In earlier five posts, we had introduced two major methods Finite Element Method

and Finite Difference Method and about various special numerical procedures other
than finite element methods Method of Characteristics, Boundary Integral
Equation Method and Fast Fourier Transform. In this post we will discuss about
special topics relevant to geotechnical engineering and numerical solution of these
problems.

Simulation of Embankment and Excavation

The conventional approach based on linear material behavior for computing
displacements and stresses as if the structure is completed in a single lift may not
yield realistic results. For a realistic evaluation of stresses and deformations in earth
structures constructed sequentially, it is necessary to account for the path
dependency and non-linearity introduced by incremental construction. It is possible
to include the effects of path dependency and nonlinearity in finite element
formulations. There are several approaches to deal with such problems in which
approach suggested by Goodman and Brown is very common in geotechnical
applications.

Simulation of sequences
Additional of Material, or Placement Embankment
Simulation of additional of materials in an embankment in a sequential construction
procedure is shown below. For each lift (layer) of embankment placed, the
equivalent nodal forces due to gravity are computed. The elasto-plastic modulus of
the material in the added lift is set to a very small value (about 1% of initial
modulus value), which simulates a very weak material. The incremental
displacements and stresses are computed during each lift cycle and are added to
previous cycle; iterations are performed (if necessary) to obtain equilibrium for each
lift. The displacements of new surface are set to zero. The horizontal stress in the
newly placed lift is calculated as the vertical stress times the in situ stress ratio, K 0.

Removal of Material or Excavation

The figure shown below shows the simulation of excavation process, which is similar
to cut-outs in plates, and involves removal of material. The elements to be
excavated (removed) for each lift are deleted from the system and iterations are
performed (if necessary) until equilibrium is obtained. This will result in stress free
excavated surface.

Thus the finite element program proposed by Goodman and Brown (1963) and
Brown and King (1966) possess following features:
a) Excavated elements are deleted from the initial and changing mesh.
b) Stress-frees surface is established by applying equal and opposite forces on
the excavated surface and by satisfying the equilibrium equation.

Removal of Liquid (Water) or Dewatering

Dewatering causes compression or consolidation and can be modeled by using the
coupled consolidation theory. However, in order to provide a simpler and economic
formulation, dewatering is approximated in the software by assuming uncoupled
and instantaneous response. The main effect accounted for is increase in effective
stress due to change in unit weight of the soil in the dewatered elements. This
increase is equal to the body force due to weight of water within each of the
elements which is dewatered. The equivalent nodal forces are given by:

where {F} is the element nodal force and w is the unit weight of water. Note that
this equation applies only to elements which were submerged earlier and are now
above water due to the dewatering. Figure shown below shows the dewatering in
which only elements numbers 1,2 and 3 have body forces loads due to dewatering,
and the remaining elements are effected indirectly by the loading from these three
elements.

Support Systems
Structural Supports or Tie-Backs: Installation of support system such as tie-backs
can be considered similar to that of a prestressing of concrete beams, and
introduces compressive stresses to counteract extension and tensile stresses. The
installation of tie-backs involves four simulation steps: drilling/boring a hole (at an
angle to the horizontal), placing the tie-back, grouting the tie-back, and then
tensioning the tie-back to provide the design compressive stress.

A tie-back usually consists of either steel cables or steel reinforcing rods or other
structural supports. In the case of geotechnical systems, only the last portion of tieback is ground to form an anchor, and the rest of it is usually encased in a sheath to
prevent transfer of load to the excavated face.
In the simulation of the tie-backs installation in the FEM procedure, the first two
steps are not considered, and the procedure followed is:
1. Apply a force along the direction of the tie-back equal and opposite to the
tension force in the tie-back.
2. Solve for new displacements and stresses.
3. Add the bar elements stresses to the initial tension in the tie-back.
The order of these steps may not follow the actual construction procedure. In the
construction procedure, the bar is placed first before the tensioning force is applied.
If this is followed in the numerical procedure, bar elements will resist tensioning
force, which is not correct. The wrong and correct sequences are shown in the figure
below.

Mesh Change Option

During an increment of the loading, the mesh can be changed, i.e. some elements
can be added and deleted, or some nodes added or deleted and/or material number
of elements is changed. This option is used to simulate embankment construction
and excavation. This material number may be changed in case of dewatering.

Boundary Conditions
The prescribed boundary conditions are specified in such a manner as to minimize
the number of equations to be solved. This is achieved by not formulating equations
corresponding to degrees of freedom at nodal points where displacements are zero,
because of boundary conditions.

In next post, we will discuss another special topic of FEM approach to case of
Dynamic Loading relevant in geotechnical engineering.