhanced Inter-Carrier Interference Coordination
Minimization of Drive Test

Rel 11
CoMP, eDL MIMO, eCA, MIMO OTA, HSUPA TxD & 64QAM MIMO,
HSDPA 8C & 4x4 MIMO, MB MSR

Rel 12
New carrier type, carrier-based hetnet, LTE-Direct (D2D device to
device communication), Active Antenna Systems (AAS)
107

LTE-A: UE Categories

108

LTE-A: Carrier Aggregation

In order to fulfill peak data rates of 1 Gbps in the downlink and 500Mbps
in the uplink, a transmission bandwidth of up to 100MHz is required
Since the availability of such large portions of contiguous spectrum is rare
in practice, LTE-A uses carrier aggregation of multiple Component Carriers
(CCs) to achieve high-bandwidth transmission.
Rel 8 LTE carriers have a maximum bandwidth of 20MHz, so LTE-A
supports aggregation of up to ve 20MHz CCs.
A second motivation for carrier aggregation is to facilitate ecient use of
fragmented spectrum, irrespective of the peak data rate.
Carrier aggregation in LTE-A is designed to support aggregation of a variety
of dierent arrangements of CCs, including CCs of the same or dierent
bandwidths, adjacent or non-adjacent CCs in the same or different
frequency bands,
Each CC can take any of the transmission bandwidths supported by LTE Rel
8, namely 6, 15, 25, 50, 75 or 100 Resource Blocks (RBs), corresponding to
channel bandwidths of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz respectively.
109

LTE-A: Carrier Aggregation

A third motivation for carrier aggregation is support of heterogeneous
networks.
A heterogeneous network deployment typically consists of a layer of highpower macrocells and a layer of low-power small cells (e.g. picocells,
Closed Subscriber Group (CSG) femtocells or relay nodes) with at least one
carrier being used by both layers.
In such a deployment, transmissions from one cell can interfere strongly
with the control channels of another, thus impeding scheduling and
signalling.
Rather than simply using separate carriers for the two layers, which would
result in inecient spectrum usage, carrier aggregation enables multiple
carriers to be used for a given layer, while interference can be avoided by
means of cross-carrier scheduling.
Cross-carrier scheduling allows the Physical Downlink Control Channel
(PDCCH) on the CC of one serving cell to schedule transmission resources
on a CC of another serving cell.
110

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

Multiple antenna techniques play a key role in LTE-Advanced.
The main enhancements to the downlink multiple antenna transmission
schemes in Rel are the extension of SU-MIMO to support 8-layer
transmission, and higher spectral eciency MU-MIMO. These are
introduced in a new PDSCH transmission mode, known as Transmission
Mode 9 To support these advances, new reference signals and
enhanced UE feedback are introduced.
Rel 10 continues to use a maximum of two codewords even in the case of
eight antenna ports (for up to 4 antenna ports, the mapping is the same as
Rel 8)

111

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

In Rel 10, SU-MIMO transmission with up to four spatial layers is
introduced to increase the data rate for the PUSCH, and the reliability of
the control signalling on the PUCCH is increased using transmit diversity.
The concept of transmission modes is introduced for the PUSCH in Rel 10.
The transmission modes are as follows:
i.
ii.

PUSCH Transmission Mode 1: Transmission from a single antenna port;13

PUSCH Transmission Mode 2: Transmission from multiple antenna ports;
within this mode, the UE can be congured to transmit from either 2 or 4
antenna ports.

The transmit diversity scheme introduced for the PUCCH in Rel 10 is

designed to ensure backward compatibility with the Release 8 PUCCH
design.
For PUCCH formats 1/1a/1b, Space Orthogonal-Resource Transmit
Diversity (SORTD) is used, whereby the UE transmits the same control
information from dierent transmit antennas with dierent orthogonal
resources.
112

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

Coordinated MultiPoint (CoMP) Transmission and Reception
Also known as Cooperative MIMO
A technique to increase performance, especially at the cell edge, within
the evolution of LTE-Advanced for Rel 11 or beyond.
CoMP includes both downlink and uplink cooperation
The downlink has received signicantly more attention in the literature,
primarily due to the more challenging nature of the transmission
coordination problem.
Uplink CoMP basically consists of coordination of eNodeB scheduling
and/or receiver processing, and hence the main standardization eort
would lie in the denition of appropriate information exchange protocols
between eNodeBs if multivendor operation is required.
In addition to backhaul protocol support, downlink cooperation would
require enhancements to the CSI feedback design.

113

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

Case A

Case B

A. Traditional non-cooperative single-cell transmission.

B. Coordinated scheduling: CellB reduces the transmission power on a set of
time-frequency resources for the benet of UE1 and UEC3 served by
CellA and CellC, respectively.

Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) via partial frequency reuse is a

form of coordinated scheduling where the coordination is achieved by
exchanging transmission power levels used on dierent time-frequency
resources between eNodeBs via the X2 interface.
Dynamic scheduling coordination is valuable in Home eNodeB (HeNB) Closed
Subscriber Group (CSG) deployments where severe interference conditions
can arise whenever UE moves into the coverage area of a dierent CSG
114

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

Case C

C.

Coordinated beamforming: adds a spatial dimension to ICIC and is applicable in

deployments with multi-antenna eNodeBs.

Allows an interfering HeNB1 to transmit to UE1 as long as transmit beams are

steered away from UE2 which is being served by HeNB2 but located in the coverage
area of HeNB1.

Opportunistic beamforming may be viewed as a simple form of coordinated

beamforming whereby each cell performs beam-swapping according to predened
patterns while cells schedule UEs based on CSI feedback computed according to
these patterns. This type of operation is well suited to the presence of a large
number of UEs per cell and full buer trac.
115

LTE-A: Multiple Antenna Techniques

Case D

D. Coherent Joint Transmission (Multicell MU-MIMO): involves simultaneous

transmission of data packets to one or more UEs from multiple cells with cophasing.

This form of coordinated transmission requires fast connectivity (low latency)

between the transmission points to enable the exchange of control information,
as well as high bandwidth backhaul to the eNodeBs involved in data sharing.
Practical scenarios of interest include eNodeBs equipped with multiple Remote
Radio Heads (RRHs).
116

LTE-A: Relaying
Relays are additional network nodes designed to complement
a macro-cellular network of regular eNodeBs with reduced
cost, by expanding coverage or increasing capacity.
Relays can be seen as an evolution of repeaters. A Relay Node
(RN) is a network node connected wirelessly to a source
eNodeB, called the donor eNodeB.
An important characteristic of RNs is that they are under the
full control of the radio access network, which permits similar
monitoring and remote control capabilities as for an eNodeB.
In contrast to a repeater, an RN processes the received signal
before forwarding it; this may involve Layer 1, Layer 2 or Layer
3 operations.
The processing performed by an RN requires at least two
transmission occasions to deliver the signal from the donor
eNodeB to an UE.
117

LTE-A: Relaying
Scenario

DonoreNodeB/cell: source eNodeB/cell from which theRN receives its signal.

Relay cell: coverage area of the RN.
Backhaul link: link between the donor eNodeB and RN.

Access link: link between the RN and UE.

Direct link: link between donor eNodeB and UE.
Inband/outband: inband RN uses the same carrier frequency for the backhaul link as for
the access link; otherwise, theRN is said tobe outband.
Half/full duplex: half-duplex RN cannot receive on the backhaul link at the same time as
transmitting on the access link, whereas a full-duplex RN has sucient antenna isolation
to be able to operate without this restriction.
Donor and coverage antennas: at the RN, the donor antenna(s) are used for the backhaul
118
link, while the coverage antenna(s) are used for the access link.

LTE-A: Relaying

119

LTE-A: Relaying

120

LTE-A: Relaying
Relay Architecture
& Interfaces

121

5G
A new mobile generation has appeared approximately every decade since
1980s a new generation of 5G standards may be introduced approximately
in the early 2020s.
European Commission Vice President Neelie Kroes announces 50 million for
research to deliver 5G mobile technology by 2020, with the aim to put
Europe back in the lead of the global mobile industry. "I want 5G be
pioneered by European industry, based on European research and creating
jobs in Europe and we will put our money where our mouth is," Kroes said.
(Mobile communications: Fresh 50 million EU research grants in 2013 to develop '5G'
technology European Commission - IP/13/159 26/02/2013)

On January 15 2013 researchers from Ericsson AB, KTH Royal Institute of

Technology, Aalto University and Telecom Italia launched a new project 5GrEEn, an activity within the EIT ICT Labs action line Networking Solutions
for Future Media. The project team will focus on designing Green 5G Mobile
networks, a clean slate solution for environmentally friendly mobile networks
of the future for a connected society.
122

5G
Mobile and wireless communications Enablers for Twenty-twenty (2020)
Information Society (METIS) overall technical goal is to provide a system
concept that supports:
1000 times higher mobile data volume per area: network operators will
serve many more users at the same time.
10 times to 100 times higher number of connected devices: new smart
technologies will be invented when you connect your car, your fridge, your
home energy and water controls.
10 times to 100 times higher typical user data rate: you will watch rich
video content on the move.
10 times longer battery life for low power Machine-to-MachineCommunications: you will have more autonomy on the move and lower
energy consumption.
5 times reduced End-to-End latency: you will enjoy smoother interaction
with bandwidth-hungry applications and less waiting time.
123

5G

Source: 5grEEn
124