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From the beginning to the end of The Odyssey, we see an ongoing competition within
Odysseus as he struggles to reconcile the traditional heroism of the Trojan War with the selfrealization that develops over the course of the trials he endures. Odysseus explores what it
means to transition from the constant pursuit of honor, glory, and recognition to a world at peace
where these values no longer further his purpose. Aloof from human pursuits for twenty years, he
must re-examine his identity and reconcile his place with humanity. His more traditional
worldview develops into a changed perception where the traits of the heroic code are firmly
contained within the span of human rationality and intellect.
Beginning the twenty year interlude where Odysseus is away from his realm of Ithaka,
Odysseus is confronted with many different figures who serve to represent the power of the
divine and the forces of nature inherent in the cosmos. Bodily strength does not aid him through
the hardships he encounters: he must rely on his intellect. Polyphemos is one of the many figures
he encounters: a representation of a being without civilization or divinity, referred to by Homer
as, all outward power, a wild man, ignorant of civility. (Homer 9, 230-231). The management
of his flocks and the organization contained in his great cave infers that the Cyclops is not
unintelligent. Yet when Odysseus calls on him appealing Zeus rule of hospitality, the Cyclops
moves a gigantic boulder to trap him and his men inside, adding I would not let you go for fear
of Zeus / you or your friends - unless I had a whim to. (9, 301-302) Odysseus is desperate, in a
position where strength and arms mean nothing. He says, I drew on all my wits, and ran through
tactics / reasoning as a man will for dear life, / until a trick came and it pleased me well / (9,
460-461). Odysseus comes up with a plan to outwit the monster; proving the power of human

rationality over brute force. He manages to trick the Cyclops three times before they escape the
cave. They are set to sail for the next island as far away on the shore as voices can carry when
Odysseus calls out to the monster: berating him for eating his companions and shunning the laws
of hospitality. He declares that divine justice has served Polyphemos justly. Odysseus men are
begging him not to bait the monster further, but Odysseus cannot contain his heroic pride,
stating:
I would not heed them in my glorying spirit /
but let my anger flare and yelled:
Kyklops,
If ever mortal man inquire
how you were put to shame and blinded, tell him
Odysseus, raider of cities, took your eye:
Laertes son, whose homes on Ithaka! (9, 548-552)
Through pride, Odysseus condemns himself in a scene typical of Greek tragedy: the
renowned hero, known for his cunning, strategy and intellect fails with a certain irony in the
revealing of his name. His seeking glory for this heroic action results in Poseidon, Polyphemos
father, damning him to many long years of hard trial, losing all of his companions along the way,
before he can ever achieve his nostos (homecoming). Each tribulation which affects him
throughout his journey is from this point a direct result of his mistake suffering which he
brought upon himself through pride.

Each of Odysseus experiences hereon bring him through a path of divine realms where
he must pass monstrous challenges while struggling to retain both his humanity and his desire for
homecoming. The goddess Circe for example is a representation of natures tumultuous power
and the animalistic nature which is inherent in human instinct. The companions of Odysseus are
turned into swine after they give in to the temptation of gluttony, yet retain the minds of men,
which represents on a greater scale the struggle of rational thought over animal instinct. The
goddess Circes serves to metaphorically symbolize the danger that human instincts can impose
upon human rationality- a full year passes with Odysseus at the goddess supplication: a year
where he is slave to his own base instinct. In Persephones realm of Death, Odysseus is brought
to face his mortality in the many figures he recognizes. These shades of the death represent
human existence in its most vile form: human beings who are mere shadows of the people they
were in life, mindless, incapable of thought or action. This portrayal of death gives insight into
the greatest fear of a hero and of Odysseus: being wholly forgotten in deed and glory, and being
incapable of rational thought.
Rationality is shown to be the channel through which humankinds and divinity interact.
During his time spent on the island of Calypso, Odysseus is compelled to participate in divine
life with the goddess. It is painfully obvious, however, that his mortality separates them, as
evidenced by the phrase, the divine Calypso placed before him victuals and drink of men; then
she sat down / facing Odysseus, while her serving maids / brought nectar and ambrosia to her
side (5, 207-210). Unable to even eat of the same food, it became clear to Odysseus there was
no future with the goddess, though she offered him immortality at her side. Forced to stay by the
death of all of his companions, lacking a ship or any method of going home, Odysseus finds

dissatisfaction with the realm of the divine, recognizing that it cannot compare to the love of his
home or the love of his wife, Penelope.
Odysseus reintegration to the society of humans begins when he washes up upon the
shore of the Phaiakians, a civilized group of people, remote from other human communities and
favored by Poseidon. Odysseus appearance when he washes up on shore is likened to a
mountain lion: rain-drenched, wind-buffeted, but in his might at ease / with burning eyes (6,
140-142). This strong imagery depicts Odysseus as a wild man, uncivilized and uncouth. When
he encounters the young princess by the river, Odysseus must rely entirely on his cunning and
intellect in order to secure her help: the language he uses is highly complementary and shows the
civilization he is capable of despite his rough appearance. This trait is not only demonstrated but
heavily relied upon through the rest of the story, showcasing a newfound mastery of language.
This power over language is the catalyst which allows Odysseus to finally reach his homeland of
Ithaka.
In Ithaka, Odysseus adopts the guise of a beggar under the recommendation of Athena,
the goddess known for her wisdom, cunning, and a fondness of disguise. Just as Odysseus had to
pass through the realms of the divine order as punishment for his hubris, he cannot re-establish
order in his realm until going through the social order of humanity, beginning with the lowest of
the social hierarchy. This stresses the proper disregard for status in the law of hospitality all
humans are deserving of necessities regardless of their social status. In the swineherds hut,
Odysseus mercilessly probes his son Telemahkos about the state of his home, his father, and
about his mother while in the guise of a beggar: showcasing his cunning and testing their loyalty.
Telemahkos and Penelope stand representative of social order amongst chaos, maintaining the
laws of hospitality as much as possible while afflicted by the greed of the suitors, who abandon

all respect for guest right and the rights of strangers. Just as Odysseus suffered from loneliness
away from home, he suffers greatly at the hands of the suitors, goaded, attacked, shunned, and
pitied as the laws of hospitality are impugned within his own home. Yet Homer uses patient and
long-suffering epithets to describe Odysseus through these offenses most forlorn of men,
that great gifted man, the master improviser which serve to demonstrate the changes that
have occurred in his character and illustrating the continuous influence of his intellect. Through
his trials, Odysseus has come to an understanding about his place in the cosmos: instead of
seeking to press himself against the force of the divine cosmos to fulfill his own sense of
personal justice, he comes to understand his place within the span of divine law. This is best
displayed by the commotion which occurs with the death of the suitors: Telemahkos and
Odysseus brutally destroy the men who have squandered their property by systematically and
strategically removing all of the weapons and securing the few men still remaining loyal. After
the massacre the old maid Eurykleia attempts to raise her voice in triumph over her masters
victory when Odysseus stops her and says:
Rejoice
inwardly. No crowing aloud, old woman.
To glory over slain men is no piety.
Destiny and the gods will vanquished these,
and their own hardness. They respected no one,
good or bad, who came their way.
For this, and folly, a bad end befell them. (22, 460-466)

In the massacre of the suitors, Odysseus appears to have the mindset and brutality
characteristic of the Iliadic age of heroes: mercilessly, he and his son kill all of the suitors, even
those less guilty than others. Yet this brutality is firmly contained within the rationality and just
cause behind the slaying, and there is no undue glory or exaltation in the deed. Odysseus first
step is to purify the palace, and although his personal vengeance was certainly achieved, it is
only to the gods he gives credit for the divine justice that has been restored. In the last book of
The Odyssey, we see the final realization Odysseus self-realization when Athena commands:
Odysseus, master of land ways and sea ways,
Command yourself. Call off this battle now,
Or Zeus who views the wide world may be angry.
He yielded to her, and his heart was glad. (24, 606-610)
The end of the Odyssey depicts a resolution of justice, understanding the greater forces of
the universe, and a celebration of human rationality. Odysseus in the end, understands where to
draw the line between heroism and the greater scheme of the cosmos, and more importantly the
fantastic powers of human rationality.