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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 1057 1060
INTE 2014
Beyond the literal: Teaching visual literacy in the 21st century

classroom
April D. Lundya, Alice E. Stephensb
a
Department of Mass Media Arts, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta 30314, U.S.A
Department of Mass Media Arts, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta 30314, U.S.A.
Abstract
Visual imagery and composition inherently have the power to shape comprehension and interpretation beyond the literal. Todays
students increasingly inundated with a steady stream of imagery from multimedia platforms including the Internet (i.e., social
media Facebook, Instagram, Twitter), television, film and advertisements (White, 2012) are global consumers of media in their
everyday lives yet they often lack the skills necessary to move beyond passive receivers of visual media messages. Visual
literacy is vital for 21st Century learners and those who teach. Classrooms can become spaces for students to effectively
communicate in and contribute to analytical and global dialogue for discussions of race and diversity, multicultural life and
history thus encouraging students to become active deconstructionists of visual grammar.
Published
by by
Elsevier
Ltd. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
2015
2014The
TheAuthors.
Authors.
Published
Elsevier
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University
Keywords: Visual Literacy; Critical Analysis
1. Introduction
Contemporary culture is a visual culture and has become increasingly dependent on the capacity to
communicate instantly and universally. As visual images become the predominant form of communication across a
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 00-000-000-0000
E-mail address: astephen@cau.edu
1877-0428 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.794
1058
April D. Lundy and Alice E. Stephens / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 1057 1060
wide range of formats visual imagery and composition inherently have the power to shape our comprehension and
the interpretation of our world beyond the literal.
Todays students are now global consumers of media and visual grammar. In their everyday lives they are
increasingly inundated with a steady stream of imagery from multimedia platforms including the Internet (i.e., social
media Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, etc.) as well as television, film and advertisements (White, 2012). However
they often lack the skills necessary to move beyond passive receivers of visual media messages.
One could ask of teachers of 21st century college students what kind of student do they want? The best
answer would be -- a visually literate person. To be visually literate, a person should be able to read and use visual
language including the ability to successfully decode, interpret and evaluate visual messages and to encode and
compose meaningful visual communication (Hattwig, Bussert, & Burgess, 2013). Ideally courses that teach visual
literacy should focus not only on the how to use a camera (the means to making visual imagery) but more
importantly focus on visual literacy as a context for visual storytelling.
It has become vital that 21st century students, as learners and global citizens, transcend from passive
receivers of visual messages in media to active deconstructionist of visual grammar given the exploding
technological advances in multimedia. The kind of visual stories our students tell with so many means of production
at their fingertips is an important consideration for educators. Is it enough for our students to point and shoot with a
cell phone camera? Can these image-makers really see as they look at their subjects? Are they able to move
beyond a surface or superficial level of understanding? Can they produce visual images that reflect a human element
. . . images that have a soul?
Visual literacy is essential for 21st century learners and those who teach. It is critical that students develop
skills to create and utilize visual grammar to communicate and contribute to a global dialogue. Because most of our
students have access to smart phone devises that have camera functionality, the integration of visual literacy into
their education becomes paramount. Classrooms can become spaces for students to effectively communicate in and
contribute to analytical and global dialogue for discussions of race and diversity, multicultural life and history thus
encouraging students to become active deconstructionists of visual grammar.
2. Visual Literacy Defined
Visual literacy can be defined as a set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret,
evaluate, use, and create images and visual media. Visual literacy skills equip a learner to understand and analyze
the contextual, cultural, ethical, aesthetic, intellectual, and technical components involved in the production and use
of visual materials (acrlvislitstandards, 2011).
A visually literate individual is both a critical consumer of visual media and a competent contributor to a
body of shared knowledge and culture. Across disciplines, students engage with images and visual materials
throughout the course of their education. Although expected to understand, use, and create images in academic
work, students are not always prepared to do so. Scholarly work with images requires research, interpretation,
analysis, and evaluation skills specific to visual materials. These abilities cannot be taken for granted and need to be
taught, supported, and integrated into the curriculum.
Course objectives often include the development of skills to interpret, translate, construct and apply images
as well as image management and presentation. Students become better critical thinkers. They are encouraged to
become active deconstructionists of visual grammar, and emerge from these courses with the ability to produce
images that effectively communicate messages to audiences, messages that have a soul. Such as courses have
efficacy/impact across disciplines and majors and offer far- reaching benefits to the institution.
3. Learning Outcomes to Consider
Learning outcomes to consider when teaching visual literacy (acrlvislitstandards, 2011) include the following:
conducting effective image searches; recognizing how the image search process is affected by image rights and use
restrictions; selecting the most appropriate image sources for the current project
Additionally the visually literate student situates the image in cultural, asocial and historical contexts; describes
the intended audience for an image; validates interpretation and analysis of images through discourse with others;
critiques persuasive or manipulative strategies that may have been used in image production to influence
interpretation; evaluates the use of visual signs, symbols; and conventions to convey meaning.
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During the production of image the visually literate student should explore choices made in the production of an
image to construct meaning or influence interpretation (e.g., framing, composition, included or excluded elements,
staging); identify the physical, technical, and design components of an image; examine an image for signs of editing,
alteration, or manipulation (e.g., cropping, color correction, image enhancements).
Other learning outcomes include: exploring representations of gender, ethnicity, and other cultural or social
identifiers in images; describing the intended audience for an image; validating interpretation and analysis of images
through discourse with others; critiquing persuasive or manipulative strategies that may have been used in image
production to influence interpretation; evaluating the use of visual signs, symbols, and conventions to convey
meaning. Images as visual texts assist in revealing perpetual representations and socio-cultural perspectives and
can offer students the opportunity to enhance their media literacy, self- reflect, and critically make connections
through the use of multiple channels discourse.
4. A Visual Literacy Curriculum
In the curriculum at Clark Atlanta University for the undergraduate course, African-American Images in the
Media, visual and media literacy are used as part of the teaching methods and experiences. In this course students
explore the characterization and interpretation of the image of African-Americans in media and attempt to qualify
their value as a catalyst for social, political, and cultural change.
The course functions to assess the dynamics of basic thought propagated through imagery, positive and
negative, in films, television, and other media. Students are assigned analysis course work in which they apply the
principles of film analysis to moving image content screened in class and assigned viewings outside of class.
Students must synthesize what theyve read from assigned readings for the course. They must consider a new
outlook on the moving image content after having read the assigned text. This includes: interpreting visual
grammar and theme (the visual contents message(s) and/or meaning(s) communicated by the director). Visual
grammar tools include, but are not limited to: Character actions, character wardrobe, locations (props, production
design, colors utilized in the content, editing (pacing, relationship of one shot to the next) as well as all camera
techniques.
Students are also instructed to pay attention to the cinematic style, conventions and the common themes within
the content of the moving image. Some of the common conventions within the content of films and moving image
include: Location as character, composed music, choice of cast, directing style and the use of camera shots. Other
elements of moving image content students are instructed to consider are: characters wants and values, characters
physical/visual description, use of language/dialogue, character arc/transformation or lack of transformation.
The African American Images in Media course takes a critical analysis approach to examining and exploring
visual literacy in moving image content. Ultimately students learn to critically analyze and deconstruct depiction of
African Americans in films, television, advertising, and within Internet media content. They learn to identify and
discover the social, cultural and artistic themes that resonate within media content. Students also derive their own
specific insights through both in-class discussions and analysis.
The course provides students with basic tools and skills to critically analyze the social, technical and
conceptual aspects of how filmmakers and media makers construct visual imagery that reflect narrative, historical,
ideological and cultural landscapes within our world. Students become familiar with the depictions of African
Americans from a historical perspective, and they learn to discuss in detail the cultural and aesthetic approach to
moving image production. They gain a working knowledge of film vocabulary as well as major theoretical
approaches and analytical tools used in decoding film grammar. Analyzing depictions of African American and
learning to deconstruct moving image content, ultimately informs the students own media and film aspirations.
5. Conclusion
In this paper we have described the need for classrooms to become spaces for students to effectively
communicate in and contribute to the analytical and global dialogue for discussions of race and diversity,
multicultural life and history thus encouraging students to become active deconstructionists of visual grammar.
Although many courses in the Department of Mass Media Arts and other departments at Clark Atlanta University
use some aspect of visual literacy as part of the teaching methodology, the following courses - Visual Storytelling
and Composition and Media Activism - rely heavy on visual literacy course objectives and learning outcomes.
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Using multimedia images as visual texts assist in revealing perpetual representations and socio-cultural
perspectives which offer students the opportunity to enhance their media literacy, self-reflect, and critically make
connections through the use of multiple channels of discourse.
References
Association of College and Research Libraries (2011). Visual Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education 2011.
Retrieved September 13, 2013 from http:// www.ala.org/acrl/standards/visualliteracy
Hattwig, D., Bussert, K., Medaille, A., & Burgess, J. (2013). Visual literacy standards in higher education: New
opportunities for libraries and student learning. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 13(1), 61-89
White, T. R., (2012). Visual Literacy and Cultural Production: Examining Black Masculinity through Participatory
Community Engagement. Journal of Visual Literacy, Vol. 31, No. 1
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 2452 2459
INTE 2014
Using comics with novice EFL readers to develop reading literacy

"Ivana Cimermanov" *
"Institute of British and American Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Presov, 17. novembra 1, Presov 080 01, Slovakia"
Abstract
The study concentrated on the possible effects of using authentic comics with EFL learners. It examined the strategies applied by
novice readers in reading comics with the special focus on lexical guessing using context. The data for this illustrative qualitative
case study were collected from observations, discussions, verbal report and in some cases students writings. The results
indicated possible positive effects in vocabulary development and motivation to reading and overcoming linguistic barriers in
reading authentic material using the context and prior knowledge.
by Elsevier
Ltd. by
This
is an open
2015
2014Published
The Authors.
Published
Elsevier
Ltd.access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University.
Keywords: reading; comics; reading strategy, case study
1. Introduction
Digital era has indisputably changed our lives, no matter whether we are digital natives or digital immigrants.
Even the resistant people have to change their habits, practices, routines to function in the contemporary world. Even
though one may be reluctant to use computers, digitalization is everywhere (TV, phones, wireless devices, self-cash
machines).
The way we receive and perceive different types of information has changed significantly, similarly as
information search (some of us are in a real trouble without having an access to internet and Google). We have
problems to read classical maps, we do not remember phone numbers; young people have problems to read train
timetables at the stations as they prefer to use internet search on their mobiles or tablets that they take everywhere.
* Ivana Cimermanov. Tel.: +421-51-7570762

E-mail address: ivana.cimermanva@unipo.sk
1877-0428 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.916
Ivana Cimermanov / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 174 (2015) 2452 2459
2453
No matter what strategies and techniques we use it is undoubted that reading comprehension is still the skill that
is inevitable and crucial for and in our lives.
2. Reading comprehension
The various studies indicate that readers using internet (even in case of e.g. reading newspapers online) read
differently (use different techniques and strategies) compared to the readers of printed material. They tend to search
for information rather than scan the text to find the answer, they tend to pass, wander from one text to another what
might be the reason of their inability to concentrate on the texts that are longer and they tend to look for further
(deeper) information about what they are interested in immediately as the hypertext enables the plunge to the
problem very easily.
The fact young generation does not read has been already discussed in numerous studies but we have to underline
how important it is in their life and it hardly can be substituted or compensated. Reading helps to develop
vocabulary that is crucial for communication, it has also positive effects on grammar mastery, especially its
understanding in context, as a result it positively influences the quality of writing and speaking as well. Reading is a
tool for learning, survival but we also have to speak about the aesthetic value of literature (often transferred to
audiobooks nowadays).
Reading picture books in the childhood belongs to one of the first encounters with creating stories supported by
images. Even though most of them are topic-based Animals, In the farm, Toys we usually do not rely on simple
description but we try to create a story associated with an image. This is the moment where we inspire the kids to be
creative, to create their own stories and to use their imagination.
In juvenile years many kids (the researches show that more boys than girls) read comics, or probably more
accurately said, cartoons. Many journals bring regularly the series of cartoons.
Reading at schools is regular activity and the special attention is paid to reading during language classes. During
language classes we do not read to learn, however, often we learn to read, i.e. we need to teach our learners how to
read, to use reading strategies.
Bornmann and Munby (2004, p. 4) (based on R. Oxford) identify the following reading strategies:
x Compensation strategies guessing intelligently, using linguistic and other clues
x Cognitive analysing and reasoning deductively
x Affective encouraging yourself and taking risks wisely.
Eddy (2011) claims that cognitive style as well as personality play an important role in the process of foreign
language acquisition, of which reading literacy is a part.
Oxford (1990) divides the strategies into two categories direct and indirect and each of these are subdivided
into 3 subcategories - the direct strategies include memory, cognitive, and compensation while indirect strategies
include metacognitive, affective, and social.
Limited vocabulary can be discouraging and pupils are demotivated to read, yet successful reader uses reading
strategies. Guessing can be based on prior knowledge and context. We have to admit that there are several studies
that describe the researches in which poor results were gained and guessing strategies were assessed as unproductive
(See Dycus, 1997). Strakov (2012, p. 158) states that Within the area of second language development the early
language production in general means that the child depends heavily on context, produces, words in isolation,
verbalizes key words, and responds with one or two words or short phrases, points, draws, or gesture responses.
In 2006, Nation published a paper in which he described the results of research conducted with Hu in which they
examined the relationship between text coverage and reading comprehension for non-native speakers of English
with a fiction text (Nation, 2006, p. 61). The measures used in the research were first trialled with native speakers
before they were used in the study with non-native speakers. With a text coverage of 80% (that is, 20 out of every
100 words [1 in 5] were nonsense words), no one gained adequate comprehension. With a text coverage of 90%, a
small minority gained adequate comprehension. With a text coverage of 95% (1 unknown word in 20), a few more
gained adequate comprehension, but they were still a small minority. That means that for EFL learner it is naturally
difficult to read an authentic novel and needs an intensive support, that might be provided, e.g. in a form of pictures
and the readers have to apply different learning strategies, including guessing strategies.
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3. Comics
Scott McCloud (1994) defines the term comics as juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence
intended to convey information and/or to produce aesthetic response in the water. Harvey (2005) does not support
this definition and claims that McClouds definition relies too heavily upon the pictorial character of comics and
not enough upon the verbal ingredient. Comics uniquely blend the two. No other form of static visual narrative does
this. McCloud includes verbal content (which he allows is a kind of imagery), but its the succession of images that
is at the operative core of his definition. I hasten to note, however, that regardless of emphasis, neither sequence nor
blending inherently excludes the other.
Many adults consider comics to be books for young children, in US full of superheroes, in Czechoslovakia
known especially thanks to Foglars Rychl py, however in Japan it is also spread as literature for adults. The
prejudice that comics are cheap substitutions of literature, written especially for kids can be easily refutated.
3.1 Comics in teaching English as a Foreign Language
Rudolphe Topffer (1845, In: Scott, 1994) points out that the picture-story, which critics disregard and scholars
scarcely notice, has had great influence at all times, perhaps even more than written literature but at the same time
he adds in addition, the picture-story appeals mainly to children and the lower classes.
Williams (1995) summarises the advantages of using comics in language teaching:
x cartoons have a permanent visual component (unlike movies)
x characters interact in here and now (you and me not the him and her of narrative)
x characters share many of the paralinguistic aspects of interaction
x language lies about halfway between real spoken English and "written" English
x the language represents one man's idiolect and so is rich in fixed collocations which come round again and again
indifferent contexts. (Williams, 1995).
A lot of research has been done on the effects of the extensive reading on foreign language learners, however the
topic of using comic books or graphic novels to develop students English language proficiency has not been
discussed so widely. Still, the result of several studies indicate the positive effects of light reading: on motivation,
studies have shown that readers of comics are also avid readers of more advanced texts, and the use of comic book
style graded readers does not hinder motivation to seek out other literature (Cary, 2004, In: Jones, 2010, p. 229)
Marsh (1978, 778) presents the results of the research conducted and describes four major purposes for which
different comics were useful: (1) vocabulary and expressions; (2) grammar; (3) conversations and compositions; (4)
culture; also pronunciation, intonation and listening comprehension. Yang (2003) claims that comics can be used as
step to more difficult ideas, Carry (2004) suggests that comics can be used to help students develop their writing
skills, especially of story writing.
National Council of teachers of English website (2005) reports the research results brought by Shelley Hong Xu
who claims that comics and graphic novels can teach about making inferences, since readers must rely on pictures
and just a small amount of text.
Cary (2004, p. 18) describes the Wright and Shermans research who determined the readability grade levels of
over six dozens daily comics based on the number and range of words per strip. This research was based on the
readability for native English speakers, nor foreign language learners. He stresses the importance to consider both
the amount and level of the text but also the pictures, their details and how (or whether) they support text
understanding.
Basol and Sarigul (2013, p. 1625) bring an interesting a comment they conducted research comparing the used
of traditional and graphic novels in EFL classes. They used the Paul Austers City of Glass and found out that in
the traditional text format of the novel, related with the postmodern style of the author, it was sometimes hard to
It was in Japan where comics developed in relative isolation, spawning a host of unique approaches to making comics (Scott 1994, p. 210).
2455
distinguish the reality and delusions in the novel; however, in graphic novel format, the balloons and images that
clearly represent the story line helped students a lot to connect the panels.
The studies show that the issue of comics is not new and the results of different studies proved a positive effect
not only in motivation and reading but also writing and possible uses to develop vocabulary and grammar.
Using comics to support foreign language teaching we need to teach our students, comics readers, to read both
pictures and words; however, brain based learning and natural environment should be provided (Sepeiov, 2013).
(This is also important in case we want to use it for e.g. creative writing.)
Nikolajeva and Scott (2001, p. 7) bring a concise summary of different categorisations of interactions between
words and pictures in the books. They quote Golden (1990) who identifies 5 types of interrelations:
a) The text and pictures are symmetrical (creating redundancy)
b) The text depends on pictures for clarification
c) Illustration enhances, elaborates text
d) The text carries primary narrative, illustration is selective
e) The illustration carries primary narrative, the text is selective.
Similarly to the above categorisation, Liu (2004, p. 226, defines 5categories that are based on their function :
x Representation: Visuals repeat the texts content or substantially overlap with the text. (a above)
x Organization: Visuals enhance the texts coherence. (c above)
x Interpretation: Visuals provide the reader with more concrete information. (b above)
x Transformation: Visuals target critical information in the text and recode it in a more memorable form.
x Decoration: Visuals are used for their aesthetic properties or to spark readers interest in the text.
Nikolajeva and Scott add two more (they call it) extremes, clear-cut categories text without pictured and a
wordless picture books.
Kelley (2010) stresses (quoting Vygotsky) that Humans typically express thoughts in the form of language, and
students responses to images, though perhaps cognitively silent, still help students utilize language (Vygotsky,
1978; Vygotsky, 1986 In: Kelly, 2011). He supports the idea of using graphic novels in education, including
language teaching.
Several authors bring suggestions (using particular comics) that can be applied in language teaching. These can
be very useful especially for teacher who believe in the comics value and want to try it in their teaching. The y may
either use the lesson plans and handouts suggested by their colleagues or simply can be motivated by their work and
to create their own.
E.g. Cary (2004) suggests activities that can be used in multilingual classroom but these can be also used in EFL
class. Similarly, the motivation for using comics in the multilingual class can be applied in EFL context. Cary warns
that comics are not suitable for all settings and the teacher has to be careful in his decisions. Some lessons can be
found on the ReadWriteThink Web site at http://www.readwritethink.org.
4. Objective and Method
The objective that has guided the research was to find out to what extent language learners apply reading
strategies, namely previous knowledge, vocabulary, syntax and context in reading new texts. The study describes
results of illustrative case study that was realised in July 2013 - February 2013 with four students, including 3
females and 1 male individually for 2 months (e.g. subject SA July-August). The one-to-one teaching that
involved using comics as reading material took place irregularly, but approximately once twice a week, what
means students worked 8-12 lessons. The translation was used to check full understanding and the discussions about
the techniques students used to translate the unknown words were led. The website
Symbols to express an unprintable obscenity that could make a sailor blush (Cary, 2004, 62) lines to indicate the movement, the tools to
indicate invisible object or people, use of colours etc.
2456
http://www.makebeliefscomix.com/ was also used to motivate learners and to let them think how to create context
that enables understanding of the text, what later helped them to read effectively.
We realise that case studies present potential drawbacks (a) unsystematic procedures, (b) the influence of biased
views on the direction of the findings and conclusion, and (c) an insufficient basis for scientific generalization (see
Yin, 2008).
Different cartoons and comics were used to develop reading strategies. The decision to use comics, cartoons and
graphic novels was based on the presumption that it might be easier to read the context with the support of image (or
from the image) what can lead to positive feeling and higher motivation of readers.
To assess the level (difficulty) of the text we use the tools in lextutor website (http://www.lextutor.ca/keywords/)
to make sure the text coverage is appropriate and to decide how to work with the text (especially the necessity to
pre-teach vocabulary).
5. Sample
Four students were involved in the study. The characteristics is summarised in the following table. We give also
some information about L1 reading as we agree with the Parans (1996, p. 30) statement who claimed that if L1
readers possess attributes in reading which L2 readers do not, then it is the task of the language teacher to develop
ways of encouraging the development of these attributes.
Table 1. Sample characteristics.
Subject
Age
Language
proficiency level
Reading efficiency in mother tongue

experience
Reading in mother
tongue/target language
SA
10
B1-B2
Reads fluently with some hesitations

(sometimes pronunciation mistakes
negative transfer from EL). He started to
read in both languages-being Slovak and
living in English Speaking country since he
was 3. He has some vocabulary problems
(especially with archaic words and
diminutives applied different wordformation rules difference of the languages
analytical vs. synthetic).
Reads in both, mother

tongue and English
language/ more in English
/especially comics
10
novice
Loves reading, she reads fast and clearly,

understanding of more difficult vocabulary is
supported by pictures or she simply ignores
them.
She prefers reading stories

about kids at her age, she
has never read comic
books before. She reads
only in Slovak.
16
A2
Even though she likes reading, at her

childhood she had to be forced to read.
Until these days she reads with the
hesitations when reading aloud unknown and
long words, but her attitude towards reading
is positive.
Reads usually during

holidays, she reads only in
English language, but
started to watch mini-series
in English with Slovak or
English subtitles.
ST
20
B2
Started to read at the age of 4, at that time

she preferred reading encyclopedia and she
did not want to read stories. At the age of 7-8
she read Dahls Matilda and that was the
moment when she started to read the
imaginative literature. She reads efficiently,
using different strategies. She claims to have
excellent Slovak language teachers at
elementary and secondary schools leading
the students towards reading with
understanding.
Reads a lot, both fiction

and non-fiction literature.
She started to read books
in English authentic
material but never finished.
During her studies she read
several graded readers
books.
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6. Data Collection and Analysis

The subjects worked for two months (not at the same time). Data were collected throughout the 2-month treatment
period and were gathered through the following three methods: (a) observations made for each reading session, (b)
interviews related to the reading strategies applied and approach.
Even though the language of comics can seem to be easy, one can find a lot of cultural-based items and also a lot
of idiomatic expressions, similarly as onomatopoeia expression what can cause problems in understanding.
In the lessons the following comics and graphic novels were (selectively) used:
Meet the Somalis - http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/multimedia/meet-the-somalis#zein
Balsa Boy http://www.viz.co.uk/free-comics/classic-strips/044-balsa-boy
Kinney, J. (2008). Diary of Wimpy Kid: Do-It-Yourself Book, London: Penguin Books
Tan, S. (2003). The Lost Thing. Sydney: Hachette Australia
Tan, S. (2012). Nov svt. Praha: Labyrint (graphic novel, not comics)
7. Results and discussion
All subjects liked reading literature. For them it was something natural, however only ST clearly realised and
used the strategies they can use in reading (she was not a novice reader, she was a part of study for the ability to
make comparisons between the novice and experienced readers). With subject M (16, developed abstract thinking)
we used comics in Czech language once. She used to have and partly has a block that she is not good at language
learning. The situation has partly changed when she started to visit evening classes and filled in the gaps she had
at elementary level. Now she progresses better, reaches better results, what leads to higher motivation and positive
attitude towards English. She is also motivated by her sister (subject St) who is her idol and reads a lot and
watches movies in English. In her case we used Czech language for presenting reading strategies. Slovak and Czech
languages both belong to Slavonic language and people usually understand the languages without problems,
however there are some lexical difference that might cause a problem. Nevertheless, people overcome the linguistic
barriers intuitively and without hesitation. In case of English Langue, a foreign language for Slovaks, people when
they come across an unknown word, they got stuck and had a need to understand and guessing is not enough for
them. Reading Czech comics we analysed the processes and strategies she automatically intuitively applied and let
her apply them later in reading English texts.
She mostly relied on visual, pictorial context and then started with the analysis of the unknown word (started with
the root of the word, affixes, and position of a word in a sentence).
Subject ST. whose prevailing intelligence is logical-mathematical, started immediately with the linguistic
analysis.
Interestingly V. (similarly as ST. logical-mathematical type of intelligence) relied fully on images and was not
ready to think about the unknown words what was quite understandable considering her age and ability of abstract
thinking and not understanding the language system.
SA. had no problems in reading, he had no problem to read interjections (what was problem for V. who is the
same age, but different language background). Linguistic barriers were overcome automatically, with no hesitations,
only sometimes he asked for translation. The amount of unknown words was clear only during the translation phase
as he was able to answer comprehension question. That was not truth about subject V. who stuck immediately when
she came across the unknown word.
The following table summarises the strategies applied by the subjects. Even though we dealt with the translation
of the words, the context was significantly important and thus evaluation of reading strategies are more appropriate
in this case.
2458
Table 2. Use of reading strategies.
Subject
Strategies applied
SA
SA used mostly visualization, ha had no problem to make mistakes, he was not willing to think a
lot about the particular words, he was satisfied with understanding the general meaning and had
no need to understand every single word (It was interesting to observe how frequently he
intuitively used intralanguage principles).
Relied on the pictures, at the beginning she was afraid to say her guess or deducing loudly but in
the second half of the study period she became more confident (She, in contrast to Sa, relied also
on phonetic associations and the attempts to apply interlanguage, however frequently incorrectly).
Started to use guessing strategies at the second meeting, she was ready to take risks and make
mistakes, especially when she saw the teacher was ready to explain why she was wrong in her
guesses, she usually used the context and the previous knowledge to guess the unknown words.
She also used a course context (she used forward and backward context to identify the word).
ST
Used lexical inferencing strategies, she applied her linguistic knowledge (she frequently
considered the affixes and their meaning similarly syntactic knowledge). During reading graphic
novel (Lost Thing) she considered the images, colours, fonts etc. how these supported the
meaning of the text.
In relation to the students attitudes they all expressed positive perception, in the discussions they expressed
raised confidence in reading foreign texts. Based on observing we can claim that our subject used metacognitive
strategies during the reading meetings as well. They monitored and assessed themselves and we could see how
positively motivated they were. They were all asked to create one scene (using 3or 4 panels using the website for
comics creation) based on what they read. The level of production varied but they enjoyed the activity and it was
challenge for them to read the texts further to compare their stories and the original ones.
The sample was incoherent and we applied different strategies and techniques that were practiced with the
subjects with V and SA we focused more on development of visual literacy and its use to understand the text
compared to M and ST where we focused more on understanding the textual context (supported by images) to
understand the meaning of the words, even though (or moreover) as mentioned earlier subject ST. was strongly
involved by the graphic novel (no problems with text understanding) and in the discussions she focused mainly to
the interpretation of the images and the relation between the text and image.
Generally we can say, that all subjects stated they feel more confident now even though not understanding all the
words; they are ready to guess, deduce the meaning, and perceive the textual and graphic details to infer the
meaning.
8. Discussion and Conclusion
We believe that regular reading and gradual development of the reading strategies leads to automatic overcoming
of linguistic barriers but there must be a careful selection of text to make sure the text is still understandable and it
will not be demotivating as it happened to ST who was expected to read authentic books without appropriate
proficiency level.
It has not been mentioned, but it is significantly important to consider also the fact that using comics and graphic
novels leads to the development of visual literacy what as Kennedy claims (2010) is the ability to construct
meaning from images. Its not a skill. It uses skills as a toolbox. Its a form of critical thinking that enhances your
intellectual capacity.
If learners are trained in exploiting images, visual, fonts they are more sensitive to reading the textual context
what enables their reading skills and the use of reading strategies what will lead to the increase of autonomy. .
Language teachers must be familiar with such strategies and teach them to their pupils to help them take the
responsibility for their own learning. Using reading strategies leads to more effective reading (learning) and supports
positive motivation.
2459
Acknowledgements
This article presents partial findings collected while working on project KEGA 006PU-4/2012 Rozvoj itateskej
kompetencie v cudzom jazyku prostrednctvom itateskch programov that is supported by Ministry of Education,
Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic.
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Journal of Education and Human Development

June 2015, Vol. 4, No. 2(1), pp. 143-157
ISSN: 2334-296X (Print), 2334-2978 (Online)
Copyright The Author(s). All Rights Reserved.
Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development
DOI: 10.15640/jehd.v4n2_1a15
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/jehd.v4n2_1a15
The Reflections of Visual Literacy Training in Pre-Service Teachers Perceptions and Instructional
Materials Design
Glgn Bangir Alpan1
Abstract
This study was conducted to describe the visual literacy training perceptions of pre-service pre-school
teachers and the way they use the design tools learned during visual literacy training in their instructional
materials. Participants were 57 pre-service teachers and 226 pre-school students. Qualitative data were
collected by using semi-structured interviews and student diaries, while quantitative data were collected
through the use of graded materials evaluation forms and observation forms for pre-school students. The
findings suggested that pre-service teachers had positive perceptions of the visual literacy course. In
instructional materials design, they were often successful at the use of design tools.
Keywords: visual literacy training, visual design tools, instructional technology and materials design course
1. Introduction
Instruction is a function performed by teachers, materials, and other mediators, while learning is done by
students. Instruction is intended to provide the conditions for learning (Fleming & Levie 1978). It is important for
teachers to manipulate environmental variables so they can bring about the desired changes in their students
(Engelmann, 1969). Among these variables are the teachers use, selection and design of instructional materials.
Learning experiences are formed by instructional messages. Instructional message design is related to many literacies
led by language literacy and print literacy. Visual literacy is a necessary skill for instructional message or material
design. This study examines how preschool education teacher candidates perceive visual literacy training and how this
training is reflected in the instructional materials they design.
1.1. Visual Literacy
The literature holds various other definitions of visual literacy than the one made by the IVLA (International
Visual Literacy Association) (Brumberger, 2011; Felten, 2008; Bleed, 2005; Metros & Woolsey, 2006; Avgerinou, 2009;
Seels, 1994; Sosa, 2009; Pettersson, 2009; Chauvin, 2003; Velders, 2000; Heinich et al. 1989). These definitions show
that visual literacy is perceived as a group of competencies, a teaching method, teaching processes, a move and an
interdisciplinary field. Visual literacy guides a set of seeing or viewing competencies, which is developed by seeing and
being simultaneously intertwined with other sensory experiences. A person with advanced visual literacy can perceive
and analyze the actions, objects and symbols around him/her, whether natural or artificial. Regarding its creative use,
the visual literacy competency reveals itself by interacting with other competencies possessed by people. What makes
the use of this competency create admiration is the ability of individuals to perceive and enjoy mastery of visual
communication (Debes 1970; Braden, 1996; IVLA, 2012). Visual literacy contributes to the communication of
humans with themselves and the world. Therefore, visual thinking, learning and communication help define the
phrase (Seels, 1994). However, efforts need to continue to provide a consensus on the definition of visual literacy
(Brill & Dohun 2007). Depending on individuals background, there may be different definitions of visual literacy
(Baca & Braden, 1990; Bleed, 2005).
1
Associate.Professor. Ph.D. Department of Educational Sciences, Gazi Education Faculty, Gazi University, Besevler, Ankara,
Turkey Email: bangir@gazi.edu.tr
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Journal of Education and Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 2(1), June 2015
In line with the identities of artist, educator and researcher, this study emphasizes the visual message
interpretation and production competencies of visual literacy, and its aspects related to instructional methods and
processes. Jonassen and Fork (1975) stated that the root of visual literacy is eclectic. Levie (1978) writes that this
definition should be made to emphasize symbolic modality rather than sensory . Bieman (1984) feels that this
definition should include information on what visual literacy is as well as what a visually literate person can do, and
make use of other literacy evolutions. According to Rezabek (1999), visual literacy should include the interpretation
and creation of the message transmitted by the sense of seeing, but emphasize the communication established
independently of this text. Robinson (1984) argues that to interpret visual messages, one needs to know its elements
and the process. Visual literacy is the ability to evaluate and understand the contents of an image as well as its aesthetic
composition and structure. Brill & Dohun (2007) and Avgerinou ( 2007) write that an operational definition of visual
literacy may be possible with education studies based on measuring the group of visual competencies put forward by
the IVLA.
1.2. Visual Literacy Training
Most people are known to be visual learners (Felder & Soloman, 2001; Pettersson 1993) and the design of
images is at least as important as their execution, context and format. In the first stage of information processing,
images help expand the borders of short-term memory (Hodes, 1998). According to Paivio who developed the dual
coding theory, pictures are strong because they are recalled more frequently than verbal information. This is known as
pictorial superiority effect. When words are transformed into images, images are automatically transformed into
words (Miller & Burton, 1994, 73). According to the dual coding theory, the learner uses two different informationprocessing systems. The first system is the visual representation of knowledge, and the other one the verbal
representation of it. The dual coding theory contends that when visual and verbal information is given together as
opposed to separately, these connections are formed more easily (Mayer & Sims, 1994, 390). Visual messages are
fundamental to complex mental processing as they provide opportunities and input for analysis, which cannot be
provided by mere text (Brill & Kim 2007). Studies has suggested that enhanced learning and retentionis promoted
when visual material is used in teaching (Dwyer &Baker, 2001; Carney& Levin, 2002; Dwyer & Dwyer, 1985; Anglin,
Vaez, &Cunningham, 2004; Mayer, 2005; Rieber, 1994; Clark & Lyons, 2004; Standing, Conezio, & Haber, 1970;
Levin, 1981; Lohr, 2008).
Visual literacy is a language. It needs to be learned in order to be able to use it for comunication (Stokes 2002;
Sinatra 1986; Messaris 1994; Dondis 1973; Burmark 2002; Avgerinou & Ericson 1997). In recent years, educational
discourse has started to mention the importance of visual literacy (Avgerinou, 2009; Yeh & Cheng, 2010; Riesland,
2005; Bleed, 2005; Elkins, 2008). Brumberger (2011) writes that university students who are exposed to visual images
and considered digital natives actually have low levels of visual literacy. Similarly, Rourke & OConnor (2009) found
that the visual literacy leve;s of design students were rather low. Just as a person who continuously listens to music on
his/her iPod cannot automatically be expected to teach others to make music or critically analyze it, people who live
in an image-rich world do not automatically possess sophisticated visual literacy skills. Visual literacy may be learned
with methods similar to those used to learn text literacy. In order to produce, analyze and use images, new and more
sophisticated methods of learning should be used (Felten, 2008, 60). Ariga and Watanabe (2008) developed an
instructional material (Image-Plot and the Standard design table) to enrich visual expression in graphic and website
design by students who had not had any previous graphic design or art education. The majority of students were
undecided about the benefits of the material, while some of the remaining ones reported negative views and other
reported positive ones. Among the teachers, some stated that the material had been beneficial while others stated
otherwise. The study concluded that such materials may be beneficial in enriching visual expression, but visual literacy
training is essential. Favorable results have been obtained in studies focusing on visual literacy training for students
and candidate teachers (White 2012; Yeh & Cheng, 2010; Mbelani, 2008; Whitener-Lepanto and Harroff, 2002;
Feinstein ,1994). Studies on these topics will contribute to the development of visual literacy training.
1.3. Visual Literacy Training and Instructional Materials Design
Instructional materials design requires reading and writing visual messages, or visual literacy skills. Previous
studies show that even scientists have difficulty interpreting the graphics in certain instructional materials. Students
and teacher candidates do not even attempt to read certain visual elements, which eliminates the educational worth of
the visual elements and messages in the materials (Roth, Bowen and McGinn, 1999). From pre-school to higher
education, traditional instruction focuses on verbal forms of communication, which are reading and writing. It only
rarely deals with the quality and forms of visual messages (Yeh & Lohr, 2010).
Glgn Bangir Alpan
145
Writing about the importance of visual literacy in the 70s, Cochran (undated) emphasized that visual
communication skills must be as fluent as verbal communication skills. One of the aims of visual literacy training for
teachers is to improve their visual language skills and teach how to juxtapose visuals. Pre-service teachers need
technology training that covers visual design, which may only be possible through visual literacy training (Yeh &
Cheng, 2010; Yeh & Lohr, 2010; Sosa, 2009; Pettersson, 1993; Brumberger, 2011). With visual literacy training, they
learn about the tools, principles and elements of visual design and improve themselves in these issues. The visuals
and words used in instructional materials should be designed to help selection, organization and integration in the
process of knowledge construction (Mayer, 2001). To do so, it is crucial that the principles and elements of design are
used. Regardless of the content, visual learning materials will increase information retrieval and processing. It is
particularly important to plan the visuals in instructional materials owing to the new multimedia systems that allow
high quality visual information (Hodes, 1998). Good, clear visual information help the reader grasp concepts more
quickly (Brady, 1993). Visuals used in instructional materials are used only to support information and not to make the
paper "pretty." (Rotter 2006; Barnard, 2002). The page is not too "busy," and pictures are not distracting. Students
will easily recognize the visuals. They are recognizable to the pupils, not dated (e.g. rotary phones). They are culturally
sensitive (Rotter 2006). An effective visual design may attract the students interest and enhance his visual culture and
enjoymeny level (Giorgis, Johnson, Bonomo, Colbert, Conner, Kauffman &Kulesza 1999). In visual literacy,
knowledge of visual vocabulary is of prime importance. This refers to knowledge of the main elements of visual
language, such as dots, lines, style, form, space, texture, light, color, and motion (Avgerinou, 2009; Jefferies 2007;
Rotter 2006). These need to be used accurately in visual design. They are, then, the tools of design. Previous authors
have emphasized the esthetic and artistic features of material, as much as its functional features, when questioning the
meaning of design (Pettersson, 2006). In Jin and Bolings (2010) study, students found visuals negative with respect to
instructional functions. This may be attributed to the fact that visual materials are not exclusive and have poor design.
Design tools play a major role in design processes or design activities. Dissatisfaction with the execution of a message
may cause dissatisfaction with its content (Pettersson 1993).
1.4. Design Tools
The PAT model proposed by Lohr (2008) includes Perception, Actions and Tools. Perception explains the
three principles that the human mind uses to recognize knowledge. These are figure/ground, hierarchical and gestalt.
Actions comprise four elements: contrast, repetition, alignment and proximity. Tools, on the other hand, are
considered to be the main elements of design. These are type, shape, color, depth, space and balance. In this study,
the tools principle of the PAT model is used. Type or typography is the design of letters, words and sentences, and all
other writing on the page. In this design, esthetic and visual representation is as important as legibility. Typography
can alert learners to such things as main ideas, important concepts, rules, sections, subsections, and more (Pettersson,
1993). If a design adopts many different font faces and sizes, it may create confusion for the viewer. If type is to be
designed together with visuals, it needs to become one with these visuals regarding both the message and esthetics. All
principles and tools of visual design need to be used effectively because type may be seen as a shape. A shape is formed
by bringing together the two ends of a line. Styles are two-dimensional to symbolize the structure of objects in a visual
design. There are three main shapes: circle, equilateral triangle and square. The main shapes can be explained with
their visual directions or associations. Circles remind people of curvy directions, triangles of diagonal directions,
squares of vertical and horizontal directions. Irregular, hard-to-perceive shapes are more dominant than the main and
regular ones because they attract more atention (Pettersson, 1993). Arntson (1998) stated Design is the arrangement
of shape. They underlie every drawing, painting or graphic design (p.45). According to most designers, the first thing
to consider before starting design is in which style to place the message, such as in a rectangle or square (Lohr, 2008).
Style is probably the first thing to be perceived in visual messages and is the backbone of design. Color is a specific
sensation that light creates in the human eye when it hits objects, excluding black and white. Color content may be
examined in three elements: Hue, value and saturation. Hue is a specific wavelength that the human eye perceives as
color, such as red, blue and green. The two qualities of hue must be considered when using color: Value ve saturation.
Value is related to the lightness or darkness of color. A higher value color means brighter colors nearer to white, such
as yellow. A lower value color means closer to black, such as navy blue. Another name for saturation is chorama; it is
the purest state of color (Holtzschue, 2011; Lohr, 2008). The more a color is mixed with other colors, the less the
saturation of that color.
146
Colors at a high saturation level create a brighter effect in the eye, while those at a lower saturation level
create a subtler effect and appear to be in the background. When using color for instructional purposes, it is important
to increase saturation, and decrease value and hue for large areas particularly (Lohr, 2008). Tufte (1990) mentions the
four instructional functions of color: Labeling, identifying quantity and measurement, representing reality, and creating
esthetic appeal (as cited in Lohr, 2008, 265). The labeling function of color helps us distinguish between different
parts of a visual design. For instance, in a diagram displaying a human arm, red lines may represent arteries and blue
lines veins. In the identifying quantity and measurement function, color is used to identify amount, for instance in a
pie chart. The representing reality function refers to color adding reality to visual design and enabling a concrete
description of an object. Depth refers to scale, dimension and texture in Lohrs book (2008). It plays an important role
in information standing out. Scale is presenting the size perception of objects in such a way as to help the viewer
understand new information. An example may be the presentation of a caterpillar together with a leaf in order to
inform children about the size of certain animals. Dimension, on the other hand, gives depth to the visual or writing.
When used properly, it facilitates the selection and perception of objects. When used more than enough, it leads to
confusion. Texture adds reality and enriches the visual. For instance, a walnut is perceived more easily when drawn
together with its texture. Space and balance are important to composition of design. Space occurs between visuals and
text, and facilitates reading and perception. Compressing too much content onto one page leaves little white space for
visual relief (Adler, 1991). Music is also made by the spaces between notes. Thus, it is essential to leave white space in
a good design. Balance has two types: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Asymmetrical balance is better at drawing
attention than symmetrical. Lack of balance in visual design makes the viewer uncomfortable (Pettersson 1993).
Balance can be achieved by figure ground relationships, the ratio of spaces, and use of color. Media education has
amassed studies that assess the contribution of media to teaching and learning (Tyner, 2005,178). Media education
covers all new literacies including visual literacy. Even though studies aiming to advance students and teachers visual
literacy are on the rise (Brumberger, 2011; Schonborn & Anderson, 2010; Wu & Newman, 2008; Carter, 2003; Sosa,
2009; Yeh & Lohr 2010; Yeh & Cheng 2010), there are studies which argue that not enough importance is attached to
visual communication and literacy in teacher education programs (Britsch, 2010; Sadk, 2009). This study was
conducted to describe how pre-service teachers perceive the visual literacy training they receive, and to what extent
and how they reflect this training in their instructional materials regarding design tools. The research questions in this
study were as follows: 1. What are the perceptions of pre-service teachers about visual literacy training? 2. What are
the perceptions of pre-service teachers about the materials they design? 3. How do experts evaluate the use of design
tools in pre-service teachers materials? 4. What are the reactions of pre-school students to pre-service teachers
materials?
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
This study aimed to identify the reflections of the visual literacy training given to pre-service teachers in the
instructional materials they designed. Participants were pre-service teachers (57), pre-school students (226), experts
(2), observers (3). Pre-service teachers were attending Gazi Universitys Early Childhood Education Department and
had taken the authors Instructional Technologies and Materials Design course. Of these, 7% were male and 93%
were female. Thirty-three students (57%) were aged between 18-20 years, and others (43%) between 21-23 years. Preservice teachers had not previously taken a course on visual literacy and visual design. Of the two experts in the fields
of art education and instructional technologies, one is the author of this article. Both experts hold BA and MEd
degrees in art education, and a PhD in instructional technologies. The observers were three pre-service pre-school
teachers who had received training in observations. The remaining study group comprised 5-6 year-old pre-school
students (226), 11 or 12 on average from each of the 19 elementary schools studied. All participants agreed to take
part in the study.
2.2. Procedure
In a previous study, Yeh & Cheng (2010) used the actions of visual design principle of Lohrs PAT model
(2008) for visual literacy development among pre-service teachers. In the present study, the tools of visual design
principle of the model were used. Tools are considered to be the main elements of design. Most designers consider
color, simple shape, space, depth and typography when designing visuals (Lohr, 2008). Within her instructional
technologies and materials design course, the author offered four 60-minute sessions (240 mins in total over a course
of four weeks) on visual literacy and visual design tools (type, shape, color, depth, space). The sessions involved an
introduction to visual literacy and practice in making meaning of, interpreting and creating visuals.
Glgn Bangir Alpan
147
The students were shown various visual messages with academic and non-academic content, and these were
discussed and interpreted. Teachers used simple techniques to enhance their description, analysis and interpretation
skills by extending looking and slowing down the seeing process. For instance, they discussed messages in the
McDonalds logo, a TV commercial, and an artistic drawing. This helps build students allusionary base (Phillips, 2005).
Students were asked to draw the road plan of a part of their city on the board, and drawings with simple messages for
pre-school students. In these sessions, 35 powerpoint slides on The PAT Model for Visual Design-Tools were used.
In the remaining three weeks, pre-service teachers got together in groups of three and designed instructional materials
to facilitate the concept learning of pre-school students. During materials design, they paid attention to the use of
design tools. A total of 19 instructional materials were designed, 10 of which were interactive posters in the form of
flip charts, and the remaining 9 interactive powerpoint slides. Materials were designed by making use of paper and
pens, glue, paint, hardboard, cardboard and computer programs (Word, PowerPoint, Photoshop). The pre-service
teachers first presented their instructional materials in their own class. Following this, they presented their
instructional materials in the pre-school classes of the 19 elementary schools chosen for practice teaching. Each
presentation took between 30-45 min.
2.3. Data Collection Methods
There are three commonly used approaches in combining research methods. The first approach is the
primary collection of qualitative data supported by quantitative data; the second one is using quantitative data as the
main input and supporting it with qualitative data; and the third one is collecting qualitative and quantitative data
simultaneously (Gay, Airasion & Mills, 2006, 184). This study uses the first approach of qualitative-quantitative
method combination. Qualitative data was used in the description of pre-service teacher perceptions of visual literacy
training and of the materials they designed, as well as the pre-school student perceptions of these materials. These
data were collected by semi-structured interviews and journals. Semi-structured interviews enabled an in-depth
exploration of perceptions expressed by pre-service teachers in their own terms. This approach is mostly suggested
for ethnographic studies, in which a strong emphasis is given to exploring the nature of social phenomena rather than
testing hypotheses about them (Furlong & Edwards, 1993). Merriam (1988) indicated that it is important to collect
data through interviews when the researchers are interested in past events and experiences that are impossible to
replicate. At the end of the study, 19 group interviews were held with all pre-service teachers. There were three preservice teachers in each group and each interview lasted 30 to 45 min. During the interviews, the researcher and the
other interviewer took notes. In developing the interview forms, the first step was to examine the literature on visual
literacy training, visual design tools and instructional materials design, as well as the course content. The draft
questions and probes were submitted for expert review, and revised in accordance with the feedback obtained from
them. Then, interviews were held with 3 pre-service teachers to test the intelligibility and sufficiency of the questions
for data collection. Based on the feedback from these interviews, certain questions were amended and the interview
form was finalized. The interview questions were as follows: (i)What impact has the visual literacy course made on
you? (ii) What do you think about visual communication? (iii) What do visual design tools mean for you? (iv) In your
opinion, what is the significance of visual literacy training in pre-school education? (v) How did visual literacy training
contribute to the materials you prepared? (vi) What are the reactions of pre-school students towards your instructional
materials?
Throughout the study, students were asked to keep four journals. Pre-service teachers wrote their first entries
after the first class of visual literacy training, their second entries after the fourth class, their third entries after
designing their instructional materials and presenting them in their class, and the fourth entries after presenting their
instructional materials in the pre-school classes. A total of 228 entries were collected from the students. Quantitative
methods were used to describe the expert evaluations of design tools use in the materials of pre-service teachers and
the reactions of pre-school students to these materials. The effectiveness of pre-service teachers materials was rated
by experts from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good) in terms of design tools. The materials evaluation form used by the
experts included items taken from the PAT Model for Visual Design-Tools on shape, color, depth and space, but not
type. The reason for the exclusion of type was that the pre-service teachers prepared their instructional materials for
pre-school students who are not literate. Materials were designed mainly considering visual elements. In order to
achieve inter-rater reliability, the same forms were used to pilot materials evaluation sessions.
148
After expert evaluation (38) of the design tools used in the instructional materials (19), consistency between
raters was examined with the t-test, and consistency was found according to the F results of the analysis of 8 items
respectively [1.(F=1.479), 2.(F=2.650), 3.(F=1.994), 4.(F=3.515), 5.(F=0.151), 6.(F=3.789), 7.(F=0.552), 8.(F=2.211)].
In order to observe the reactions of pre-school students to the instructional materials used, an 8-item observation
form was prepared by the researcher. Initially having 12 items, the observation form was reduced to 8 items after
expert feedback and pilot observation sessions. Out of the eight items, two related to the materials use of pre-service
teachers and effective communication with students; and six related to student behaviors towards the materials. The
two behaviors of pre-service teachers were included in the form in order to control the variable of teacher behavior,
which may affect materials presentation and learning. The behaviors listed in the form were evaluated from 1 (not
observed) to 5 (observed many times). The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of the observation form was .68.
The observers, who were pre-service pre-school teachers, had received training in observing classrooms and engaged
in pilot observations at pre-schools. At the end of the pre-school observations (57), each item was subjected to
ANOVA to identify inter-rater consistency [1.(F=0.201), 2.(F=0.270), 3.(F=0.494), 4.(F=0.024), 5.(F=0,288),
6.(F=0.984), 7.(F=0.683), 8.(F=2.049)].
2.4. Data Analysis
The interviews were transcribed verbatim. At the beginning of the analysis, data were examined line by line.
This enabled the researcher to use the analytic procedure freely, moving backwards and forwards quickly. After the
data were organized, the researcher coded the data into categories by using a reflection-coding scheme, based on
Hatton & Smiths (1995) framework. The interviews were transcribed to identify and analyze recurrent patterns and
themes. This was followed by analysis across cases. Descriptive data was also presented by giving quotations from the
written artefacts. Interview notes with each student were analyzed separately and conducted a cross-case analysis. The
same procedure was used in the analysis of the journals. Based on the responses, the data were organized as follows:
the reactions of pre-service teachers to visual literacy training, the reactions of pre-service teachers to the materials
they designed, and the reactions of pre-school students to the materials.
3. Results
3.1. Pre-service teacher perceptions of visual literacy training
Pre-service teacher perceptions of visual literacy training are given under the themes of visual awareness, the
necessity of visual training, visual literacy experiments and design tools.
3.1.1. Visual Awareness
Most pre-service teachers stated that visual literacy training enhanced their visual awareness. The views of
pre-service teachers on the difference between looking and seeing were as follows:
D.K. Looking and seeing...Which one is more important in my life? This was the questions I asked myself
after taking the course. How much of the things I look at can I actually see? I started to look at the occurrences in the
streets I walk every day with a new perspective. H.K.E. After this course, Ive started to analyze visuals by pondering
their message rather than whether they appeal to me or not.
As can be seen, pre-service teachers improved their visual awareness and sensitivity, which are among the
objectives of visual literacy training.
3.1.2. The Necessity of Visual Training
The perceptions of pre-service teachers on the importance of visual communication in daily life and
particularly in pre-school education were as follows: L.B. I used to get help from texts or people to reach information,
now Ive changed. Ill also look at visuals. I will make use of them to convey an idea to others and my students. I want
to improve my visual literacy knowledge.
N.O. This course showed me that visual communication can be very effective and easy-to-use with
children at pre-schools. Children are open to visual communication.
Some pre-service teachers also mentioned the positive effects of visual communication on personality
development. B.. In my opinion, this course taught us a lot and it will continue to do so. It is essential for our
personality development, to understand others better and to express ourselves better. As can be seen, pre-service
teachers believed in the significance and necessity of visual communication.
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3.1.3. Visual literacy experiments

In order to improve pre-service teachers skills in making meaning of and interpreting visuals, some common
and uncommon visuals were shown to them for class discussion and interpretation. The following quotations reveal
that the pre-service teachers found this practice both fun and effective: S.T. In the drawing that was shown in the
visual perception class, which included an old and a young woman, I first saw the old one. Despite trying very hard, I
wasnt able to see the young woman for a while. When I finally did, I was very happy. It was a startling experience.
M.A. Picassos Guernica impressed me a lot. The class discussion on the painting was informative. After listening to
the story of the painting, I particularly thought that the visual description in it was a feast.
Z.Y. Examining the visual symbols on the board or in the slides, discussing their meaning and trying to guess
it made classes more fun. The abstract symbol of water and pipe drawn for the international plumbing fair particularly
made those who guessed it right happy, and forced those who did not to think. Volunteering pre-service teachers in
the classroom were given practice in creating messages with visuals; in other words, they were given practice in visual
authorship skill development through activities such as drawing maps.
G.A. During class, I drew on the board a plan that shows the way from the dormitory to the building. I
showed the entire class how bad I am at giving directions and drawing. I realized that telling by drawing is at least as
important as telling by writing...
3.1.4. Design Tools
In the visual literacy course, the design tools of color (figure-ground), integration, (using color to connect
parts to whole, and to match mood), simple shapes, space and balance, depth (scale, dimension, texture) were
exemplified. Pre-service teachers stated that they felt as if they had been told this information for the first time
and felt impressed by what they learned. The quotations below support these ideas:
A.K. I never thought until seeing the examples in this course that simple drawings could be made with
only a few dots and lines.
B.V. I learned in this course that yellow is the most striking color due to its short wavelength and that is
why taxis are yellow. Whenever I wear yellow from today onwards, I will feel as striking as a taxi! I noted the
following statement about the role of space in visual design: The space between the notes makes the music.
Y.A. I used to think that symmetrical balance is more interesting in design. However, it turns out that
asymmetrical balance is more attention catching.
Answer to the first key research question: Teacher candidates stated that visual literacy training (1) increased
their visual awareness, (2) they understood the necessity and importance of visual communication, (3) they learned
about design tools, (4) they were encouraged to develop visual interpretation and visual message making skills by
engaging in visual literacy experiments, and they enjoyed the process.
3.2. Pre-Service Teachers Perceptions of the Materials they Designed
Pre-service teachers presented their materials in their classes. They presented their perceptions on their
own designs and those of others by using the following themes: Process (care, intensive effort and liking), effects
of visual literacy training and design tools on their materials design, and the match between materials and student
level.
3.2.1. Process (Care, Intensive Effort and Liking)
Pre-service teachers stated that during the preparation stage they got rather tired, made a lot of effort and
liked the instructional materials they created.
R.A. I honestly did not expect such effective and impressive materials from my class. I listened to the
preparation stage of my friends and realized how much effort everyone made.
G.G. When we designed the posters on professions and numbers, we tried to keep to the schedule by
adding something new every day. We tried to find pictures from the Internet but didnt like what we found. The
children couldnt clearly perceive the pictures. They needed to touch the posters and interact with. We thus
decided to draw the majority of the images ourselves, which was fun.
150
We shared them with our friends, and asked them to guess the message without giving any explanations.
At all stages, we paid attention to visual design tools. Simplicity, balance, use of space, color selection, and unity
was crucial to us. We were very happy to receive positive feedback from our friends in class (Fig. 1and 2).
Fig. 1: Interactive Poster
Fig. 2: More of Interactive Poster

3.2.2. The Effects of Visual Literacy Training and Design Tools on Materials Design
Pre-service teachers wrote in their journals that, thanks to visual literacy training, they took care to use
design tools in their materials and were able to criticize those of others.
R.A. I felt honored that I had enough knowledge to criticize the materials presented in class. The
instructional technologies and materials design course enriched with visual literacy training opened a whole new
window onto life.
N.B.R. My friends and I prepared slides on seasons. When preparing them, we preferred complementary
colors and colors that remind people of the four seasons. We used orange as the background color for fall, white
for winter, light green for spring and light blue for summer. For text, we used colors that complement these and
paid attention to contrast between light and dark colors. To further enrich our slides, we added sound.
3.2.3. Student Level
The intended audience for the materials that pre-service teachers designed was pre-school students. They
stated that they considered the level of this audience when designing their materials.
R.A. I was happy to see that instructional materials design had considered not only design tools such as
style, color coordination, balance and size, but also childrens development levels and ease of use.
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The answer to the second key research question: The perception of teacher candidates about the materials
they designed following visual literacy training were as follows: (1) They paid attention to materials design during this
process, made a great effort and appreciated their own products, (2) Visual literacy training and design tools affected
materials design positively, (3) They considered the level of kindergarten children when they designed their
materials, and found the process exciting and motivating.
3.3. Expert views on Design Tool use in Materials Designed by Pre-Service Teachers
According to the experts (Table 1), pre-service teachers were least good at depth. [Scale (M= 3.81), dimension
(M=3.39) and texture (M=3.65)].
Table 1: Expert views on Design Tool use in Materials Designed by Pre-Service Teachers (n= 38)
Tools
SD
Color
Figure-Ground
4.21
.74
Integration
Use color to connect parts to whole
Use color to match mood
4.60
4.21
.49
.81
Simple Shapes
4.07
.81
Space and balance
4.13
.74
Depth
Scale
Dimension
Texture
3.81
3.39
3.65
.72
.82
.74
The answer to the third key research question: According to expert opinion, the design tools in the
instructional materials prepared by teacher candidates (1) were successful regarding color, integration, simple shapes,
space and balance. (2) but not so successful regarding depth.
3.4. Reactions of Pre-School Students to the Materials Designed by Pre-Service Teachers
Pre-service teachers presented their materials at preschools and tried to observe student interest in the
materials, their observations and thoughts. Table 2 presents the observation results (n=57). Six of the results are
related with student behaviors towards materials, while the remaining 2 are related with pre-service teachers materials
use and effective communication with the students. The arithmetic means, which vary between 5 and 1 and show the
observation level of the behavior, and standard deviation values are as follows:
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Table 2: Observations on the Presentation of Instructional Materials at Pre-Schools (n= 57)
Behaviors of children and pre-service teachers
1. Children watching the materials presentation with interest throughout
2. Children frequently fixing their eyes on the materials
3. Children having fun with the materials
4. Children asking questions about the presentation and the materials
5. Children answering questions correctly
6. Children attending discussion or activities about materials presentation
7. Pre-service teacher using materials effectively
8. Pre-service teacher having effective communication with stduents
SD
4.87
.33
4.53
4.78
4.23
4.55
4.55
4.80
4.69
.63
.52
.76
.76
.76
.61
.65
Table 2 shows that pre-service teachers used the materials effectively and established effective
communication with students (M= 4.80). The behaviors of pre-school students towards materials presentations
showed that, other than item 4, all others had a mean over 4.50 or close to 5. In other words, pre-school students
watched the materials presentations with interest (M=4.87). They asked few questions to pre-service teachers about
the presentations and materials (M=4.23). This may have been caused by the fact that children frequently displayed
the behavior in item 6, attending discussion or activities about materials presentation (M=4.55), and also that
materials were based on interactive visual design. Other observations of pre-service teachers regarding the reactions
of pre-school students to the materials they designed were as follows:
R.A. The children were very excited to see the flip chart posters, they resembled them to tents. One
student said he liked the poster with numbers, and another said she liked the poster with pictures of objects in the
same number as the written one. They were very willing to participate in the activity where they had to stick
pictures in the proper places on posters about the concept of size. They invited us to visit their schools again.
F.U. The children were very quiet during the presentation, which surprised their teacher. She said they are
normally very active and loud. Students really liked the images of plants and animals in the PPT presentation, the
interactive design, and that the PPT screen changed according to their answers.
H.K. Students were excited to touch the posters and turn pages themselves.
The answer to the fourth key research question: Pre-school students reacted positively pre-service
teachers materials presentations. Therefore pre-service teachers aroused motivation to teaching profession.
4. Discussion
This study described the perceptions of pre-service teachers about visual literacy training, and the reflections
of the design tools they learned during visual literacy training in the instructional materials they designed for preschool students. Pre-service teachers improved their visual awareness and sensitivity with visual literacy training. In a
study by Yeh & Lohr (2010) pre-service teachers also defined and noted the importance of visual literacy. Its
competencies include sensitivity for visual and verbal associations (Avgerinou, 2009). Pre-service teachers believed in
the importance of visual communication, and stated that it is also important for personality building. Visual literacy
offers individuals the potential to organize their ideas, express themselves, set relationships with the world and build a
self-image, thus developing self-confidence and a sense of independence (Ausburn & Ausburn, 1978). In instructional
contexts, visual literacy focuses on purposeful communication. Visual communication, visual thinking and visual
learning inevitably depend on visual literacy (Avgerinou, 2009). Visual literacy experiments in the classroom enrich
pre-service teachers visual experiences and trigger their thinking. Visual literacy studies have shown that seeing can
be learned when looking (Feinstein 1994).
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Velders (2000) also mentiones that the important thing is to learn to look. From pre-school to university,
teachers can increase student literacy in all fields where they need it. They may do so by not limiting themselves to
using traditional printed texts only, but by also teaching their students how to read and see any visual document
critically (Seglem & Witte, 2009). White (2012) held a study in which university students attended a film critique class
related to visual and media literacy. Students were given information on cultural production as well as encouragement
to use visual literacy skills, which were honed by the study. The critical thinking abilities of these students increased,
and their self reflection and visual communication skills developed. In another study, English as a foreign language
students were asked to produce learning materials by using web-based comic strip creation tool to facilitate the
learning of grammar and sentences. It was found in the end that students not only learned the topic but also had
elevated levels of motivation (Klkaya & Krajka, 2012). Shermann and Lockee (2001) had students prepare electronic
portfolios as visualizing outcomes in an online instructional technology masters program. The students tried new and
exciting ways to visualize their ideas and got a chance to reflect, synthesize and analyze through media. These two
studies were experiments in visual literacy. Pre-service teachers were influenced by the importance of the tools of
color (figure-ground), integration (using color to connect parts to whole, and to match mood), simple shapes, space
and balance, depth (scale, dimension, texture) in visual design. Rotter (2006) recommended teachers to use design
principles with the acronym COLA as they prepare instructional materials (contrast, orientation, lettering, and
artwork). By following the COLA guidelines, teachers can improve their students' ability to quickly and clearly grasp
the main ideas and concepts presented. In Sosas (2009) study too, students focused on the principles of visual design
and reviewed their own work with a more professional perspective; however, beyond recognizing visual literacy, they
saw the benefits of visual design principles in practice.
Pre-service teachers not only created materials but became the critical consumers of visual materials. Visual
literacy competencies for students include understanding the main elements, techniques and media of visual design,
being able to view visuals critically, and pondering on them (Avgerinou, 2009; Oblinger, 2003). Rourke & OConnor
(2009) found astoundingly low levels of visual literacy among design students. This suggests that visual literacy
training cannot be limited to design courses. Brumbergers (2011) similar finding that the visual literacy levels of digital
native university students were low shows that this ability does not develop on its own. Pre-service teachers stated
that they made an intensive effort when designing their materials, were careful when using design tools, and ultimately
liked the materials they created. In the ethos of the information age, doing is more important than knowing, and
multitasking is a lifestyle (Oblinger, 2003). Students need support in becoming aware of how to create visual images
and how to review them. They must be made aware that they deliberately need to use styles in their visuals to
convince others (Bamford, 2001). Cochran (undated) suggests the following for visual literacy instructional strategies:
Teacher candidates should be given opportunities for visual creation. Visual literacy experiences need to assess not
just the product but also the learning process. Teacher candidates should be encouraged to develop, make an effort
and criticize their own work. They were engaged in various tasks in a study in order to improve their visual and verbal
literacy. They had difficulty in arts, but grasped the importance of being able to express themselves by drawing
(Whitener-Lepanto & Harroff , 2002).
In their materials design, pre-service teachers were least successful in the use of depth. This study considered
depth synonymous with scale, dimension and texture use. Depth or scale, dimension and texture make it easier for
information to stand out and become selected (Lohr 2008, 270). Use of depth calls for more experience and expertise
than other design tools of color, integration, simple shapes, space and balance. This is because depth is a subtle touch
on design. The teaching of visual principles and tools is difficult as visual solutions to problems are subjective and
may not be properly evaluated. On the other hand, visual solution-based images for intended audience problems are
easy technological and inspirational products (Carter 2003, 78). Seen from this perspective, it is important when
evaluating pre-service teachers use of design tools by also considering the reactions of the intended audience to the
materials. Communication is not complete until the receivers understand messages. Informative materials should be
legible, readable and worth reading for the intended audience (Petterson, 1993). Research shows that most children
are visually literate from birth to age 8 - 9 (Pettersson 1993, 101). Pre-school students watched pre-service teachers
materials presentations with interest. They reacted positively and affectively to the visuals used in the materials. They
interacted with these materials as if playing with them. Instructional materials have many functions in student learning
such as providing new learning stimuli and activating the students response (Rowntree, 1976).
154
They can arouse readers interest, curiosity, and motivation (Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Unnava &
Burnkrant, 1991). Walsh (2003) previously studied childrens reactions to visuals in illustrated books, and observed
intellectual, affective and esthetic responses. In this study too, pre-school students gave similar reactions to materials.
Looking and seeing is a powerful way for young children to learn. (Phillips, 2005). Owing to the nature of child
development, they evaluate peripheral clues in advertisements, such as color and images, not with their logic but with
their emotions (Barry, 1998). There were several limitations to the study. The first one was the little amount of time
available for visual literacy training. The second was that a comparison could have been made between pre-service
teachers who had and had not received visual literacy training. Planning and implementing a study including the
Perception aspect of the PAT model or one that covers the entire PAT model may offer a significant alternative to
and complement Yeh and Chengs (2010) study as well as this one.
5. Conclusions
Today, being able to read or write from left to right is not the only sign of effective communication. Visual
literacy is the bridge to the world of multiple literacies and a democratic avenue for students to expose and compose
their ideas. It must be included in all school curricula if teachers want to adequately prepare students for a world that
is surrounded and driven by images (Seglem &Witte ,2009). Visual literacy should not be left to the discretion of a few
lecturers at teacher education institutions, and it should not be limited only to the instructional technologies and
materials design course but become an independent course in the curriculum. Visual literacy should not be seen as
merely a support for the instructional technologies and materials design course. Visual literacy training can contribute
to all courses taken before graduation which require pedagogical knowledge and skills, such as instructional planning
and evaluation, instructional methods, and teaching practice, and also help teachers after graduation by equipping
them with rich experiences and visual communication competencies.
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A Semiotic Quest for the Fifth Element

in Foreign Language Acquisition
1
Anastasia CHRISTODOULOU1, George DAMASKINIDIS2

Faculty of Philosophy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece)
2
Faculty of Education, The Open University (UK)
ABSTRACT
In the last three years, our research in visual literacy in higher education has shown that using nonverbal semiotic elements in the area of foreign language acquisition is a novel experience for
university students. Of particular interest has been our difficulty in making students understand why
we need these semiotic modes in teaching and learning foreign languages in addition to the traditional
four language skills, namely reading, writing, speaking and listening. We call this research a quest,
since proposing that non-verbal skills be on an equal footing with the four traditional skills would
require great exertion on the part of any researcher, who would have to overcome many obstacles.
These would include the inability to define precisely what constitutes a visually literate person, a lack
of extensive experimental research on the impact of the non-verbal on foreign language acquisition,
making it impossible to defend its role as an autonomous skill, and the relatively narrow focus of
semiotics as a field of study in several countries. This paper nominates the non-verbal semiotic
element as the fifth skill in foreign language acquisition. This visual nomination includes a selfexamination of our research and teaching experience in visual literacy, and a review of studies that
investigate the effects of language instruction that incorporates varying degrees of non-verbal
components. We aim to stimulate interest in enhancing the role of the visual in teaching and learning
foreign languages, with the long-term ambition of having it formally introduced as an examinable
component in international foreign language certifications. Finally, we aspire to contribute to the
efforts to make visual literacy a subject to be taught in itself and across the curriculum in higher
education.
1. Introduction
The teaching of the four basic literacy skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) has revolved
almost exclusively around verbal language. This dominance of verbal language in the field of visual
communication has also been pointed out by several researchers (e.g. Damen, 1997; Moriarty, 2002;
Love, 2008; Jim and Boling, 2010). Love (2008) argues, on the basis of the proliferation of
multimodal texts within the new communicative landscape, that in the twenty-first century the
traditional notion of literacy as consisting of the four basic skills is inadequate. If we accept, then,
that there is a new type of literacy that is not (solely) verbal in orientation, then we need to adopt a
systematic approach to the study of visual education (Jewitt and Kress, 2003).
Based on our research and teaching experience in using non-verbal semiotic elements in higher
education (Christodoulou and Damaskinidis, 2011, 2012a, 2012b, in press), the non-verbal element in
the area of foreign language acquisition is a novel experience for university students. We are aware
that proposing that we put non-verbal skills on an equal footing with the four traditional language
skills would require great exertion on the part of any researcher, and that many obstacles would have
to be overcome. Such difficulties would include defining precisely what constitutes a visually literate
person, a lack of extensive experimental research on the impact of the non-verbal on foreign language
acquisition, and the relatively narrow focus of semiotics as a field of study in several countries.
This paper nominates the non-verbal semiotic element as the fifth skill in foreign language
acquisition. This visual nomination includes a self-examination of our research and teaching
experience in visual literacy, and a review of studies that investigate the effects of language instruction
that incorporates varying degrees of non-verbal components. We aim to stimulate interest in enhancing
this new role of the visual, with the long-term ambition of having it formally introduced as an
examinable component in international foreign language certifications. We also aspire to contribute to
the efforts to make visual literacy a subject to be taught in itself and across the curriculum in higher
education.
This paper is structured as follows: first, we outline a number of approaches to the concept of foreign
language acquisition skills; second, we examine the role of non-verbal semiotic elements in the
foreign language classroom; third, we briefly present our own research and teaching-based data on the
use of non-verbal semiotic elements in the language classroom in higher education; and fourth, we
provide a tentative description of the present state of our semiotic quest.
2. Approaches to the concept of foreign language acquisition skills

Traditionally, the four language skills, namely reading, writing, speaking and listening, have been
essential components of EFL classes. These skills are supposed to help students increase their
communicative competence, which is the goal of most EFL instruction, in order to use the language
system appropriately in any circumstance. Brown (2000) claims that the best way to attain
communicative goals is to pay attention to language use rather than just usage, to fluency rather than
just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to the students ultimate need to apply
classroom learning to real-life circumstances. A number of studies have shown that teaching by
combining verbal and non-verbal semiotic elements has a better outcome than teaching either with
verbal or non-verbal elements only (Jin and Boling, 2010; Mayer, 2003). Although some students find
visual images to some degree distracting (ibid.), Clark and Lyons (2011) argue that the educational
benefits of visual images are indisputable.
One attempt to add an additional, fifth, skill to the four traditional skills has been Damens (1997)
claim that language learning implies and embraces culture learning. She bases her claim by reference
to Browns (2005) argument that language teaching is also a teaching of cultural customs, ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting. Damen (1997) states that culture is a skill that differs from the traditional
four because it intersects and overlaps with them in specific ways. An assumption made by EFL
teachers is that it is safe to focus on the four mentioned skills since students have already acquired
some knowledge of the second languages culture. However, the idea of culture as a skill in foreign
language acquisition has been met with scepticism. For example, while teaching the culture of the
foreign language increases, according to Vernier et al (2008), students overall learning experience,
they argue against its autonomy as a skill. Also, Kramsch (1993) argues that culture, as a skill, should
not be simply an expansion of the four traditional skills. On the contrary, if language is viewed as a
social practice, culture will become the core of language teaching, and will even become the overall
context of meaningful cultural learning into which the four language skills would be integrated.
Another skill proposed to be added to the four traditional skills, for example, in teaching English, has
been called viewing skills under the broad field of visual literacy (No Author, Date). It is argued that
visual literacy components should be integrated into one or more of the steps (pre-, post- and during
teaching) of the teaching-learning process. Nevertheless, the visual is not considered as an equal skill
but simply as a tool through which the other four skills could be taught. While there have been
examples of using visual images for teaching reading, speaking, listening and writing skills, it is not
proposed the other way around. That is, there are no examples of these skills being used to teach the
visual skill. Moreover, for the visual image to be employed in this way, a teacher would have to be
visually literate. This gives rise to the question of who is visually literate. This is a problematic
aspect of integrating, or adding, the visual to the language teaching process, since generic criteria of
what constitutes a visually literate person have yet to be established.
The need to look for additional skills in the language classroom is also derived from other factors
which are not strictly educational, such as space, agents of learning and teaching and display learning
(Heath, 2000). A number of related activities are proposed in reference to these factors (No Author,
Date). By leaving the traditional indoor space of the language classroom and moving to other outdoor
teaching and learning spaces, like museums or parks, or going sightseeing, students would be able to
experience the subjects they study in their books. In these spaces, teachers would have to design
visually integrated lessons, thus creating a more socially meaningful education experience.
When training to become an English language teacher, students could be treated as agents of learning
and teaching. For example, they could go to a community centre and find people who want to learn
English and then design a project to help them learn. Such a project would turn students into agents of
teaching and learning, providing them with a direct perspective on how teaching and learning
processes take place. This way of learning requires a type of training that Kiraly (2001) calls a social
constructivist and collaborative learning approach to pedagogy.
The concept of display learning is dependent on the provision in the classroom of specialized
educational modes of learning, such as videos and cameras. Teachers who opt for such different
modes of learning should also design different types of assessment that suit the learning type.
However, curriculum documents and assessment requirements for reading and writing are based on
established theories on the reading and writing of print-based texts. These theories have determined
specific approaches and strategies for teaching reading and writing to assist learners at all stages of
learning. Yet, ongoing research is required to theorize the interactions that occur as learners read and
process various visual, aural, spatial and textual modes, separately or simultaneously, in texts that
consist of various semiotic modes.
In the previous examples, it has been taken for granted that English language teachers are visually
literate. As it has been noted already, it is very difficult to determine who is visually literate generally
speaking, let alone for the purpose of teaching English as a foreign language. Although there are not
many studies about the visual literacy levels of foreign language teachers, some of them are indicative
of the wider situation in the field of foreign language acquisition. For example, Abdel-Moneim (2010)
conducted a study in Egypt in order to discover English teachers attitudes towards the understanding
and use of visual literacy concepts. According to this study, one hundred percent of the instructors
indicated that they did not have to take any formal course in visual literacy instruction as part of their
university training. These teachers recalled that there was not even a reference in the curriculum in
regard to the concept of using visual literacy in the English language classroom. Moreover, they went
on to reveal that even the English language schools and institutions they worked in provided no formal
in-service training in visual literacy instruction.
3. The role of non-verbal semiotic elements in the foreign language classroom

Well before the twenty-first century, we were flooded with visual messages of all types in a wide
range of media, mainly the Internet and television, both in personal and private spaces. The ability to
decode visual expressions and to consider them critically has become an essential skill for researchers
and teachers in education. It is important to be able to decode, encode and critically consider visual
expression. These are essential skills for researchers and teachers in education. We think it is high time
that this skill was passed on to students as a powerful learning tool in the development of creative,
critical and independent thinking. We do not imply that teachers and researchers have fully mastered
this visual literacy skill. On the contrary, we strongly believe that imparting this body of knowledge to
students will better enable teachers and researchers to reflect on their practices and to propel the field
of visual literacy one step forward.
Bernhardt (1986) argues that reading electronic texts in front of a computer screen is not a passive
activity. The reader interacts physically with the text by means of the mouse, the cursor, the touch
screen, or voice activation. In contrast to the print book, the text becomes a dynamic object, capable of
being physically manipulated and transformed. This might also involve continuous transfers from one
electronic text to another to the point of potentially losing track of the start in this reading process.
Bernhardt (ibid.) goes on to stress that we must begin using visual literacy in the composition class
because our students are interacting more and more with these dynamic texts in school and on the
job. Following these arguments, before using video as a teaching medium, for example, rather than
merely viewing it, students should be instructed to use it in a more interactive mode to convey ideas
and to solve problems. This interaction may take the form of using specialized software to re-edit the
video in order to convey ideas and solve problems.
Nevertheless, visual literacy-based activities should be included in the language classroom with great
caution. For example, in the First-year Writing Program at Virginia Tech, teaching visual literacy was
believed to be just too much for the level of first-year composition (Brizee, 2003). This concern was
voiced because the addition of lessons to cover visual literacy moved the academic essay to more
electronic or visual formats. Therefore, since the core writing requirements shifted, then first-year
composition would have to shift to match the change.
In the field of foreign language teaching, visually literate teachers that are capable of choosing or
creating visual images could use them to enhance the students achievements in learning. In addition
to teaching visual literacy skills to language learners per se, the integration of a visual component in
some of, or all, the stages of the teaching and learning processes might foster the teaching of the four
traditional English language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Visual literacy may also
help teachers to design more attractive teaching and learning processes that could better engage
students in learning activities. Studies have consistently revealed that teaching with words and visuals
has more favourable results than teaching using only words or only visuals (Jin and Boling, 2010).
However, language and image should not be separated as this would create an unnatural boundary. In
the visual and verbal dyad, one is not superior to the other; in fact, they complement each other. This
is pertinent to McKims (1980) argument that the thinker who has a broad command of graphic
languagescan find more complete expression for his thinking. Thus, recognizing the value of the
theories surrounding visual thinking and visual language (and their pedagogical implications),
composition instructors are now applying elements of visual literacy in writing classrooms.
In the next section we summarise our recent experience in researching and teaching using non-verbal
semiotic elements in the Department of Italian Language and Literature of the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki in Greece.
4. Research and teaching-based data using non-verbal semiotic elements in the language
classroom in higher education
Here we outline our recent teaching and research experience and the way it has informed our semiotic
quest for the fifth element in foreign language acquisition (Christodoulou and Damaskinidis, 2011;
2012a; 2012b, in press): Firstly, reading videos using visual semiotic analysis; secondly, combining
social semiotic and multimodal analysis in expanding the term educational microworld; thirdly,
presenting the implications of designing a visual literacy course for post-graduate students of a foreign
language department; and fourthly, employing a technique called photo elicitation so as to elicit
students semiotic perspective of the contemporary Greek crisis.
The first example is our reading of videos, which was based on visual social semiotics (Jewitt and
Oyama, 2001) as a tool kit for use in critical research, in the sense of the Frankfurt School aiming to
enlighten the critical viewer about the inimical relationship of industry to culture. We examined Kress
and Van Leeuwens (2006) idea to extend the three Hallidayan (1978) metafunctions ideational
(representing ideas about the world), interpersonal (facilitating certain kinds of social and
interpersonal interactions) and textual (combining ideas and interactions into meaningful texts) to
visual analysis, under the names of representational, interactive, and compositional metafunctions,
respectively. The project involved post-graduate students watching videos and asking visual semiotic
questions in a collaborative mode of teaching and learning with the aim of enhancing their visual
literacy skills.
The students made a sincere effort to answer the questions, which provided a springboard for filmic
analysis. Some questions required minor conceptual and syntactical modifications, while all the
questions required further elucidation. The interview confirmed, and in a sense exceeded, our
expectations of its contribution as a research tool. We consider the research subjects performance to
be slightly above the average; for example, they managed to provide some insightful and intuitive
comments and balanced arguments. They contributed to the interview with their own comments and
led the discussion to several related topics. In some cases, students could not use their own
background knowledge in reading a video with a particular music theme. For example, although one
student is an amateur musician (with his own band) he told us that he had never paid any attention to
the music in the films he had seen. This suggests that users of multimodal texts do not always draw on
all meaning-making resources in multimodal reading. This may also explain why the students, in
principle, did not relate the music to the overall impact of the video.
The second example is taken from our exploration of the concept of an educational microworld as an
interactive learning environment. Using as a case study a computer-based language activity in the area
of teaching English for Specific Purposes, we demonstrated how a multimodal PowerPoint slide show
(integrating pictures, audio and changing slides) could become an educational microworld in a specific
professional context. By analysing each semiotic element as an independent meaning-making resource
and examining how all modes are jointly used, we investigated the ways the users of this microworld
(both teachers and students) use social resources for communicating meanings.
It was proposed that, apart from the professional group for which it was originally designed, this
microworld could also be tailored to specific social groups, like immigrants or illiterate people, in the
form of informal lifelong learning. Recently, there have been numerous attempts to transform the
Greek school into a truly intercultural learning environment so as to accommodate the large number of
immigrant children. An effective way to allow for the smooth integration of immigrants into school
could be a cultural microworld, where the role of the users would be assumed by native Greek students
and immigrants, who would take turns presenting the culture of their own country to the rest of the
students. Moreover, Greek students could be asked to present the culture of the immigrants countries
and the other way around. The role of the teacher is crucial here in making sure that this presentation
is an accurate and balanced account of the relevant culture. This is an instance where culture becomes
an additional skill in foreign language acquisition. Yet, in order for it to become a true skill, in the
sense discussed here, the teacher would have to have been trained how to integrate culture in the
language classroom.
The third example is the design of an innovative course titled Visual Literacy in Language Teaching
and Learning for students in the post-graduate Italian Language and Culture programme. While the
current curriculum of the programme offers a variety of courses to improve students language skills
for this specialization, its focus has remained relatively narrow. It is now apparent that changes
primarily brought about by the use of video as a teaching material in the language classroom have
created new opportunities for video as a tool to promote and enhance the study of non-verbal semiotic
modes of communication in multimodal texts.
We have followed the new pedagogies of multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996), shifting from
the dominant print text and examining how literacy can be practised when analysing video, as a new
form of multimodal text, in the new millennium. By employing this new concept of pedagogy, we aim
to introduce a framework consisting of two elements, a systemic functional approach and multimodal
discourse analysis to describe the activities of individuals as they identify, read and create new texts
using a variety of semiotic codes.
Based on our evaluation of this course, one of the most interesting findings was our difficulty to
explain two important aspects of visual literacy: why we need visual literacy skills, both as individuals
and foreign language teachers, and the concept of video as an autonomous type of (multimodal) text
that is to be viewed, edited and analysed for pedagogical purposes. We frequently had to resort to
parallelisms with other more traditional methods of teaching and learning in order to demonstrate this
need. For example, the participants in a video were compared to the characters of a novel, or the
different frames, shots, scenes and sequences to the unfolding of the plot. It has become clear that any
tool for teaching visual literacy skills is dependent on background knowledge and theoretical concepts
of the visual as a semiotic mode of communication, including systemic verbal-visual associations.
Our initial intention was to provide a very specific, and sharply defined, point of view regarding visual
literacy, by means of a practical model applied to the analysis of a video. However, it became clear
that this approach should be supplemented by other approaches in verbal-visual education. The
findings reported here point to the need for further research towards gaining an understanding of how
to aid the development of teachers and students visual skills in language teaching and learning.
Therefore, it would have been an exaggeration to call such SF-MDA a potential fifth element in
foreign language acquisition, since we strongly consider students who lack formal education in visual
literacy ill-equipped to be introduced to this model.
The fourth example is from a small-scale study where we applied the photo elicitation technique as a
research method to get a visual semiotic perspective of post-graduate students views regarding press
articles on the contemporary Greek crisis. The intention was to identify a relationship between the
verbal aspect of news articles and the visual message of the accompanying photograph. Photo
elicitation, based on the simple idea of inserting a photograph into a research interview, was combined
with Barthes (1964) commutation test to isolate important signifying qualities. An image-based
questionnaire allowed for the open expression of students dilemmas while providing concrete talking
points. The focus of the discussion was the photos and their content, rather than the students
themselves, which seems to have triggered confidence, leading subjects to reveal their attitudes and
values. Thus, the questionnaire provided a stimulus for students to bring in the visual as a key aspect
in verbal discussion. Verbal-visual dilemmas broadened students perspective of their choices in
making visual-verbal associations.
Despite the lack of formal standards for assessing visual literacy levels, evidence suggests that
familiarity with the visual the visual literacy level varied among the respondents. For example,
although one question required students to find a photograph to accompany a press article, thirteen
visuals (out of twenty-four in total) were not photographs. These visuals were graphics, photographic
collages, newspaper front pages, and students did not explain if their choices were made on purpose,
or if they were the result of misinterpreting the question. This is circumstantial evidence that the
students might not have had a clear understanding of the term photograph. Although the
questionnaire was not related to a foreign language activity, it illustrates the difficulties entailed when
giving instructions for a language activity which is related to visual materials.
5. Concluding remarks
In this paper we have tried to demonstrate the inherent difficulties in integrating the non-verbal
element in foreign language acquisition on an equal basis with the four standard skills, that is,
listening, reading, speaking and writing. Whether this effort will result in the naming of an entirely
new fifth skill or in incorporating the non-verbal element in some complex way with the four standard
skills is a question, we argue, that cannot yet be adequately answered.
Such an exploration would depend on a number of various factors. First, it matters which theoretical
perspective or approach is adopted. For example, in the sphere of foreign language teaching and
learning, the proposal for a fifth language skill seems to be restrictive in scope and does not provide
many opportunities for further research. On the other hand, in the wider area of education, visual
literacy has started to earn a place as a distinct skill. However, we have to go back and reconsider the
questions we set earlier about what is visual literacy, who is considered visually literate, and how to
measure visual literacy.
Finally, is it valid to look for a fifth skill? Someone might also propose a sixth, a seventh or even a
group of skills, and so on. There is no doubt that we need a great deal of theoretical brainstorming
from a variety of theoretical perspectives and disciplines, even if these are not closely related to
foreign language acquisition. The various educational institutes in foreign language teaching and
learning may also have to reset their policies at an international level. In addition, and even more
importantly, more experimental, research-based data are required because we cannot theorize without
looking at hard evidence.
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E-mails: nata@itl.auth.gr, damaskinidis@hotmail.com

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Beyond the literal: Teaching visual literacy in the 21st century

Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Using comics with novice EFL readers to develop reading literacy

* Ivana Cimermanov. Tel.: +421-51-7570762

Peer-review under responsibility of the Sakarya University

Reading efficiency in mother tongue

Reads fluently with some hesitations

Reads in both, mother

Loves reading, she reads fast and clearly,

She prefers reading stories

Even though she likes reading, at her

Reads usually during

Started to read at the age of 4, at that time

Reads a lot, both fiction

6. Data Collection and Analysis

Journal of Education and Human Development

Glgn Bangir Alpan

Glgn Bangir Alpan

Glgn Bangir Alpan

3.1.3. Visual literacy experiments

Fig. 1: Interactive Poster

Fig. 2: More of Interactive Poster

Glgn Bangir Alpan

Space and balance

Glgn Bangir Alpan

Glgn Bangir Alpan

Glgn Bangir Alpan

A Semiotic Quest for the Fifth Element

Anastasia CHRISTODOULOU1, George DAMASKINIDIS2

2. Approaches to the concept of foreign language acquisition skills

3. The role of non-verbal semiotic elements in the foreign language classroom

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