ENZYMES

The sum of all chemical reaction in the body are called Metabolism
Metabolic reactions are either catabolic or anabolic
Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of substance into its reactants
Anabolic reactions involve the building up of large molecule from smaller one
Enzymes acts on substrate, the beginning ingredient of the reaction, to make products in a chemical reaction
Enzymes are proteins.
Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as it is made up of a specific pattern of amino acids.
The active sites are the areas that substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. When an enzyme binds to a substrate it
makes a new molecule called the enzyme substrate complex
Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature and pH range.
If an enzyme is subject to pH and temperatures outside the ranges, it may change shape and block the active sites of substrates. This
is called denaturing.
The suffix ase is added to the end of the name to indicate it is an enzyme.
The function of enzyme is to speed up the chemical reactions that take place in the body.
For a chemical reaction to take place the molecules involved need to collide at the correct orientation and with the right amount of
energy. This is called the activation energy.
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to progress.
Enzymes are needed in only very small amount to catalyse the reaction and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction therefore
they can be used numerous times
In an anabolic reaction enzymes work by binding to a substrate and forming an enzyme substrate complex, lowering the activation
energy and releasing products.
Two theories involved in enzyme action: lock and key and induced fit theory
The lock and key theory states that the enzyme is like the lock and the substrate is like the key. Only when the substrate fits the
enzyme active sites perfectly will the reaction be catalysed. Just as the key is specific to lock, so is a substrate specific to its enzyme.
An enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active sites. Only then the reaction will be catalysed.
The induced fit theory states that the substrate plays a role in determining the final shape of the enzyme substrate complex and the
active site is more flexible than was first thought. The substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme, shaping the active site and
properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction to take place. Other substrates may fit into the active site, but unless they are able to
properly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed.
The substrate helps to determine the shape of the active site of the enzyme in a catabolic reaction
Enzymes sometimes need assistance from other molecules to function correctly. These helper molecule can be coenzymes, which are
organic, such as vitamins, or cofactors , which are inorganic and include minerals.
PKU is a disease involving single amino acid in enzymes.
The environment outside the human body is constantly changing but Enzymes have a specific conditions under which they can
operate at an optimal level. Outside these conditions their activity decreases and the enzyme can become denatured. It is therefore
vital that the conditions within the body are maintained at a constant level for optimal enzyme, and therefore metabolic efficiency.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

If a condition within the body changes, such as rise in temperature, the process of homeostasis ensures that mechanisms within the
body detect this change and counteracts it so that the body temperature remains at 37c
Homeostatic mechanisms can be affected by infections

Negative feedback
Homeostatic consists of 2 stages:
1.
2.

Changes from the stable state are detected by organs called receptors or sensors. Receptors are organs that contain
neurons, which detect changes to parts of the body such as skin, the eye or the ear
Those changes are counteracted using effectors organs. Effectors organs bring about a response to the change, for

example the muscle in the skin will contract to produce goose bumps in cold weather
This type of a reaction, where the response is to reduce and counteract the stimulus is called a negative feedback system.
A negative feedback system causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs. This tends to
keep the internal environment at a constant regardless of the external environment, thus maintaining homeostasis.
In between the stage of detection and counteraction, the brain and spinal cord will coordinate the response to the change.

Nervous system
The nervous system is an essential element in the process of homeostasis. It enables the detection of changes to body and
then coordinate the responses the body will make to counteract these changes.
The nervous system is made up of two interacting elements the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system
Central nervous system
The CNS is composed of brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord transmits message from the receptor organs such as eye,
ear or skin via the sensory neurons to special regions in the brain. The hypothalamus is one of these regions, and is tucked
deep within the brain.
The hypothalamus receives stimuli from sensory neurons and then coordinates the correct response necessary to
counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons..
The hypothalamus also controls the release of many hormones that produce slow acting changes in the body, which also
contributes to homeostasis.

Peripheral nervous system

The PNS is composed of all the neurons outside the CNS. These include sensory and motor neurons. Sensory
neurons transmit message from the receptor organs such as the eyes to the CNS. Motor neurons transmit
messages from the CNS to the effector organs such as the muscles to activate a response.
ECTOTHERMS
Ectotherms are organisms that have approximately the same body temperature as the ambient temperature. They have a
limited ability to maintain their body temperature at the one level, as it changes according to the surrounding
environment. Example, plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish.
ENDOTHERMS
Endotherms are animals that physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body temperature within a
narrow range regardless of ambient temperature. They use the heat produced from metabolism to help maintain their
body temperatures.

RESPONSES TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE

Because of changing temperature, especially on land, animals must possess specialised features, or adaptation that
enables them to survive. These adaptations can be classified as physiological, structural or behavioural.
Physiological adaptations
A physiological adaptation is a feature that helps to regulate a function within an organism. They usually have to do with
the functioning of biochemical reactions within cells and tissues of animals.
Structural adaptations
Structural adaptations are those that have a connection with morphology or physical features of an organism, such as the
length of a birds beak or the shape of the animals body. They include any body part or structure that allows an
organism to better suit its environment. Sometimes adaptations are both physiological and structural, like the length of a
kidney tubule, which helps to decrease water loss.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are ways an animal behaves that help it survive in its natural environment. Examples include
migration and nocturnal activity.
Australian Ecotherm example:
Australian Endotherm Example

Plants response to temperature

change

Plants are ectothermic they are not able to maintain a

constant temperature. Therefore they have range of
adaptations
Leaf fall in hot conditions plants will reduce the surface
area that is exposed to heat by dropping their leaves. This
also reduced the amount of water lost through
transpiration.
Radiation some plants living in very exposed areas, such
as sand dunes, reduce the amount of heat being absorbed
by having shiny leaves that reflect solar radiation.

Heat shock protein- heat shock proteins are produced by

plants when they are under stress from very high
temperatures. These molecules are thought to stop the
denaturing of enzymes within the cell, so normal cell
reaction can continue.
Transpiration the movement of water up the plant from the
roots to the leaves via transpiration stream serves to cool
the plant during hot condition. The evaporation of water
from the stomates of the leaf also serves to cool the plant.
Die back often in harsh conditions the shoots and leaves of
a plant may die, but left in the soil are bulbs, roots or
rhizoids that will begin to grow again when favourable
condition return.
Orientation of leaves eucalyptus leaves are often
characterised by dropping towards the ground. This vertical
orientation has the advantage of reducing the amount of
light rays that are in contact with the surface area of the
leaf, therefore reducing the amount of heat it is exposed to.
Seed dispersal some Australian native plants rely on
extremely high temperatures, such as those produced by
fire, to germinate their seeds. Plant seeds from such species
as Banksia are only able to open their seed coats when they
are exposed to fire. Seeds then germinate and produce
another plant.
Vernalisation is the process whereby plants must be
exposed to cold conditions for them to produce flowers and
therefore reproduce. The presence of cold conditions will
stimulate the flowers to grow and by the time they are
mature, spring should be near.
Ice formation between the cells most plants are able to tolerate
fairly low temperatures compared to animals. This is due in part to
their cell walls. When temperatures reach below freezing, ice will
form in cells. Fortunately, the solution within plant cell is higher in
solutes than the solution between the cells. It has a lower freezing
point. This means that ice crystal will form first in the gaps
between the plant cells. Because of the presence of cell wall, this
protects cytoplasm from being damaged by the crystal and the
cell should survive.

What is in blood?

55% of the substance called blood is made up of a

pale, straw-coloured fluid called Plasma. Red
blood cells comprise another 45% of the blood,
while white blood cell make up less than 0.1% and
platelets comprise less than 0.01%.

All the different type of blood cells develop from a

haematopoietic steam cell found in the bone
marrow the jelly like material inside your bones
Red blood cell are called erythrocytes
Red blood cells are what make the blood look red.
This is due to the presence haemoglobin a

molecule that incorporates iron. It is the

haemoglobin in red blood cell that allows these
cells to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Red blood cell

-

Contain No nucleus or organelle

Very small
Thicker at the edge than in the centre, forming a shape known as
biconcave disc.

White blood cells

-

Also called leucocytes

Have nucleus
Larger than red blood cell
Have no definite shape
Role in helping keep the body free from infection
Two types: phagocytes and lymphocytes
Phagocytes : they engulf and ingest foreign bodies in the blood
Lymphocytes : manufacture antibodies

Platelets
-

Not actually cells but fragments of cells

When you cut yourself, platelets are essential to clot the blood,
preventing excessive bleeding. Clotting occurs when platelets clump

together at the site of injury, acting in combination with other factors in

the blood to plug up any holes that appears in blood vessels.

Substances transported by blood

Role of blood is to transport substances that are

essential to life, such as oxygen, water and glucose

throughout the entire body. Blood also removes
waste products from cells, which would poison them
if left there.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide

-

Most important role that blood performs is to carry

oxygen around the body.
Every cell in the body must have its own supply of
oxygen. This is because oxygen, along with glucose, is an
essential reactant in cellular respiration - the chemical
reaction that provides cells with energy.

The process of producing energy requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
as waste products.
The component of red blood cell capable of transporting both oxygen and
carbon dioxide in haemoglobin
Haemoglobin works effectively as carrier molecule because it contains iron, an
element that easily combines with oxygen. Human red blood cells contain no
nuclei so that they can carry as many haemoglobin molecules as possible
The structure of red blood cells and the structure of haemoglobin maximise the
amount of oxygen that can be carried in the blood. Haemoglobin can be
considered an adaptive advantage of organisms with large oxygen requirements,
since it is an adaptation that gives these organisms a survival advantage.
Oxygen enters the bloodstream at the lungs. In many thousands of alveoli the
tiny air sacs inside each lung oxygen moves via diffusion from the inhaled air
(where there is higher concentration of oxygen) into the red blood cells (where
there is lower concentration of oxygen). Here it binds to haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin and is carried via the arteries and capillaries to the tissues of
the body. In the cells that make up these tissues, oxygen concentrations are
lower than in the blood and so oxygen readily diffuses across.
As it is essential that the bodys cell is provided with oxygen, it is essential that
their carbon dioxide is removed. If allowed to accumulate, the carbon dioxide
would combine with water to form carbonic acid, lowering the pH to levels at
which an enzyme in cells could not function properly. It is therefore necessary for
blood to continually take carbon dioxide away from cell, keeping the pH within a
tolerable range for the bodys tissues.
The carbon dioxide produced by cells as a waste product of respiration is
transported via the opposite route. Carbon dioxide in the bodys tissues diffuses
across to the bloodstream and travels in the blood to the lungs. Here, the carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood (where the concentration of carbon dioxide is
high) into the alveoli (where the concentration is low) and is exhaled by the
lungs.
3 forms of carbon dioxide carried by the blood. The majority enters the red blood
cells. Here, most is converted to bicarbonate ions while a smaller proportion
combines with haemoglobin to form carbamate. The carbon dioxide that
combines with haemoglobin does so as the oxygen that the haemoglobin has
been carrying from the lungs to the bodys tissue is released (disassociates).
The remainder of the carbon dioxide dissolves directly into the plasma.

Other substances carried by the

Blood

Plasma is made up of 90% of water.

The watery nature of plasma enables blood cells to be
suspended and move freely through even the tiniest blood
vessels of the body. Some of the water in the plasma passes by
diffusion into the cell of tissues as the blood moves through
the body. Similarly, excess water may move from the bodys
cell to plasma.
The water in the plasma also performs the role of solvent in
which a variety of important substances are dissolved.
Plasma proteins perform an important role in helping carry
hormones, fat soluble vitamins and other molecules around the
body. Other solute in the plasma are salts, made up of
combination of metal and non metal ions. These are carried by
the plasma in the form of their component ions
Also carried in the plasma are essential nutrients produced by
the body during the process of digestion
These include glucose, amino acids and lipids
Most fats are broken down by the body are assembled into
packages called chylomicrons a combination of lipids and
proteins ( called lipoproteins) carry cholesterol around the
circulatory system
Other waste products produced by body rather than carbon
dioxide are nitrogenous waste nitrogen containing
compounds produced when excess proteins are broken down.
In mammal urea is the main nitrogenous waste. These wastes
are transported by blood to the kidneys, where urine is
produced to carry the wastes outside the body.

The movements of blood around the body

-

Every cell in the body needs its own supply of blood so that it
obtains the oxygen and nutrients it requires and has carbon
dioxide and other substances removed. The body therefore
needs a way of continually moving fresh blood through its
tissues. This role if performed by circulatory system, which is
made up of heart, the blood and the blood vessels.
Blood first travels from the heart to the lungs (via pulmonary
artery the only artery in the body to contain deoxygenated
blood) to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen before returning to
the heart and being pumped to the rest of the body. This
oxygenated blood leaves the heart via major blood vessels
called arteries. As the arteries take blood further from the
heart, they branch into smaller vessels called arterioles then
even smaller vessels called capillaries.
Blood is moved through the body by the continuous pumping
action of the heart. From the right hand side of the heart,
blood is pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen. This blood
returns to the left side of the heart to be pumped to the rest of

the body. Blood returning from the body takes the opposite
path.

Arteries

The blood in artery travel away from the heart to the

furthest reaches of the body. To do this it must be
pumped under high pressure.
Arteries have thick muscular wall to cope with pressure,
Arteries wall are also quite elastic, enabling them to
expand and contrast to adjust to the amount of blood
travelling through them at any one time.
The main artery leaving the heart is called aorta. It is
very big in diameter.
The aorta carries oxygenated blood at high pressure
away from the heart to the tissues of the body.
A second main artery leaving the heart is pulmonary
artery. This carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Arteries are composed of three layers: an outer layer of
connective tissue with elastic fibres, a middle layer of
muscular tissue also with elastic fibres and an inner layer
of epithelial cells.
The outer layer is tough to protect the artery and is made
up of connective tissue that holds the artery firmly in its
place in the body and also allows it to stretch. The middle
layer is muscular and elastic, making the artery strong

and flexible. The inner layer is very smooth so that the

blood can flow easily through it.
Each time the heart beats; the artery expands and fills
with blood. When the heart relaxes the artery contracts,
exerting a force to help push the blood along.

Veins

Blood coming into the heart moves through veins.

Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the heart via a vessel
called vena cava, while oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the heart via the pulmonary veins.
Blood returning from the body does not have as much push
provided by the pumping action of the heart as blood leaving the
heart. In addition it is often travelling against gravity, particularly
blood returning from the legs and lower body. The blood in veins
is therefore under lower pressure than in the arteries. This is
reflected in different structure of veins , which have thinner walls,
wider diameter and special device called valves to prevent the
blood from flowing backwards.
The movement of blood through the vein is aided by contraction
of the muscles running alongside veins as they make their way
through the body.

Capillaries

Capillaries are the smallest of blood vessels. These

microscopic vessels weave their way through the tissues of
the body so they are accessible to every cell.

Capillaries are made up of endothelium: a single layer of

flat, overlapping cells. The diameter of capillary is just wide
enough for a slow, single file of red blood cell to pass
through. This maximises the opportunities for the exchange
of gases, nutrients and wastes between the blood cells and
the tissue cells.
In any given area of tissue, the capillaries can be seen to
form a network of vessels running between an arteriole (a
vessel which has branched off an artery) and a venule
( which has branched off a vein)
Oxygen, water and water soluble molecules move from
arteriole into the capillaries then into the tissue cells.
Wastes such as carbon dioxide move from the tissue cells
into the capillaries and on to the venule. In this way the
bodys tissues are efficiently supplied with substances they
need while wastes are removed.

THE HEART
- blood would not be able to
move through the blood
vessels if it were not for the
continual pumping action of the
heart.
- The right hand pump deals with
deoxygenated blood returning
from the body. This blood
enters the heart through the
vena cava and is pumped to the
lungs through the pulmonary
artery.
- The left hand pump deals with
oxygenated blood returning
from the lungs. This blood
comes into the heart through the pulmonary vein and is

pumped out of the heart to the rest of the body through

aorta.
On each side of the heart, blood is kept moving in the
right direction by valves, which prevent the backflow of
blood.
THE CHANGING COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

XYLEM
-

Xylem is the tissue that carries water and dissolved mineral ions
through a plant.
The xylem runs all the way through the roots, the stem and into the
leaves.
The transport of water through the xylem of a plant occurs in one
direction only upwards
In the xylem of a flowering plant, there are two main types of
conducting cells: tracheids and vessels
Tracheids are elongated cells that taper at each end, where they come
in contact with one another and overlap.
The walls of tracheids are reinforced with a strengthening material
called lignin but contain numerous small, thin opening called pits
through which water molecules and dissolved ions are able to pass
from one tracheids to another.
Vessels are the chief water- conducting tubes of xylem. Vessels are
wider than tracheids also often have no walls.
Vessels are marked by characteristic patterns of lignin reinforcement
which often form spirals or rings around the inner surface of the tube
walls.

For additional support, specialised cells called fibres run alongside the
tubes.
Both tracheids and vessels cells are dead at maturity, leaving hollow
tubes that not only efficiently transport water but also provide internal
support for the growing plant.

Water

root hairs

roots

cell walls

The process thought to initiate the movement of water in the xylem of a plant is
transpiration the loss of water from the cells in leaves. According to this theory,
water lost through stomates of leaves is replaced from the fluids in nearby cells,
creating a concentration gradient that draws water by osmosis from the xylem.
This pulling effect begins from the top of the plantand acts on all the water
below.
The resulting movement of water from the roots up to the leaves is referred to as
the transpiration stream.
Because the energy involved in the movement of materials through the xylem is
not supplied by the plant, but indirectly by the sun, it is regarded as passive
transport
Acting in tandem with the transpiration stream to keep water moving through the
plant is capillarity, also referred to as capillary forces. These include cohesion
( the cohesive forces that hold sthe water molecule together) and adhesion ( the
forces of attraction between water molecules and the inner wall of the xylem)

Sieve
cells are
the main
conducting cells of the phloem. These are elongated cells, which join together to
form vertical columns called sieve tubes. At the end of each cell is a perforated
sieve plate a specialised membrane with many small openings or pores to allow
substances to pass through from one cell to another.
Alongside the sieve cells are companion cells, which are attached through their
cell walls by fine connecting tube called plasmodesmata.
Companion cells are believed to help maintain the sieve cells by performing
some of their metabolic functions for them.
The cells of phloem remain living although they lose their nucleus and many
other
organelles as they mature.

The
movement of material from the leaf to the phloem and from the phloem to where
it is needed requires energy expenditure by the
plant and is therefore regarded as active transport.
Movement of nutrients along the phloem is by

passive transport.

WATER
An adequate supply of
water for cell is necessary
for several reasons:
-

Water is the
medium that
transports and
distributes
many
substances in

and between cells.

It is the solvent in which many important ions and molecules required
for metabolic reactions are dissolved such substances are only able to

move to where they are needed because they are in aqueous solution
and therefore able to diffuse across cells and between cells.
Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution.
Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions, for
example it is a product of cellular respiration
The optimal functioning of cells is reliant on their water content being
kept within a very narrow range.
The concentration of water inside cells should match the concentration
of water outside cells a situation referred to as isotonic. If these
concentrations do not match, water will move by osmosis from the area
of higher concentration to the area of lower concentration. This leaves
cell vulnerable to losing or gaining too much water.
In mammals, water determines the concentration of various substances
in the blood. It also helps maintain body temperature, as it can readily
absorb and transfer heat. Water keeps respiratory surfaces moist to
allow efficient gas exchange, and acts as lubricant for other surfaces,
such as those in the joints of the body.
The regulation of water concentration and also the concentration of
solutes in order to maintain homeostasis is known as osmoregulation.

EXCRETION OF WASTES
-

Like Carbon dioxide, other waste products produced by living organism

are toxic to cells and must be removed. In particular nitrogenous
wates must be removed quickly becaue they have the ability to harm
enzymes and slow down chemical reactions, change pH and interfere
with the transport of substances across cell membrane.
The removal of metabolic wastes from the body is termed excretion.
The main metabolic wastes produced by mammals are excess water,
carbon dioxide, excess salts and nitrogenous wastes such as urea.
The main organ involved in excretion are lungs and kidney.

- In unicellular
organisms the
excretion of
dissolved nitrogenous
wastes occurs solely by the process of diffusion and osmosis.
- diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area where they
are moire concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated.

- Osmosis relates specifically to the diffusion of water molecules.

- Both are forms of passive transport
- In an organism made up of one cell, the cell membrane is selectively
permeable, allowing water molecules to enter by osmosis when necessasary and
nitrogenous waste to exit via diffusion.
- The large surface area to volume ratio of unicellular organisms ensures
these processes occur easily and effectively
- Multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of diffusion
and osmosis to excrete their nitrogenous wastes. These wastes cannot simply
diffuse across a single cell membrane to leave the organism, as they do in
unicellular organisms.
- In mammals, kidney have developed for excrete wastes
- nitrogenous waste is formed as a result of the breakdown of amino acids
and occurs in three different forms ammonia, urea and uric acid

THE KIDNEY
-

The Kidney is the main organ involved in osmoregulation and the

excretion of wastes in mammals.
The kidney filters the blood of metabolic wastes products such as urea
and maintains a stable concentration of water in the bloodstream.

KIDNEY STRUCTURE
The kidneys are very complex organs. They can be divided into three distinct
parts:
1 the cortex, which is the outer region
2 the medulla, which is the middle area
3 the pelvis, which is on the inside

The functional unit of

the kidney is called the nephron.

The kidney has millions of nephrons contained in its cortex and
medulla.
The nephorn functions to filter the blood of metabolic wastes, make
and secrete urine, and reabsorb water to maintain homeostasis.

1. Filtration:

OSMOREGULATION AND THE KIDNEY IN

FISH
In fish Kidney is used to excrete metabolic waste and help in osmoregulation
however the gills are also used to excrete or absorb salt

THE ROLE OF HORMONES

The kidney in mammals play a major role in maintaining water and salt level in
the blood. The kidney are aided in this by hormones chemical compounds
produced by the glands of the bodys endocrine system.
The two main hormones involved in osmoregulation are ADH (anti diuretic
hormone, also called vasopressin) and aldosterone.