IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 7. NO. 2.

APRIL 1992

404

A Pulse Frequency Modulated PWM Inverter for

Induction Motor Drives
Yoshitaka Iwaji and Shoji Fukuda, Member, IEEE

Abstract-This paper describes a PWM pulse pattern optimization method using the pulse frequency modulation (PFM).
In conventional PWMs the pulse frequency is kept constant.
In the proposed PFM, however, the pulse frequency is adjusted. The PFM technique is aiming at not only reducing the
magnetic acoustic noises of driven motors but also at improving
the performance of sinusoidal inverters. The PWM pulse patterns are basically controlled so that the time-integral function
of the voltage vectors in the space vector notation may draw a
circular locus. In addition to this, the pulse frequency, practically the sampling frequency, of PWM is also controlled so that
the performance index (PI), which represents the degrees of
achieved objectives, may be minimized. Here, two PIS, one for
minimizing the distortion of output currents and the other for
minimizing the torque pulsation of driven motors, are employed. Finally, the method is implemented using a single-chip
microprocessor, and the experimental results demonstrate its
validity.

and it disperses voltage harmonics over a wide frequency

range, which may cause a reduction in acoustic noises of
driven motors.
In this paper, PFM is utilized for minimizing the loss
factor or torque pulsation of driven motors. Finally, the
proposed PFM is implemented using a single-chip microprocessor, and its validity is demonstrated by the experimental results.
11. DEFIN~TION
OF PERFORMANCE
INDEX
A . Quasi-Circular Locus Method
The connections of a voltage source inverter are shown
in Fig. 1. The voltage vector V,, represented by the instantaneous space vectors, is defined by

V,
I. INTRODUCTION
TH the advent of high-speed semiconductor
switching devices, sinusoidal inverters using PWM
have been popular in the area of ac drives. As for PWM
control, digital control methods have been prevailing over
analog counterparts because they facilitate the realization
of more flexible and reliable systems. Furthermore, with
the development of single-chip microprocessors, PWM
control can be realized by simpler hardware and softwarebased improvements in PWM such as optimization of
pulse patterns [l], [2] and correction of switching dead
time [3] are possible.
We have proposed several methods for optimizing
PWM pulse patterns for voltage source inverters in which
the loss factor [8], the sum of the square of inverter output
current harmonics, is employed as a performance index
to be minimized. One method is to optimize PWM pulse
patterns by means of pulse locations while keeping the
carrier frequency constant [l], and another method is by
means of carrier frequency [2]. In this paper the latter is
called pulse frequency modulation (PFM), where both the
pulse frequency and pulse width are modulated.
In these methods, the PFM technique provides various
output characteristics. For example, it is effective for improving output voltage waveforms in a high-voltage range,

Manuscript received October 22, 1990; revised August 5, 1991.

The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060 Japan.
IEEE Log Number 9107104.

= (V,

+ aVb + a2Vc)

= exp

(j2n/3).

(1)

There are six nonzero vectors, VI-V6, and one zero vector, Vo or V7, as shown in Fig. 2. The performance vector
U is defined as a time-integral function of V,:

V, dt

+ Uo.

(2)

Equation ( 2 ) indicates that U draws a locus that is determined by the kind and time width of the voltage vectors
used. If the output voltages are purely sinusoidal, the performance vector locus will be

U*

= -j(&

EM/^) exp ( j w r )

(3)

where w is the output frequency and M is the modulation

index (0 < M < 1) for controlling the amplitude of the
output voltage. U* draws a pure circle locus. The U locus
can be controlled by selecting V, and regulating the time
width of V, so as to follow the U* locus as closely as
possible. This is called the quasi-circular locus method
[1]-[6]. As U corresponds to a stator flux vector when
induction motors are driven, the method is also referred
to as flux-controlled PWM in many reports [4]-[6].
A typical vector locus when the quasi-circular locus
method is employed is illustrated in Fig. 3, where $ denotes the phase angle of the output voltage and 0 mark
indicates that a zero vector is output. The selection of V,
and adjustment of its time width are conducted at every
sampling interval, AT(samp1ing angle A$ = w A Tin Fig.
3). One sampling interval is enlarged in Fig. 4(a), where
the dotted curve shows the U* locus and the solid line
shows the U locus. The U locus is adjusted so that U co-

0885-8993192$03.00 0 1992 IEEE

IWAJI AND FUKUDA: A PULSE FREQUENCY MODULATED PWM INVERTER

405

If E is represented in the r-4 coordinate, which rotates

with the reference vector U* [4]-[6] as shown in Fig. 4,
it is resolved into two perpendicular components:
E = E,

+ jc,.

(5)

Define the performance index for the mth sampling period

as
to

+AT

IEI2dt =

Jm =

80C196

IO

U
Fig. 1 . Voltage source inverter.

J,,

10

+AT

(E;

+ E;)

dt

+ Jm,.

(6)

Then the total performance index is obtained by integrating Jmover a complete cycle as
N

pNAT

J =

(EI2dt =

C J,,,
m= I

m=l

+ Jm,)

(Jmr

J,

+ J,.

(7)

J corresponds to the distortion factor of the output current

[ 11 or the loss factor that represents the amount of copper
loss [8] and has a close correlation to magnetic noises of
driven motors [2], [6]. One of the optimal PWM pulse
patterns can be achieved by minimizing J [ 11.
It has been reported that the peripheral component of
the error vector E$ has a strong influence on the amplitude
of torque pulsation when induction motors are driven [4],
[5]. Therefore, another optimal PWM pattern may be
achieved by minimizing J,.

Fig. 2. Seven kinds of voltage vectors.

111. PWM PULSEPATTERN

OPTIMIZATION
BASEDON
PULSEFREQUENCY
MODULATION
A . Pulse Frequency Modulation
PFM is one of the most effective measures for minimizing the performance index J with the number of
switchings being kept constant. Here we propose a PFM
technique suitable for microprocessor-based control.
Divide a complete cycle of the output into N portions.
N equals the number of total output pulses per cycle and
should be a multiple of six to maintain the symmetry of
the waveforms. With the output frequency f and N the
sampling interval, A T can be expressed in terms of the
control angle 8 as

Fig. 3 . Quasi-circular locus method

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4. (a) Loci of U and U* and error vector

r-6 coordinate.

E.

AT

incides with U* at the beginning (point P ) and end (point

Q) instants of every sampling interval. In the A T period,
one zero vector, V7, and two nonzero vectors, VI and Vz,
are used as shown in the figure.

B. Performance Index
Introduce the error vector as
E =

U*.

(1 l(Nf>)g(@.

(8)

(b) Definition of

(4)

A T is regulated with the modulation function g(8) while

the number of switchings is kept constant. Equation g(8)
is an arbitrary function with its period being one sixth of
the output's and the average value being unity. One voltage pulse is generated in each two phases at every 2 A T
interval. Therefore, this method is called the pulse frequency modulation. We have already discussed rectangular, triangular, and sinusoidal g(8)'s [2]. In this paper,
a sinusoidal g(8) that provides an optimal J value among
them is employed:

gfe)

= 1

+ lcos(68)

-I < l < 1

(9)

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 7 , NO. 2. APRIL 1992

406

1.2

IS
I1
v

X
wc)
8

gz
n\

Z I-S
H

1.0

W
07
8

6id
L-

z o 0.8

&
wI S/I

c)

CONTROL
20
ANGLE40e' [ d e g ]

,--.
IS

_-

(a)

5'0

0.61
-1 .o

(b)

Fig. 5 . Pulse frequency modulation. (a) Sinusoidal modulation function.

(b) Loci of voltage vectors.

where { denotes the modulation depth of the pulse frequency that specifies the time variation range of the sampling interval A T . If { > 0, A Tis shortened around $ =
30" but is lengthened around 0 and 60" whereas, if { <
0, A Tis lengthened around I)= 30" but shortened around
0 and 60" as shown in Fig. 5.
Angle $ represents the phase angle of the output as
shown in Fig. 3 and is increased by the angle AI) = w A T
at each sampling instant. Thus, A$ varies in proportion
to the A T values. On the other hand, the control angle 8
is different from $ and is used only to calculate A T. Angle
8 increases by the constant angle A8 = 2 n / N at each sampling instant. Both angles coincide with each other at
every 60".

B. Variations in the Performance Index Caused by PFM

The variations in J and J4 in terms of { are shown in
Fig. 6, where { = 0.287 and -0.456 provide minimum
values for J and J $ , respectively. With { = 0, as is the
case in conventional PWM's, the zero vector time is long
around I) = 0 and 60, whereas it is short around I) =
30". With negative { values, however, the zero vector
time is averaged over a 60" period, resulting in almost the
same zero vector time. As with the zero vector time, the
peripheral component of the error vector E $ increases in
proportion to its time width; J+ deteriorates with the increase in zero vector time. Therefore, PFM with an appropriate negative { value is useful for reducing
whereas with a proper positive { value is useful for reducing J .
N equals 48 (1.2 kHz of switching and 50 Hz of output
frequencies) in Fig. 6, but almost identical curves are obtained for larger N values. Fig. 7 shows optimal { values
that minimize J or J4 when M is changed. It is seen that
PFM is more effective in higher M regions.

C. Reduction in the Distortion Factor

Define the harmonic distortion (HD) of the output when
up to the nth harmonic is considered as

Ir

I
0.0

-0.5

1.0

0.5

MODULATION DEPTH 5
Fig. 6 . Dependence of performance index on modulation depth.

0.3

0.2

\'J

-0.3

-0.4

-0.5

'\

'\

'
I

0.2

0.6
0.8
MODULATION INDEX M
0.4

1.0

Fig. 7. Dependence of optimal modulation depth on modulation index.

where V, denotes the amplitude of the kth harmonics of

line voltages. HD corresponds to the distortion factor of
motor currents. HD varies depending on the highest harmonic order to be considered. Fig. 8 shows HD versus IZ
curves, where the { values are optimal ones for J and J$
under M = 1. It is seen that optimizing J results in reducing HD, especially lower order harmonics. Optimizing
however, increases lower order harmonics, resulting in poorer HD values.
PFM enables us to arrange the distribution of harmonics to some extent. For example, by use of an appropriate
performance function, eliminating or minimizing harmonics in a specified frequency range may be possible.

D. Reduction in Torque Pulsation

It is well known that inverters generate torque pulsation
in driven motors due to the harmonics included in their
output voltages. The torque pulsation is required to be as
small as possible because it causes vibrations and acoustic
noises in motors. The general expression of the torque
developed will be
m

T, = To +

r= 1

T, cos (6rwt

+ 4,)

(1 1)

where To is the average torque. The torque includes ripple

components of the 6rth order [ 5 ] ,[6]. In order to evaluate

407

IWAJI AND FUKUDA: A PULSE FREQUENCY MODULATED PWM INVERTER

2.5-1

f=50Hz, M=l.O, N=48

Y

<=-0.456

.
........... -----.
.
.................._ ..........._.__...
....,--------

2.0-

<=0.287. 02=0.04627

(M=l, f=50Hz, N=48)

1.5

....,

I2
W

1.0

0.5

I
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

PHASE ANGLE 11, [ d e s ]

0

40

20

60

80

100

54.0,

HARMONIC ORDER n

02=0.03321

(M=l, f=5OHz, N=48)

Fig. 8. Variations of harmonics distortion factor with harmonic order in

terms of modulation depth.

30

60
90
PHASE ANGLE $

120

150

180

[deg]

lh

1.0.

0.05

M=l, f=50Hz, N=48

0.5
I

30

60
90
120
PHASE ANGLE 11, [des]

150

180

Fig. 10. Variations of instantanecus torque waveform with modulation

depth, T, = T,/To.
0.02

-1.0

-0.5
0.0
MODULATION DEPTH 5

0.5

(b)

Fig. 9. (a) Motor constants used for torque calculation. (b) Dependence
of the dispersion of torque pulsation on modulation depth.

the torque pulsation, introduce the dispersion of the torque

as

PT

u2 = (1/T)

(T,/To - 1)2 dt

(12)

where T = 1/(6f).
Fig. 9(a) shows the equivalent circuit of an induction
motor used for calculation, and (b) shows the variation in
the torque dispersion in terms of { under M = 1, f = 50
Hz and the slip (s) = 1%. It indicates that { = -0.432
provides a minimal u 2 value, which is very close to the {
= -0.456 that provides a minimal J$ value. Under other
conditions, i.e., different M , f , and/or s values, optimal {

values for u 2 are almost the same as the ones shown in

Fig. 7. The instantaneous torque waveforms under typical
{ values are compared in Fig. 10. It is obvious that by
using { = -0.432, the amplitude of the torque pulsation
is reduced and averaged.
In [9], it is indicated that if the ratios of the amplitude
of the voltage harmonic to its harmonic order are
11,5r+1/(6~+ 1) = Vt+i/(6r

1)

(13)

the 6rth torque pulsations will cancel each other. This is

the reason for the reduction in the torque pulsation. As is
explained later, the voltage data of Fig. 14 suggests that
the 5th and 7th, and 11th and 13th voltage components
are of the magnitude and phase such as to sum to zero the
resulting 6th and 12th harmonic torques.
In contrast, an optimal { value for J causes a higher
amplitude of the torque pulsation, resulting in a poorer U*
value. Thus, a reduction in the distortion of motor currents does not always result in a reduction in the
torque pulsation.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 7 . NO. 2. APRIL 1992

408

basis using three ROM tables.

Three voltage vectors, one zero vector and two nonzero
vectors, are used in every sampling period. For a 0 < $
< 60 period, the zero vector time to, Vi vector time t , ,

E
E

1.0

n
I

where K l ( $ ) = cos ($ + w/6), K2($) = sin $, and KO($)

= Ki
K2.
The coefficient K s ( s = 0, 1, 2) in terms of $ is tabulated

Interrupt

Ks versus $

Read 5 & A8 f r o m T a b l e 1 1 1

Ki($) = (cos $ n/6), K2($) = sin $

0 < $ < n/3
Calculate AT from T a b l e I1

in (15). The cosine function, cos 60, in terms of 0 is tabulated

C versus cos (68)

c(e)= COS (60)

o < e < n/3

in (16).
Both the optimal [ values (Fig. 7 ) and division number
N (Fig. 11) in terms of M are tabulated
[ versus M , and N versus M

=
Read Kc($)

from Table

Calculate t

Schedule tq

011

HSO unit

Fig. 7 is tabulated in { versus M

Fig. 11 is tabulated in N versus M
in (17). If the main purpose is a reduction in total barmonic distortion (THD), optimal [ values for J are used,
but if a reduction in torque ripples is proposed, optimal [
values for J4 are used. If optimal [ values for minimizing
acoustic noises are experimentally obtained, noise-minimized operation may also be possible.
The control algorithm is shown in Fig. 12, where the
suffix 0 represents initial values in the sampling period
under consideration. It is somewhat complicated, but the
execution of one loop is completed within 150 ps using
an 80C196.
In the experiments, the so called ratio-changing
method, in which N is changed according to M , is employed. Relations between N and M can be determined
depending on the objectives to be achieved, e.g., to keep
the switching frequency within a limited range, or to keep
THD under a specified value. Here, the latter case is
adopted where N is changed according to M so that THD
does not exceed 2 % when the ratio f/V is constant. The
N versus M curve used is shown in Fig. 11. To adopt J ,
J4 or a 2 instead of THD is also possible.

Fig. 12. Flowchart of pulse frequency modulated PWM control.

Fig. 13. Motor current waveform, f = 50 Hz, { = 0.287, M = 1, and

N = 48; 2 A/div. 5 ms/div.

B. Experimental Results
Fig. 13 shows the current waveform of a 100-V
0.75-kW induction motor under f = 30 Hz, N = 96. The
average switching frequency, 1.44 kHz, is not as high but
almost sinusoidal currents are obtained.
Fig. 14 shows the measured spectra of the line voltage.

409

IWAJI AND FUKUDA: A PULSE FREQUENCY MODULATED PWM INVERTER

50

<=0.287 (min. J)

8
z

20-

3
s

1.0

2.0

FREQIIENCY

1.0

50 Hz.

Fig. 14. Measured lower order spectra of line voltage, f

M = 1. and N = 48.

-2.01
-0.5

ZOHz, M=0.4

0.0

MODULATION DEPTH

5.0

0.25

1.0

2.0

FREQUENCY

3.0

4.0

5.0

[kHz]

Fig. 16. Comparison of measured line voltage spectra with and without
pulse frequency modulation, f = 20 Hz, M = 0.4, and N = 120.

-0.25

4.0

[ kHz]

2.0

FREQUENCY [kHz]

3.0

0.5

<

Fig. 15. Measured noise level.

The lower order harmonics vary remarkably in relation to

the { values. Although THD deteriorates with { =
- 0.456, torque pulsation is minimized because the pulsating components generated by the 5th and 7th, and l lth
and 13th currents are canceled by each other [9].
Fig. 15 shows the results of noise measurements. As
acoustic noises are dominant in low-speed operation, the
experiments were carried out in a low-output-frequency
range. In order to exclude rotation noise of the motor, the
rotor is locked and the voltages were adjusted to obtain
the rated motor currents were applied. The measurements
were done using a noise meter through an A filter. By use
of PFM, a maximal noise reduction of 1.6 dB observed,
but the figure indicates that { = 0 showed the lowest noise
level as a whole.
As human ears cannot discriminate a change in the noise
level as small as 1.6 dB, the tone of the noises is rather
important. It is said that so-called monotone noises with
[ = 0 are very offensive to human ears. PFM may be an
effective measure against noise problems because we felt
that the monotone noises turned to white noise with I {I

= 0.1. This fact is proved by Fig. 16, which shows how

the distribution of harmonics is changed by use of PFM.
With PFM the spectrum has weaker harmonic components that are dispersed over a wide range.

V . CONCLUSION
A pulse frequency modulation (PFM) technique for the
purpose of improving the current distortion or torque pulsation of driven motors is proposed, and a method realizing PFM by use of a single-chip microprocessor is described. PFM is one of the most effective measures to
improve inverter performance without increasing the
number of switchings of devices.
PFM introduces an additional control variable, the
modulation depth of the pulse frequency, which results in
widening the selection range of inverter characteristics
compared with conventional PWMs. Various optimal
modulation depths can be selected according to the desired objectives: for example, to minimize torque pulsation or current harmonics.
There is a possibility that the selection of an appropriate PFM function g ( 0 ) may eliminate harmonics in a specified frequency range, e.g., 1-3 kHz, which has strong
effects on acoustic noises. This is one of the subjects that
should be investigated in the future.

REFERENCES
[l] Y. Iwaji and S . Fukuda, A single-chip microprocessor-based PWM
technique for inverter control, in Con5 Rec. IEE of Japan Industry
Applications Society, no. 91, 1988, p. 425.
[2] -,
Optimization of PWM pulse pattern by carrier frequency modulation, in Con5 Rec. IEE of Japan Industry Applications Society,
1989, p. 489.
[3] -,
Sinusoidal PWM control method using a single-chip microprocessor, in Con5 Rec. IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
IECON88, 1988, p. 495.
[4] Y. Murai et al., New PWM method for fully digitized inverters,
IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, vol. IA-23, no. 5, p. 887, 1987.

410

[5] -,
Discussion on PWM method for reduction of torque pulsations
of an inverter fed induction motor, IEE Japan Trans., vol. B-101,
no. 6, p. 315, 1981.
[6] M. Daijo et al., On the magnetic noise of an induction motor driven
by PWM inverter, IEE Japan Trans., vol. D-108, no. 3, p. 237,
1988.
[7] H. Jonokuchi et al., A carrier frequency modulation for sinusoidal
inverters, in Con& Rec. IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
IECON88, 1988, pp. 678-683.
[8] M. G. Egan et al., A novel analytical study of distortion minimization PWM, in Conf. Rec. EPE, 1985, p. 2.113.
[9] Y. Inoue et al., PWM technique by harmonic power elimination for
low torque ripple drive of induction motor, in Conf. Rec. Japan
Industry Applications Society, no. 86, p. 395, 1988.
[lo] M. Daijo er al., On PWM pattern and harmonic analysis of a general
purpose inverter for induction motor drives, IEE Japan Trans., vol.
D-109, no. I t , p. 809, 1989.
[ l l ] C. C. Chen et al., New method for analyzing inverter induction
motor system and its application to optimization of PWM pattern,
IEEJapan Trans., vol. D-108, no. 11, p. 809, 1988.
[12] Y. Iwaji and S . Fukuda, A PWM technique using carrier frequency
modulation, in National Conv. Rec. IEE Japan, 1990, pp. 5-106.
[13] S. Fukuda and Y. Iwaji, A pulse frequency modulated PWM scheme
for sinusoidal inverters, in Conf. Rec. IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference PESC91, 1991, pp. 390-396.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 7, NO. 2 . APRIL 1992

Yoshitaka Iwaji received the B.E.E. degree from

Ibaraki University, Hitachi, Japan, in 1987, and
the M.S.E.E. degree from Hokkaido University.
Sapporo, in 1989. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Graduate School of Electrical Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
His research field has been microprocessorbased PWM control of rectifierlinverter.
Mr. Iwaji is a member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.
Shoji Fukuda received the B.E.E., M.S.E.E..
and Ph.D. degrees from Hokkaido University,
Sapporo, Japan, in 1965, 1967, and 1977, respectively.
In 1967 he joined the Faculty of Engineering.
Hokkaido University, and he is an Associate Professor of the Department of Electrical Engineering of the same University. From 1981 to 1983.
he worked at the University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Canada, as a Postdoctoral Fellow. He
has been engaged in research on microprocessorbased PWM control of rectifieriinverter, ac drives, and active power filters.
Dr. Fukuda is a member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.