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Personhood
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Personhoodisthestatusofbeingaperson.Definingpersonhoodisacontroversialtopicinphilosophy
andlawandiscloselytiedwithlegalandpoliticalconceptsofcitizenship,equality,andliberty.
Accordingtolaw,onlyanaturalpersonorlegalpersonalityhasrights,protections,privileges,
responsibilities,andlegalliability.[1]
Personhoodcontinuestobeatopicofinternationaldebateandhasbeenquestionedcriticallyduringthe
abolitionofhumanandnonhumanslavery,intheology,indebatesaboutabortionandinfetalrights
and/orreproductiverights,inanimalrightsactivism,intheologyandontology,inethicaltheory,andin
debatesaboutcorporatepersonhoodandthebeginningofhumanpersonhood.[2]
Processesthroughwhichpersonhoodisrecognizedsociallyandlegallyvarycrossculturally,
demonstratingthatnotionsofpersonhoodarenotuniversal.AnthropologistBethConklinhasshown
howpersonhoodistiedtosocialrelationsamongtheWari'peopleofRondnia,Brazil.[3]BruceKnauft's
studiesoftheGebusipeopleofPapuaNewGuineadepictacontextinwhichindividualsbecomepersons
incrementally,againthroughsocialrelations.[4]Likewise,JaneC.Goodalehasalsoexaminedthe
constructionofpersonhoodinPapuaNewGuinea.[5]

Contents
1 Overview
1.1 Westernphilosophy
1.2 Americanlaw
2 Debates
2.1 Humans
2.1.1 Beginningofpersonhood
2.1.1.1 UnitedStates
2.1.1.2 International
2.1.2 Women
2.1.3 Slaves
2.1.4 Children
2.2 Nonhumananimals
2.3 Hypotheticalbeings
2.3.1 Alienlife

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2.3.1 Alienlife
2.3.2 Artificialintelligenceorlife
2.3.3 Modifiedhumans
2.4 Corporations
2.5 Environmentalentities
3 Religion
3.1 Christianity
3.2 Islam
4 Seealso
5 References

Overview
Capacitiesorattributescommontodefinitionsofpersonhoodcanincludehumannature,agency,self
awareness,anotionofthepastandfuture,andthepossessionofrightsandduties,amongothers.[6]
However,theconceptofapersonisdifficulttodefineinawaythatisuniversallyaccepted,duetoits
historicalandculturalvariabilityandthecontroversiessurroundingitsuseinsomecontexts.

Westernphilosophy
Inphilosophy,theword"person"mayrefertovariousconcepts.Accordingtothe"naturalist"
epistemologicaltradition,fromDescartesthroughLockeandHume,thetermmaydesignateanyhuman
(ornonhuman)agentwhich:(1)possessescontinuousconsciousnessovertimeand(2)whoistherefore
capableofframingrepresentationsabouttheworld,formulatingplansandactingonthem.[7]
AccordingtoCharlesTaylor,theproblemwiththenaturalistviewisthatitdependssolelyona
"performancecriterion"todeterminewhatisanagent.Thus,otherthings(e.g.machinesoranimals)that
exhibit"similarlycomplexadaptivebehaviour"couldnotbedistinguishedfrompersons.Instead,Taylor
proposesasignificancebasedviewofpersonhood:
Whatiscrucialaboutagentsisthatthingsmattertothem.Wethuscannotsimplyidentify
agentsbyaperformancecriterion,norassimilateanimalstomachines...[likewise]thereare
mattersofsignificanceforhumanbeingswhicharepeculiarlyhuman,andhavenoanalogue
withanimals.
[8]
Others,suchasAmericanPhilosopherFrancisJ.Beckwith,arguethatpersonhoodisnotlinkedto
functionatall,butratherthatitistheunderlyingpersonalunityoftheindividual.
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Whatiscrucialmorallyisthebeingofaperson,nothisorherfunctioning.Ahumanperson
doesnotcomeintoexistencewhenhumanfunctionarises,butrather,ahumanpersonisan
entitywhohasthenaturalinherentcapacitytogiverisetohumanfunctions,whetherornot
thosefunctionsareeverattained.Ahumanpersonwholackstheabilitytothinkrationally
(eitherbecausesheistooyoungorshesuffersfromadisability)isstillahumanperson
becauseofhernature.Consequently,itmakessensetospeakofahumanbeingslackifand
onlyifsheisanactualperson.
[9]
PhilosopherJ.P.Morelandclarifiesthispoint:
Itisbecauseanentityhasanessenceandfallswithinanaturalkindthatitcanpossessa
unityofdispositions,capacities,partsandpropertiesatagiventimeandcanmaintain
identitythroughchange.
[10]
HarryG.Frankfurtwritesthat,"Whatphilosophershavelatelycometoacceptasanalysisoftheconcept
ofapersonisnotactuallyanalysisofthatconceptatall."Hesuggeststhattheconceptofapersonis
intimatelyconnectedtofreewill,anddescribesthestructureofhumanvolitionaccordingtofirstand
secondorderdesires:
Besideswantingandchoosingandbeingmovedtodothisorthat,[humans]mayalsowant
tohave(ornottohave)certaindesiresandmotives.Theyarecapableofwantingtobe
different,intheirpreferencesandpurposes,fromwhattheyare.Manyanimalsappearto
havethecapacityforwhatIshallcall"firstorderdesires"or"desiresofthefirstorder,"
whicharesimplydesirestodoornottodoonethingoranother.Noanimalotherthanman,
however,appearstohavethecapacityforreflectiveselfevaluationthatismanifestedinthe
formationofsecondorderdesires.
[11]
[12]

Thecriteriaforbeingaperson...aredesignedtocapturethoseattributeswhicharethe
subjectofourmosthumaneconcernwithourselvesandthesourceofwhatweregardas
mostimportantandmostproblematicalinourlives.
HarryG.Frankfurt
AccordingtoNikolasKompridis,theremightalsobeanintersubjective,orinterpersonal,basisto
personhood:
Whatifpersonalidentityisconstitutedin,andsustainedthrough,ourrelationswithothers,
suchthatwerewetoeraseourrelationswithoursignificantotherswewouldalsoerasethe
conditionsofourselfintelligibility?Asitturnsout,thiserasure...ispreciselywhatis
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experimentallydramatizedinthesciencefictionfilm,EternalSunshineoftheSpotless
Mind,afarmorephilosophicallysophisticatedmeditationonpersonalidentitythanisfound
inmostofthecontemporaryliteratureonthetopic.
[13]
Otherphilosophershavedefinedpersonsindifferentways.Boethiusgivesthedefinitionof"person"as
"anindividualsubstanceofarationalnature"("Naturrationalisindividuasubstantia").[14]PeterSinger
definesapersonasbeingaconscious,thinkingbeing,whichknowsthatitisaperson(self
awareness).[15]
PhilosopherThomasI.Whitearguesthatthecriteriaforapersonareasfollows:(1)isalive,(2)isaware,
(3)feelspositiveandnegativesensations,(4)hasemotions,(5)hasasenseofself,(6)controlsitsown
behaviour,(7)recognisesotherpersonsandtreatsthemappropriately,and(8)hasavarietyof
sophisticatedcognitiveabilities.WhilemanyofWhite'scriteriaaresomewhatanthropocentric,some
animalssuchasdolphinswouldstillbeconsideredpersons.[16]Someanimalrightsgroupshavealso
championedrecognitionforanimalsas"persons".[17]
Anotherapproachtopersonhood,ParadigmCaseFormulation,usedinDescriptivePsychologyand
developedbyPeterOssorio,involvesthefourinterrelatedconceptsof1)TheIndividualPerson,2)
DeliberateAction,3)RealityandtheRealWorld,and4)LanguageorVerbalBehavior.Allfour
conceptsrequirefullarticulationforanyoneofthemtobefullyintelligible.Morespecifically,aPerson
isanindividualwhosehistoryis,paradigmatically,ahistoryofDeliberateActioninaDramaturgical
pattern.DeliberateActionisaformofbehaviorinwhichaperson(a)engagesinanIntentionalAction,
(b)iscognizantofthat,and(c)haschosentodothat.Apersonisnotalwaysengagedinadeliberate
actionbuthastheeligibilitytodoso.Ahumanbeingisanindividualwhoisbothapersonanda
specimenofHomosapiens.Sincepersonsaredeliberateactors,theyalsoemployhedonic,prudent,
aestheticandethicalreasonswhenselecting,choosingordecidingonacourseofaction.Aspartofour
"socialcontract"weexpectthatthetypicalpersoncanmakeuseofallfourofthesemotivational
perspectives.Individualpersonswillweighthesemotivesinamannerthatreflectstheirpersonal
characteristics.Thatlifeislivedinadramaturgicalpatternistosaythatpeoplemakesense,thattheir
liveshavepatternsofsignificance.Theparadigmcaseallowsfornonhumanpersons,potentialpersons,
nascentpersons,manufacturedpersons,formerpersons,"deficitcase"persons,and"primitive"persons.
Byusingaparadigmcasemethodology,differentobserverscanpointtowheretheyagreeandwhere
theydisagreeaboutwhetheranentityqualifiesasaperson.[18][19]

Americanlaw
Apersonisrecognizedbylawassuch,notbecausetheyarehuman,butbecauserightsanddutiesare
ascribedtothem.Thepersonisthelegalsubjectorsubstanceofwhichtherightsanddutiesare
attributes.Anindividualhumanbeingconsideredtobehavingsuchattributesiswhatlawyerscalla
"naturalperson."[20]AccordingtoBlack'sLawDictionary,[21]apersonis:
Ingeneralusage,ahumanbeing(i.e.naturalperson),thoughbystatutetermmayincludea
firm,labororganizations,partnerships,associations,corporations,legalrepresentatives,
trustees,trusteesinbankruptcy,orreceivers.

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Asanapplicationofsocialpsychologyandotherdisciplines,phenomenasuchastheperceptionand
attributionofpersonhoodhavebeenscientificallystudied.[22][23]Typicalquestionsaddressedinsocial
psychologyaretheaccuracyofattribution,processesofperceptionandtheformationofbias.Various
otherscientific/medicaldisciplinesaddressthemyriadofissuesinthedevelopmentofpersonality.

Debates
Variousspecificdebatesfocusonquestionsaboutthepersonhoodofdifferentclassesofentities.

Humans
Beginningofpersonhood
Thebeginningofhumanpersonhoodisaconceptlongdebatedbyreligionandphilosophy.Withrespect
toabortion,'personhood'isthestatusofahumanbeinghavingindividualhumanrights.Thetermwas
usedbyJusticeBlackmuninRoev.Wade.[24]
ApoliticalmovementintheUnitedStatesseekstodefine
thebeginningofhumanpersonhoodasstartingfromthe
momentoffertilizationwiththeresultbeingthatabortion,as
wellasformsofbirthcontrolthatacttodeprivethehuman
embryoofnecessarysustenanceinimplantation,could
becomeillegal.[25][26]Supportersofthemovementalsostate
thatitwouldhavesomeeffectonthepracticeofinvitro
fertilization(IVF),butwouldnotleadtothepracticebeing
outlawed.[27]JonathanF.Willnotesthatthepersonhood
frameworkcouldproducesignificantrestrictionsonIVFto
theextentthatreproductiveclinicsfinditimpossibleto
providetheservices.[28]

PersonhoodprotestinfrontoftheUnited
StatesSupremeCourt

Arepresentativeorganizationwithinthismovementis
PersonhoodUSA,aColoradobasedumbrellagroupwithanumberofstatelevelaffiliates,[29]which
describesitselfasanonprofitChristianministry.[30]andseekstobanabortion.[31]PersonhoodUSAwas
cofoundedbyCalZastrowandKeithMason[32]in2008followingtheColoradoforEqualRights
campaigntoenactastateconstitutionalpersonhoodamendment.[33]
ProponentsofthemovementregardpersonhoodasanattempttodirectlychallengetheRoev.WadeU.S.
SupremeCourtdecision,thusfillingalegalvoidleftbyJusticeHarryBlackmuninthemajorityopinion
whenhewrote:Ifthissuggestionofpersonhoodisestablished,theappellantscase,ofcourse,
collapses,forthefetusrighttolifewouldthenbeguaranteedspecificallybytheAmendment.[24]
Somemedicalorganizationshavedescribedthepotentialeffectsofpersonhoodlegislationaspotentially
harmfultopatientsandthepracticeofmedicine,particularlyinthecasesofectopicandmolar
pregnancy.[34]
LegalanalysisfromtheMississippiCenterforPublicPolicy[35]andothermedicalorganizations[36]hold
thatpersonhoodmeasureswillhavenoeffectonmedicalinterventionintendedtosavehumanlife.

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SusanBordohassuggestedthatthefocusontheissueofpersonhoodinabortiondebateshasoftenbeen
ameansfordeprivingwomenoftheirrights.Shewritesthat"thelegaldoublestandardconcerningthe
bodilyintegrityofpregnantandnonpregnantbodies,theconstructionofwomenasfetalincubators,the
bestowalof'supersubject'statustothefetus,andtheemergenceofafather'srightsideology"
demonstrate"thatthecurrenttermsoftheabortiondebateasacontestbetweenfetalclaimsto
personhoodandwomen'srighttochoosearelimitedandmisleading."[37]
Others,suchasColleenCarrollCampbell,notethatthepersonhoodmovementisanaturalprogression
ofsocietyinprotectingtheequalrightsofallmembersofthehumanspecies.Shewrites,Thebasic
philosophicalpremisebehindthese[personhood]amendmentsiseminentlyreasonable.Andthe
alternativeonofferwhichsevershumanityfrompersonhoodisfraughtwithperil.Ifbeinghumanis
notenoughtoentitleonetohumanrights,thentheveryconceptofhumanrightslosesmeaning.Andall
ofusbornandunborn,strongandweak,youngandoldsomedaywillfindourselvesonthewrong
endofthatcruelmeasuringstick."[38]
FatherFrankPavoneagrees,adding,Noristhisadisputeaboutthestateimposingareligiousor
philosophicalview.Afterall,yourlifeandminearenotprotectedbecauseofsomereligiousor
philosophicalbeliefthatothersarerequiredtohaveaboutus.Moreaccurately,thelawprotectsus
preciselyinspiteofthebeliefsofotherswho,intheirownworldview,maynotvalueourlives.To
supportRoevs.Wadeisnotmerelytoallowamedicalprocedure.Itistoacknowledgethatthe
governmenthasthepowertosaywhoisapersonandwhoisnot.Who,then,istolimitthegroupsto
whomitisapplied?Thisiswhatmakespersonhoodsuchanimportantpublicpolicyissue.[39]
TheVaticanhasrecentlybeenadvancingahumanexceptionalistunderstandingofpersonhoodtheory.
Catechism2270reads:Humanlifemustberespectedandprotectedabsolutelyfromthemomentof
conception.Fromthefirstmomentofhisexistence,ahumanbeingmustberecognizedashavingthe
rightsofapersonamongwhichistheinviolablerightofeveryinnocentbeingtolife.[40]
UnitedStates

InMarch2007Georgiabecamethefirststateinthenationtointroducealegislativeresolutiontoamend
thestateconstitutiontodefineandrecognizethepersonhoodofthepreborn.[41]TheGeorgiaCatholic
ConferenceandNationalRighttoLifesupportedtheeffortanditfailedtoattractasupermajorityin
bothchambersinordertobeplacedontheballot.[42]Georgialegislatorshavefiledapersonhood
resolutioneverysessionsince2007.[43][44][45]InMay2008GeorgiaRighttoLifehostedthefirst
nationwidePersonhoodSymposiumtargetingprolifeactivists.[46]Thissymposiumwasinstrumentalin
spawningthegroupPersonhoodUSAandthevariousstatepersonhoodeffortsthatfollowed.Votersin
46Georgiacountiesapprovedpersonhoodduringthe2010primaryelectionwith75%infavorofanon
bindingresolutiondeclaringtheequalrightsofallhumanbeingsfromconception.[47]Duringthe2012
Republicanprimaryasimilarquestionwasplacedontheballotstatewideandpassedwithasuper
majority(66%)ofthevotein158of159counties.[48]
Thesummerof2008acitizeninitiatedamendmentwasproposedfortheColoradoconstitution.[49]Three
attemptstoenactthefromfertilizationdefinitionofpersonhoodintoU.S.stateconstitutionsvia
referendahavefailed.[50]FollowingtwoattemptstoenactsimilarchangesinColoradoin2008and2010,
a2011initiativetoamendthestateconstitutionbyreferenduminthestateofMississippialsofailedto
gainapprovalwitharound58%ofvotersdisapproving.[50][51]Inaninterviewafterthereferendum,
MasonascribedthefailureoftheinitiativetoapoliticalcampaignrunbyPlannedParenthood.[52]
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SeveralstateSupremeCourtshaverejectedchallengestopersonhoodmeasuresbroughtbyopponentsin
statesincludingColorado,[53]Ohio,[54]Nevada,[55]andMississippi.[56]IntheMississippimajority
opinion,JusticeRandyG.Piercewrote:
Essentially,PlaintiffsaskthisCourttorenderjudgmentuponthesubstanceofIntervenors
initiativeitsconstitutionalityinadvanceoftheelection.ThisCourtiswithoutpower
tointerferewithpreelectionproposals,becausetodosomayplacetheadministrationof
governmentatthefootstoolofthejudiciary.
ThisCourtwillexercisejudicialrestraintandfollowthereasoningofthemajorityofcourts
throughouttheUnitedStates,bothfederalandstate,which:havearticulatedapolicyof
deferencetowarddirectlegislationprocesses.Wecannotinvadetheterritoryofthe
Legislatureortheelectoratetoreviewthesubstantivevalidityofaproposedinitiative,and
thereby,wewillhonorthemaximembodiedintheconstitutionalmandateofseparationof
powers.
[56]
PersonhoodproponentsinOklahomasoughttoamendthestateconstitutiontodefinepersonhoodas
beginningatconception.ThestateSupremeCourt,citingtheU.S.SupremeCourt's1992decisionin
PlannedParenthoodv.Casey,ruledinApril2012thattheproposedamendmentwasunconstitutional
underthefederalConstitutionandblockedinclusionofthereferendumquestionontheballot.[57]In
October2012,theU.S.SupremeCourtdeclinedtohearanappealofthestateSupremeCourt'sruling.[58]
In2006,a16yearoldgirlwaschargedinMississippiwithmurderforthestillbirthofherdaughteron
thebasisthatthegirlhadsmokedcocainewhilepregnant.[59]Thesechargeswerelaterdismissed.[60]
In2014anewnationalgroupformed,NationalPersonhoodAlliance.FoundedbyDanielBecker,then
PresidentofGeorgiaRighttoLife,thenewgroupformedtohousethegrowingstatepersonhood
movementandtoprovideeducationalresourcesandtrainingtotheburgeoningstatepersonhood
affiliates.[61]
International

In1983,thepeopleofIrelandaddedtheEighthAmendmenttotheirconstitutionthatacknowledgesthe
righttolifeoftheunbornand,withdueregardtotheequalrighttolifeofthemother,guaranteesinits
lawstorespect,and,asfaraspracticable,byitslawstodefendandvindicatethatright.
Women
In1920,withtheNineteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,womenbecameprotected
againstdiscriminationintheirrighttovoteintheUnitedStates.In1971,theUSSupremeCourtruledin
Reedv.Reed[62]thatthe14thamendmentappliestowomen,[63]astheyare"persons"accordingtothe
USConstitution.[64]In2011,SupremeCourtJusticeAntoninScaliaarguedthatwomendonothave
equalprotectionunderthe14thamendmentas"persons"[65][66]sayingthattheConstitution'suseofthe
genderneutralterm"Person"meansthattheConstitutiondoesnotrequirediscriminationonthebasisof
sex,butalsodoesnotprohibitsuchdiscriminationhesaid"Nobodyeverthoughtthatthat'swhatit
meant.Nobodyevervotedforthat.[67]Manyothers,includinglawprofessorJackBalkindisagreewith
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thisassertion.Balkinstatesthat,ataminimum"thefourteenthamendmentwasintendedtoprohibit
someformsofsexdiscriminationdiscriminationinbasiccivilrightsagainstsinglewomen."[68]Many
localmarriagelawsatthetimetheFourteenthAmendmentwasratified(aswellaswhentheoriginal
Constitutionwasratified)hadconceptsofcovertureand"headandmaster",whichmeantthatwomen
legallylostrights,includingrightstoownershipofpropertyandotherrightsofadultparticipationinthe
politicaleconomyuponmarriagesinglewomenretainedtheserights,however,andvotedinsome
jurisdictions.Also,othercommentatorshavenotedthatsomepeoplewhoratifiedtheConstitutionin
1787inothercontemporaneouscontextsratifiedstatelevelConstitutionsthatsawwomenasPersons,
requiredtobetreatedassuch,includinginrightssuchasvoting.[69][70]The17thand18thCentury
QuakerconceptofPersonhoodmostcertainlyappliedtowomenandtheprevalenceofQuakersinthe
populationofseveralcolonies,suchasNewJerseyandPennsylvaniaatthetimetheoriginal
Constitutionwasdraftedandratifiedlikelyinfluencedtheuseoftheterm"Person"intheConstitution
ratherthantheterm"Man"usedintheDeclarationofIndependenceandinthecontemporaneously
draftedFrenchConstitutionof1791.[71]Theconceptofpersonhoodbeginningatconceptiongivesissues
towomen.DanielFinckestates"Applyingthelogictoabortionshearguesthataninvoluntarilypregnant
womanhastherighttorefusetoletherbodybeusedbythefetusevenwerewetoreasonthatthefetus
hasarighttolife."[72]Thepersonhoodmovementmaycausemanymoreissuesthatjustawomen'sright
tochoose.Somefetalhomicidelawshavecausedwomentobesentencedtojailtimeforsuspecteddrug
useduringherpregnancythatendedinamiscarriage,liketheAlabamawomenwhowassentencedto
tenyearsforhersuspecteddruguse.[73]
Slaves
In1772,Somersett'sCasedeterminedthatslaverywasunsupportedbylaw
inEnglandandWales,butnotelsewhereintheBritishEmpire.In1868,
underthe14thAmendment,blackmenintheUnitedStatesbecamecitizens.
In1870,underthe15thAmendment,blackmengottherighttovote.
In1853,SojournerTruthbecamefamousforaskingAin'tIaWoman?and
afterslaverywasabolished,blackmencontinuedtofightforpersonhoodby
claiming,IAmAMan!
Children

AmInotamanemblem
usedduringthecampaign
toabolishslavery

Thelegaldefinitionofpersonsmayincludeorexcludechildrendepending
onthecontext.IntheUS,regardingliability,childrenorminorsarenot
legallypersonsbecausetheydonotsatisfytherequirementsforpersonhood
underthelaw.[74]However,regardingprotectionunderthelaw,theUSBornAliveInfantsProtection
Actof2002providesalegalstructurethatthosebornatanygestationalstagethatareeitherbreathing,
haveheartbeat,umbilicalcordpulsation,oranyvoluntarymusclemovementareliving,individual
humanpersons.[75]

Nonhumananimals
Somephilosophersandthoseinvolvedinanimalwelfare,ethology,therightsofanimals,andrelated
subjects,considerthatcertainanimalsshouldalsobeconsideredtobepersonsandthusgrantedlegal
personhood.Commonlynamedspeciesinthiscontextincludethegreatapes,cetaceans,[76]and
elephants,becauseoftheirapparentintelligenceandintricatesocialrules.Theideaofextending
personhoodtoallanimalshasthesupportoflegalscholarssuchasAlanDershowitz[77]andLaurence
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TribeofHarvardLawSchool,[78]andanimallawcoursesarenowtaughtin92outof180lawschoolsin
theUnitedStates.[79]OnMay9,2008,ColumbiaUniversityPresspublishedAnimalsasPersons:Essays
ontheAbolitionofAnimalExploitation
(http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/catalog/data/978023113/9780231139502.HTM)byProfessorGaryL.
FrancioneofRutgersUniversitySchoolofLaw,acollectionofwritingsthatsummarizeshisworkto
dateandmakesthecasefornonhumananimalsaspersons.
Someproponentsofhumanexceptionalism(alsoreferredtobyitscriticsasspeciesismorhuman
supremacism[80])havecounteredthatwemustinstituteastrictdemarcationofpersonhoodbasedon
speciesmembershipinordertoavoidthehorrorsofgenocide(basedonpropagandadehumanizingone
ormoreethnicities)ortheinjusticesofforcedsterilization(asoccurredinmanycountriestopeoplewith
lowI.Q.scoresandprisoners).
Othertheoristsattempttodemarcatebetweendegreesofpersonhood.Forexample,PeterSinger'stwo
tieredaccountdistinguishesbetweenbasicsentienceandthehigherstandardofselfconsciousnesswhich
constitutespersonhood.WynnSchwartzhasofferedaParadigmCaseFormulationofPersonsasa
formatallowingjudgestoidentifyqualitiesofpersonhoodindifferententities.[12][19][81]JulianFriedland
hasadvancedaseventieredaccountbasedoncognitivecapacityandlinguisticmastery.[82]Amanda
Stoelsuggestedthatrightsshouldbegrantedbasedonascaleofdegreesofpersonhood,allowing
entitiescurrentlydeniedanyrighttoberecognizedsomerights,butnotasmany.[83]
In1992,Switzerlandamendeditsconstitutiontorecognizeanimalsasbeingsandnotthings.[84]A
decadelater,Germanyguaranteedrightstoanimalsina2002amendmenttoitsconstitution,becoming
thefirstEuropeanUnionmembertodoso.[84][85][86]NewZealandgrantedbasicrightstofivegreatape
speciesin1999.Theiruseisnowforbiddeninresearch,testingorteaching.[87]In2007,theparliament
oftheBalearicIslands,anautonomousprovinceofSpain,passedtheworld'sfirstlegislationgranting
legalrightstoallgreatapes.[88]
In2013,India'sMinistryofForestsandEnvironmentbannedtheimportationorcaptureofcetaceans
(whalesanddolphins)forentertainment,exhibition,orinteractionpurposes,onthebasisthat"cetaceans
ingeneralarehighlyintelligentandsensitive"andthatit"ismorallyunacceptabletokeepthemcaptive
forentertainment."Itnotedthat"variousscientists"havearguedtheyshouldbeseenas"nonhuman
persons"withcommensuraterights,butdidnottakeanofficialpositiononthis,andindeeddidnothave
thelegalauthoritytodoso.[89][90]
In2014,ahybrid,zoobornorangutannamedSandrawastermedbythecourtinArgentinaasa"non
humansubject"inanunsuccessfulhabeascorpuscaseregardingthereleaseoftheorangutanfrom
captivityattheBuenosAireszoo.Thestatusoftheorangutanasa"nonhumansubject"needstobe
clarifiedbythecourt.Courtcasesrelevanttothisorangutanarecontinuingin2015.[91]
In2015,forthefirsttimeinworldhistory,twochimpanzees,HerculesandLeo,weredeterminedtobe
"legalpersons"bybeinggrantedawritofhabeascorpus.Thismeanstheirdetainer,StonyBrook
University,mustprovidealegallysufficientreasonfortheirimprisonment.[92]Thiswasreversedshortly
thereafter.[93]

Hypotheticalbeings
Speculatively,thereareseveralotherlikelycategoriesofbeingswherepersonhoodisatissue.[19]
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Alienlife
Ifalienlifewerefoundtoexist,underwhatcircumstanceswouldtheybecountedas"persons"?Dowe
havetoconsiderany"willingandcommunicative(capabletoregisteritsownwill)autonomousbody"in
theuniverse,nomatterthespecies,anindividual(aperson)?Dotheydeserveequalrightswiththe
humanrace?
Artificialintelligenceorlife
Ifartificialintelligences,intelligentandselfawaresystemofhardwareandsoftware,areeventually
created,whatcriteriawouldbeusedtodeterminetheirpersonhood?Likewise,atwhatpointmight
humancreatedbiologicallifebeconsideredtohaveachievedpersonhood?
Modifiedhumans
Thetheoreticallandscapeofpersonhoodtheoryhasbeenalteredrecentlybycontroversyinthebioethics
communityconcerninganemergingcommunityofscholars,researchers,andactivistsidentifyingwith
anexplicitlytranshumanistposition,whichsupportsmorphologicalfreedom,evenifapersonchanged
somuchastonolongerbeconsideredamemberofthehumanspecies(bywhateverstandardisusedto
determinethat).Forexample,howmuchofahumancanbereplacedbyartificialpartsbefore
personhoodislost,ifever?Ifthebrainisthereasonpeopleareconsideredpersons,thenifthehuman
brainandallitsthoughtpatterns,memoriesandotherattributescouldalsoinfuturebetransposed
faithfullyintosomeformofartificialdevice(forexampletoavoidillnesssuchasbraincancer)would
thepatientstillbeconsideredapersonaftertheoperation?

Corporations
Today,instatutoryandcorporatelaw,certainsocialconstructsarelegallyconsideredpersons.Inmany
jurisdictions,somecorporationsandotherlegalentitiesareconsideredlegalpersonswithstandingtosue
orbesuedincourt.Thisisknownaslegalorcorporatepersonhood.
In1819,theUSSupremeCourtruledinDartmouthCollegev.Woodward,thatcorporationshavethe
samerightsasnaturalpersonstoenforcecontracts.

Environmentalentities
TheWhanganuiRiverofNewZealandisreveredbythelocalMoripeopleasTeAwaTupua,
sometimestranslatedas"anintegrated,livingwhole".Effortstograntitspeciallegalprotectionhave
beenpursuedbytheWhanganuiiwisincethe1870s.In2012,anagreementtograntlegalpersonhoodto
theriverwassignedbetweentheNewZealandgovernmentandtheWhanganuiRiverMoriTrust.One
guardianfromtheCrownandonefromtheWhanganuiareresponsibleforprotectingtheriver.[94]

Religion
Inanimisticreligion,animals,plants,andotherentitiesmaybepersonsordeities.

Christianity

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Christianityisthefirstphilosophicalsystemtousetheword"person"initsmodernsense.[95]Theword
"persona"wastransformedfromitstheateruseintoatermwithstricttechnicaltheologicalmeaningby
Tertullianinhiswork,DeTrinitate("OnTheTrinity"),inordertodistinguishthethree"persons"ofthe
Trinity.Subsequently,Boethiusrefinedthewordtomean"anindividualsubstanceofarationalnature."
Thiscanberestatedas"thatwhichpossessesanintellectandawill."Thus,theword"person"was
originallyatheologicaltermcreatedanddefinedbyChristianstoexplainChristiantheologicalconcepts.
ThedefinitionofBoethiusasitstandscanhardlybeconsideredasatisfactoryone.The
wordstakenliterallycanbeappliedtotherationalsoulofman,andalsothehumannature
ofChrist.ThatSt.Thomasacceptsitispresumablyduetothefactthathefounditin
possession,andrecognizedasthetraditionaldefinition.Heexplainsitintermsthat
practicallyconstituteanewdefinition.Individuasubstantiasignifies,hesays,substantia,
completa,persesubsistens,separataabaliia,i.e.,asubstance,complete,subsistingperse,
existingapartfromothers(III,Q.xvi,a.12,ad2um).
Iftothisbeaddedrationalisnaturae,wehaveadefinitioncomprisingthefivenotesthatgo
tomakeupaperson:(a)substantiathisexcludesaccident(b)completaitmustforma
completenaturethatwhichisapart,eitheractuallyor"aptitudinally"doesnotsatisfythe
definition(c)persesubsistensthepersonexistsinitselfandforitselfheorsheissui
juris,theultimatepossessorofhisorhernatureandallitsacts,theultimatesubjectof
predicationofallhisorherattributesthatwhichexistsinanotherisnotaperson(d)
separataabaliisthisexcludestheuniversal,substantiasecunda,whichhasnoexistence
apartfromtheindividual(e)rationalisnaturaeexcludesallnonintellectualsupposita.
Toapersonthereforebelongsathreefoldincommunicability,expressedinnotes(b),(c),
and(d).Thehumansoulbelongstothenatureasapartofit,andisthereforenotaperson,
evenwhenexistingseparately.
CatholicEncyclopedia,1913,Person

Islam
InIslam,sentientbeingsincludingHumans,Jinns,andAngels,areregardedaspeople,uptotheextent
ofpersonalizinganimalsandinanimateobjectsasholdingaformofanthropocentrismasitisanill
describedthemeintheQuran.Genderlessfiguresaretypicallydescribedashavingmalegenderandare
referredtowithamalepronoun,althoughclassicalArabichadnogenderneutralpronounequivalentto
English"it."Beinghumanhasmoretodowithbeingthebestofthecreation,astheworstofthe
creationsareseenasnonhuman,reflectingreallifenotionsofhumanityasbeingspracticingpositive
(aswellassubhumancanmeanabeingwhoisseennegativelyinamoralaspectratherthanabiological
one)aspectsandisconsideredhighlysubjectivewhendefiningpersonhoodtoonlychildrenofAdam,
asHumanlikebeingshaveexistedlongbeforethecreationofAdamandEve.Accordingtosucha
theme,itisthentoassumethatIslamisnotonlyforHumans,butforallthatexistsasbeingdefinedby
personificationareconsideredMuslimsexceptforholdersoffreewillwhoareabletobecome
Kufr.Thoughitiswisetoassociatepersonhoodwithhumansamonghumansthemselveswhenon
Dunya,assuchmeansofpersonificationisknowledgeoftheunseen.
IntheQuran,Humansthemselvesdirectlyarereferredtoas"Mankind".
ChristianityandIslamdifferonthenatureondemons.Christianityseesdemonsasfallenangels.In
Islam,demonsareaseparatecreation,humanlikebeingsbutmadefromfire,andangelsinIslamwill
notbecomefallenangels.ThemosthumanlikecreationsarereferredtoasJinns,aprototypeofhuman
beingsastheyhavefreewillandaresapientandlivehumanlikeliveswiththeabilitytocreatesocieties,
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socialize,makefamilies,commitcrimesetc.buthavealargelifespanorseentobeimmortaluntiltheir
deathwiththeshaytan.Theyareabletospyandtrickthemselvesandmankindbuttheyarelifebasedon
fire.Somehadithsstatetheirnumbersasmany,manytimesmorenumerousthanthathumanbeings.

Seealso
Speciesism
Abortiondebate
Beginningofhumanpersonhood
ColoradoRighttoLife

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