3 Flood Protection Methods

3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Definition

Flood is a temporary inundation of land as a result of surface water (stagnant or flowing)

escaping from their normal confines or as a result of heavy precipitation.

3.1.2 Why Flood Protection

Internationally flood poses one of the most widely distributed natural risks to life.(natural
hazards: earthquakes, volcanos, landslides, tsunamis, floods, drought etc)

Between 1973-1997 an average of 66 million people a year suffered flood damage. This
makes flooding the most damaging of all natural disasters. The average annual number of
flood victims jumped from 19 million to 131 million during the periods 1993-1997.
Death toll

Event

Location Date

1 2,500,0003,700,000

1931 China floods

China

1931

2 500,000700,000

1938 Yellow River (Huang He) flood

China

1938

3 231,000

Banqiao Dam failure, result of Typhoon Nina.

Approximately 86,000 people died from flooding and
another 145,000 died from subsequent disease.

China

1975

4 145,000

1935 Yangtze river flood

China

1935

6 100,000

Hanoi and Red River Delta flood

North
Vietnam

1971

6 40,000

1949 Eastern Guatemala flood

Guatemala

1949

7 30,000

1954 Yangtze river flood

China

1954

8 28,700

1974 Bangladesh monsoon rain

Bangladesh 1974

9 20,006

1999 Vargas mudslide

Venezuela

1999

10 20,000

1939 Tianjin flood

China

1939

The 2006 flood in Ethiopia mainly in omo river, Diredawa caused death toll 705

In economic terms also, floods are responsible for approximately a third of all the losses due
to natural hazards.

Flood disaster and frequency of flood is increasing every year. Possible reasons for
increasing flood losses are:
o Increasing population & pressure on floodplains
o Increasing value of property in flood prone areas
o Increasing vulnerability (age) of strucures
o Changes in environmental conditions
o Changing climate

3.1.3 Types of floods

In general distinction can be made of five different types of floods:

o River flood
o Flash flood
o Stagnant and urban flood
o Coastal flood
o Lake flood

River Flood

Heavy rainfall that pours down for days / weeks in a given watershed will cause for a river to
burst its banks and inundate adjacent lands and floodplains.

Flash Flood:

Floods that usually develop from local precipitation of an extremely high intensity, as
generated during thunderstorms, thus leading to flooding in a limited area with a high rate of
flow and catastrophic amounts of damage.

Stagnant and Urban Flood:

Extreme local rainfall combined with impeded or block drainage may cause inundation. This
type of flooding, depending on topographical and soil conditions and the existence of
adequate drainage facilities, mainly occurs in flat and lower-lying regions of a basin and
urban areas.

When land surface is converted from fields or woodlands to built-up area, roads, and parking
lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall.

Urbanization increases runoff 2 to 6 times over what would occur on natural terrain. During

periods of urban flooding, streets become swift moving rivers.

Coastal Flooding
Areas along coastlines become subject to flooding as a result of tsunamis, hurricanes and

unusually high tides. In addition, long term process like subsidence and sea level rise as a
result of global warming can lead to the encroachment of the sea on to the land. Coastal
flooding is of special concern because; worldwide approximately 80% of the population are
concentrated along coastlines.
Lake Floods
Exceptional periods of precipitation or long lasting inflows from streams and rivers can cause

a substantial rise in the water level of lakes, which lack sufficient drainage or have
inadequate outlets. The often densely populated shore areas then inundate for several meters.
3.1.4 Causes of Floods
The causes of the different types of floods are numerous. Generally, nearly some 50% of the

causes of floods are related to human interference.

Causes of Flood

Natural

Man made

Heavy rain and precipitation

Deep snow cover

Saturated soil

Permafrost

Rising groundwater

Backwater in storm-water drainage system

Landslide

Dike and levees breach

Dam operation and dam break

10 Flood defence structure

11 River regulation

12 Sealing ground surface (Asphalt/concrete)

13 Change in vegetation / deforestation

14 Settlement and industrialization in flood prone areas

3.1.4 Benefits of and damages due to floods

3.1.4.1 Benefits of floods
The benefits of floods include

Flood plain soils consist of rich deposits of sediments suitable for agricultural cultivation and
wild plant species. When the floodwaters retreat, the original soil is more fertile, because of
the organic matter and minerals in this material.

Floods provide much of the critical habitat for many biotas such as fish, wildlife and the
water fowl. Spring pools that remain after flooding support insects and small animals which,
in turn, feed larger creatures.

Floods carry food to ocean estuaries, which are breeding grounds for marine life,

In developing countries, after a flood event communities are provided with better services

Percolating floodwater in floodplains is important for rechcharging groundwater resources

3.1.4.2 Damages due to floods

Damages due to floods are numerous.

o Damage to infrastructure (roads, airports etc)
o Damage to property
o Damage to economy and livelihoods (commercial and industrial establishment,
farming lands etc)
o Damage and loss of human life
o Loss of services due to damage to infrastructure, property

The damage can be classified in terms of

o

form as direct and indirect, and

measurement as tangible and intangible.

Direct damages are those damages that are attributed directly to physical contact with flood
water.
o Example of direct damages include damage to infrastructure and property, the loss of
life etc

Whereas indirect damages are results of property of services which are not directly damaged
by floods but are harmed by interruption of services due to direct damages to infrastructure.

o Example of indirect damages include traffic interruption due to damage to roads and
bridges

Tangible damages are those damages on which a monetary value can be attached.
o E.g damge to infrastructure and property

.Intangible damages are those on which it is difficult to attach a monetary value

o E.g. loss of life

3.2

Design Discharge
Flood protection works are designed to reduce the frequency and expected inundation
damages,

The first question to be addressed is the design flood discharge and, hence, the design flood
water level to be used for the design of the protection works,

In general, determination of design flood discharge for flood protection works is based on the
same basic consideration as that of many other hydraulic projects. That is risk analysis.

Economic benefits from a proposed protection project over the expected useful life span
of the works or the risks averted should be equal to or greater than the compound cost
of the project.

The benefits are of two kinds:

o Those arising from prevention of flood damage, and
o Those resulting from more intensive use of protected land

The benefit from prevention of flood damage is the difference in expected damage
throughout the life of the project with and without flood controls and these benefits include
o Cost of replacement or repairing od damaged properties
o Cost of evacuation, relief rehabilitation of victms and emergency flood protection
measure
o Losses due to disruption of business and losses due to crops or cost of replanting
crops.

Land protected from floods may be utilized for more productive purposes when not subjected
to flood hazards.
o The benefit is assessed by estimating the difference in net revenue from the property
with and without flood control.

In evaluation of the economic benefits, it is generally an accepted practice that only tangible
and direct benefits should be drawn into consideration,
o Tangible benefits are those benefits for which monetary value can be attached
o Direct benefits are those benefits accrued due to the project

reduction of physical damage to properties is a tangible direct benefit

reduction of loss of life is an intangible direct benefit

reduction of traffic disruption due to flood damage to roads and bridges is a

tangible but indirect benefit

Overall cost of the proposed project should include all expenditures required for its
completion, operation and maintenance, interest and depreciation.

A complicating factor with many flood-protection projects is the possibility of loss of human
life, an occurrence which obviously eludes evaluation in terms of material cost.

A simple optimization procedure for a flood control project is schematically shown below.

1 is the project cost

2 is the flood damage

Return periods of 10,000 yrs and more are known to have been chosen in many cases of
important population centers and industrial parks.
Flood plain characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.

Extensive agriculture
Intensive agriculture
Thinly or medium populated living areas
Densely populated living areas and industrial
centers
5. Important urban centers

Recommended flood
return period (yrs)
6-7
15-20
100-200
200-1000
>1000

For a given natural watercourse under consideration, discharge measurement over a

representative time period (15-25yrs) are available, flood frequency analysis can be carried
out to obtain by extrapolation probable discharge values for time periods greater than the
actual year-series measurements.

When no such measurements exist or are scarce, special hydrologic methods can be applied
to develop synthetic series to derive the design discharge. Rainfall-runoff modeling(rational,
SCS curve number, regionalization etc...)

3.3

Flood Protection / Control Methods

Methods for flood control and protection include

1. Flood control by structural measures
a. Stream training and regulation
b. Flood reduction by levees and dikes
c. Reduction of flood peak by routing through reservoirs
2. Flood abatement
a. Reduction of the flood volume
3. Behavioural measures

3.3.1 Flood control by structural measures

3.3.1.1 Stream training and regulation
Definition:

These are methods that reduce flood hazard by increasing the carrying capacity of a stream
and, thus, lowering its water stages.

Several methods exist. They can be used individually or in combination.

Improvement of cross section,

Channel rectification,

Reduction of river bed slopes in upper reaches,

River bank protection

Artificial channel linings,

It is important to note that any change that is introduced in the existing natural conditions of
a stream with the aim of improving its performance or mitigating its destructive behaviour,
will necessarily affect the general pattern of the morphological erosion-deposition process.
o The numbers of interdependent parameters that enter in to play are very large and
there is practically no way of isolating the influence of any one of them.
o In fact, simultaneous action of many parameters may in some case may be cumulative
and in some other cases may be compensatory.

In the following some of the main parameters and their isolated effects upon the dynamic
erosion-deposition process will be briefly recapitulated

1. If the longitudinal slope is increased or decreased, discharge remaining constant,

sediment transport capacity (STC) will be affected. Erosion in the first case, and
deposition in the second case
2. STC of a channel with constant slope roughly varies directly to flow discharge. Any
deviation from this proportionality is likely to result in general erosion or deposion
3. Bed-material load diminishes with increasing median grain size. Accordingly, washing
out of fine fractions is likely to eventually lead to some sort of stabilization. On the other
hand, this reduction in sediment load may increase erosion downstream.
4. Increasing the depth without changing the width of a channel, is likely to decrease its
STC and hence result in deposition
5. Narrowing the channel (say by dikes or groynes), without changing the discharge or
longitudinal slope, will generally increase its STC and hence cause erosion

3.3.1.1.1

Improving channel cross-section

Once the design flood discharge is determined, the existing channel of an alluvial stream
should be improved or a new artificial channel designed in order to safely convey the flood
wave.

Cross-section of the channel is usually computed assuming uniform flow at flood design
discharge and adding adequate free board.

Flood wave propagation is essentially an unsteady gradually varied problem. It is important

therefore to note that in many instance the uniform flow assumption underestimate the actual
depth of flow especially at the upper reaches where there is little wave attenuation.

3.3.1.1.2

Channel rectification or short-cut of bends (or artificial cut-off)

When a river contains sharp bends, bend cutting may be required for several reasons.
o to improve flood discharge capacity It may also be used to direct the river from the
curved flow which may be endangering valuable land and property
o to improve the situation for navigation e.g. reduce the length
o to stop severe bank erosion

If most of the sharp bends of a natural stream are short-cut, it is estimated that the mean flow
velocity may be increased by as much as about 40%, and thus it capacity

Bend cutting is executed by dredging a new channel along a much shorter but stable
alignment. To get a stable channel, a gentle bend should be made.

Short-cut of bends

Morphological consequences of short-cutting are:

o Energy gradient of the stream along the cut-off channel and upstream of it is
increased; hence also its sediment transport capacity, STC

Erosion and deposition at cut-off

If the elevations at points A and B remain unaltered, the longitudinal slope between the two
points along the cut-off is considerably increased. As a result, there are two transitions
o From the mild slope upstream of A to the steeper slope of the cut-off;
o From the steeper slope of the cut-off to the mild slope downstream of B.

Generally, erosion starts first not far from point A and deposition will take place in the
vicinity of point B. With time, the erosion moves upstream from point A (back erosion), and
sedimentation advances downstream from point B. The back erosion and progressing
deposition are carried on until eventually a new longitudinal slope is established, more or less
similar to the original slope.

Because of reduced stream storage, peak discharge downstream of the cut-off is likely to be
higher than before. The streambed upstream of point A is lowered with time, while
downstream from point B it will be raised above the original streambed before the
construction of the cut-off. This reduction in channel capacity in the downstream part may
cause flooding at higher discharges, since the water can no longer be contained within the
stream channel. Therefore, in most cases, meander short-cutting alone is not sufficient to
prevent the stream from overflowing its banks during the flood protection design discharge,
hence additional means are necessary, such as channel improvement or dykes.

3.3.1.1.3

Reduction of bed slopes

Recall from last chapter

o In upper reaches of some streams, longitudinal slope is often excessively steep
causing strong erosion.
o In the lower reaches, the slope flattens and large quantities of eroded material, often
coarse gravel or even boulders, are deposited.

This may lead to the clogging of the channel causing flooding and damages.

o The erosion-deposition cycle may be improved by reducing the slope of the streams
by structural measure including

Drop structures,

Checkdams, and

Bottom sills

3.3.1.1.4

River bank protection

River bank protection works improve stream channel capacity by curtailing continous
longitudinal and lateral movement of the river planform.

3.3.1.1.5

Artificial channel linings

Concrete lined channels create smoother wetted perimeter and so increase velocity

Thus water levels drop and flood risk is reduced

Expensive, and high maintenance

3.3.1.1.6

Debris dams:

To trap sediment in upper catchments to prevent downstream bed ggradation/deposition

Maintains higher bankfull capacities downstream

Periodic need for emptying, but can be used for construction materials

Especially important in semi-arid, mountainous catchments

3.3.1.2 Flood reduction by Levees and dikes / Marginal Embankments

A levee or dyke is a structure mainly for flood protection by controlling the river and not by
training it.
o The alignment should follow the normal pattern of meandering of the river.
o They are constructed of earth materials and may be provided at one or both sides of
the river.

The design of dykes or levees is just like embankment dams.

o Like embankment dams they are likely to fail due to overtopping, piping, seepage,
etc.
o They are designed to hold water up to the maximum anticipated flood level without
the possibility of overtopping and withstanding all external pressures. Therefore, the
necessary conditions are met by providing sufficient freeboard, bed width, top width
and stone protection on slopes.
o As the height increases it becomes necessary to provide key trenches, zoned sections,
etc. to make the embankment stable. Freeboard may be between 0.3 m and 1.5 m
above maximum flood level.

Typical dike cross-sections

Location of Levees and Dikes

It is obvious that the same discharge could be carried between higher dykes built close to
the stream bank, and low dykes built away from the stream.

Low and high dykes

With the exception of cases in which the distance of the dykes from the stream is limited
by circumstances that fall mainly in the legal province (such as property right,

expropriation restrains, etc), the distance, and hence, also their height is based on
consideration of:
o Economics: concerning cost of dykes low dykes are cheaper to build, not only
because of minor volume of earthwork but due to other construction
considerations e.g. protection against piping; clearing foundation area from
vegetation, roots, boulders, or organic matter; compaction in layers; etc. Dykes
are usually built along extended stretches of the stream; hence cost of dyking
scheme is sensitive to additional height.
o Safety: Failure with low dykes will result in only minor damages, while with high
dykes, both the material damage and human suffering are likely to be more
severe.
3.3.1.3 Flood protection by means of reservoirs

Dams are constructed across a stream to form a reservoir that provides a temporary storage of
flood water during peak flows, and to release the stored volume to the downstream channel at
a regulated rate during the flood wave and after its subsidence.
o Single purpose dams

Storage dams: surcharge storage available for flood routing

Flood detention dams: whole active storage available for flood detention

o Multipurpose dams

portion of active storage is available for flood detention

The simplest form of a flood protection reservoir is a detention basin using flood detention
dams. In such types of dams, the dam is equipped with a generally uncontrolled bottom outlet
conduit and a spillway.

If economically justified, the best solution for such a basin is to set the elevation of the
spillway crest so as to ensure sufficient storage capacity for the maximum design flood,
without the need for overflowing the crest and causing spillway discharge.

The flowing figure shows the attenuation of the flood peak by detention dam. Note also that
due to a reduction in the peak, the water level in the downstream channel is also reduced.

Spreading grounds (Ponds)

Diverting flood water to low impact flood plain zones, for storage

Reduces downstream peak flows

Low impact zones can be recreational land use

Flood water will evaporate or eventually infiltrate, replenishing groundwater supplies

e.g. Nile River at Sudan

3.3.2 Flood Abatement

Tackles problem at source by reducing surface run-off.

This can be achieved by:

o Afforestation or reforestation of upper catchment slopes
o Comprehensive protection of vegetation
o Terracing of farmland
o Contour ploughing

3.3.3 Flood Behavioral responses

Accepting the loss fatalism often only option in some countries like Haiti or Bangladesh

Public relief funds emergency response to hazard event requires funding, materials,
technical support, rebuilding. Sources vary from UN agencies to governments and NGOs.

Flood insurance a standard response in flood prone communities, e,g,. in the Netherlands

Monitoring and Prediction

 data on rainfall and stream discharge can be used to produce accurate predictions of
the timing of flood surges
 Can be used for communities to prepare for actual flood event or for authorities to
organise evacuations
 Not always possible flash floods have too short a lag time , lack of technical
equipment / personnel, or communication systems,

Floodplain zoning
 Planning authorities can prohibit certain land-uses in the more flood prone floodplain
zones

Flood proofing
 Individuals bear responsibility for reducing likely flood damage to property
 Techniques: water-proof garden walls, windows and doors; sandbags; buildings on
stilts; removal of damageable goods to higher levels. e.g. houses in Fogera flood
plain, Lake Tana Area, Ethiopia.