P AR AM ET E R IDENTIFICATION

he dynamic characteristics of a machine or structure must be known before a vibration

problem can be identified or corrected. These dynamic characteristics, or parameters,
include the following:

1. Natural frequencies
2. Mode shapes,
3. Damping, and such modal properties as stiffness arid mass.
Parameters are quantified by exciting a machine using a hammer, shaker, or motion of the
machine itself. (The magnitude of this stimulus may be known or unknown.) Response is
measured with accelerometers, velocity transducers, or proximity probes. Oscilloscopes,
tracking filters, swept-filter analyzers and FFT spectrum analyzers are then used to analyze
the data. Both forces and responses are measured to obtain cause and effect relationships
with dual channel analysis. To date, the process of parameter identification which uses
classical modal testing has been performed on stationary structures. Recent advances in
modal testing of rotating machines have caused the generalization of modal testing
techniques. However, this technology is not fully developed as in the case of modal testing
of stationary structures. Significant advances in modal testing of rotating machines will be
reviewed.

Natural Frequencies
General Thought WHEN
Natural frequencies, which are unique to a machine or structural design,
HIGH VIBRATION IS
are important because they are excited by impact mechanisms and
PRESENT
vibratory forces. The phenomenon is known as resonance. Natural
1. There may be a large force
2. The structure may be weak
frequencies are obtained experimentally from impact tests with hammers,
3. Resonance amplification
variable-frequency shakers, or tests in which the speed of the machine is
may be present
varied. The natural frequencies of a machine can change with machine
speed because they are influenced by stiffness and mass. In machines
with self-acting fluid-film bearings, bearing stiffness is a function of machine speed. The
natural frequencies of machines with large overhung disks and wheels are speed dependent
because the gyroscopic moments vary with speed. Natural frequencies of machines are
typically determined by measuring vibration levels during start-up and coast down.
However, these natural frequencies must be associated with the speeds at which they occur.
The commonly used are impact and shaker tests. The hammer or shaker is applied to the
housing of a bearing or to the machine to vibrate the rotor at various frequencies. In this
case the natural frequency is excited at operating speed. If a non-operating rotor is
bumped, the natural frequency is that of the rotor resting in its bearings. The natural
frequency of a rotor mounted in rolling element bearings is close to that obtained at the
operating speed. But data obtained when the rotor is resting in its bearings as well as
information obtained from rotors bumped in a sling in the free-free mode (horizontally) --

although not indicative of any parameter at operating speed -- are valuable for modeling
the rotor and its support bearings.
D am pi n g
Damping is important in assessing the sensitivity of system response to such forcing
functions as mass unbalance, misalignment, and thermal distortion. Information about
damping will reveal potential problems of a machine passing through or dwelling on a
critical speed. Operating a machine with significant damping at a critical speed is not
necessarily harmful; on the other hand, low damping can sometimes mean disaster.
Evaluation of sensitive machines -- that is, those subject to mass unbalance from the
process and those operating close to a critical speed -- requires data on damping. Damping
of fluid film bearings varies with machine speed and thus must be obtained at the machine's
operating speed or speeds. Damping for a single mode can be measured in the domains of
time, frequency, or phase. Modal testing is used to evaluate multi-mcde damping. Again,
due to the variation of damping with machine speed, classical modal test techniques cannot
be used.

M o dal T e sti n g Techniques

Modal testing techniques are widely used for structural studies, but various problems must
be overcome before they can be applied to rotating machinery. First, the rotor is not easily
accessible for taking the many measurement points required to describe its mode shapes.
In addition, the applied vibratory force, if obtained from the machine, is difficult to quantify.
Measurements must be taken at speed because the dynamic properties of the rotor depend
on speed. Responses from the excitation and dynamic properties are obtained and must be
separated to effect a meaningful modal test. Extended and generalized testing techniques
are being developed to overcome these problems.
Modal testing of rotating machines and the foundation is and piping associated with them
has been motivated by several factors. Such test data as natural frequencies and mode
shapes allow validation of computer models. Measured damping data are important because
theoretical values are uncertain. In addition, modal test data are used experimentally to
formulate models of components that can be incorporated into the machine assembly by
sub structuring processes. The data can also be used with a modal model to determine
dynamic forces that cannot be measured directly. Finally, modal data are valuable for indepth diagnosis of rotating machinery. The computer model, in combination with modal test
data, allow the analyst to evaluate such components of design as critical speeds,
resonances, damping, and modes as well as machine condition; e.g., excessive forces
caused by mass unbalance, misalignment, bearing wear, and looseness.
Frequency Response Function (FRF) Measurement. Modal parameters of rotating machinery
are determined from a measured set of frequency response functions (FRFs) for which force,

amplitude, and phase are required. The coherence function is examined to establish the
validity of the data. However, more extensive testing is required because of the
nonsymmetrical properties of the machine. Several experimental methods [4,5,61 have
been developed for acquiring the data necessary to formulate FRFs. A force from a hammer
or shaker can be applied or mass unbalance can be calibrated. In the latter case response
on the rotor is measured with a proximity probe to obtain displacement; an accelerometer is
mounted on the structure. When mass unbalance is used, a column of the matrix H, Table
1, is measured. The background response of the rotating machine must be eliminated.
Unfortunately FRF's from both the columns and rows must be measured because they are
different whereas in stationary structures, reciprocity applies and only a column or row must
be measured depending solely on convenience. Usually columns are obtained with shakers
(the shaker i7 fixed and the transducer moved) and rows with hammers (transducer fixed
and hammer moved).

Artificial excitation using swept sine forces from a shaker is time consuming but accurate
because only one frequency is excited at a time. However, impact and random forces that
simultaneously excite many modes are more often used today in structural modal testing.
FRFs vary with rotor speed and are computed directly from the ratio of Fourier transforms of
the measured output (response) and input (force) signals. In impact tests the frequency
content and amplitude of the force signal are influenced by hammer mass, flexibility of the
impact cap, and impact velocity. A long impulse yields low energy and a wide frequency
range. A long impulse is required to excite low frequencies.
The six FRFs are given below. The standard FRF is typically response divided by force.
Arguments have been made for using the inverse FRFs. Dynamic stiffness, mechanical
impedance, or apparent mass are used for such discrete parameter identification in rotating
machines as bearing stiffness and damping.

Response Parameter

Frequency Response Functions (FRFs)

Response/force

Force/response

Displacement

Receptance Dynamic Flexibility

Dynamic stiffness

Velocity

Mobility

Mechanical impedance

Acceleration

1/

Inertance , accelerance

2/

Apparent mass

1/ the effect of inertia in an acoustic system, an impeding of the transmission of sound

through the system.
2/is the frequency dependent acceleration of a point divided by the force excitation.

The dynamic stiffness is the frequency dependant ratio between a dynamic force and the
resulting dynamic displacement.

Data Analysis. The procedures of experimental modal analysis are applied to modal test
data to identify the parameters of a theoretical model that will simulate the behavior of the
machine. The data must be matched or curve-fitted to a modal equation (single-degree-offreedom) such as the modal response of ,i machine.
N
Y M * Aj (
2=1 X(2')
where: Y (W)= measured modal values at various frequencies
Aj, Xj = modal parameters that are related to the properties of the
machine
The nature of the data dictates which of several procedures will be used to extract the
modal parameters. The most widely used approach is the single-degree- of-freedom curvefit. In systems with well-spaced modes, acceptable values for the parameters can be found
by using test data around the natural frequency. The single-degree-of-freedom constants
plus an offset term, which accounts for the contributions at other modes, can be used effectively.

Rotor Dynamic Considerations. The dynamic response of a rotor/bearing system is

calculated from the equations of motion:
..

Mq + Cq + Kq = F(t)
where: M = mass or M matrix
C = damping or C matrix
K = stiffness or K matrix
q = displacement vector (displacement of the block, model)
F = force vector
The matrices C and K. which contain the stiffness and damping terns from the bearings as
well as gyroscopic effects, are non symmetric and depend on the running speed of the rotor.
These properties account for the difficulties of carrying out modal testing on rotating
machines. In structural modal testing the C and K matrices are symmetrical and are not
speed dependent.