CHAPTER 6

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the mechanism of inhalation and
exhalation.
Identify and describe the structures and function of
human respiratory system.
State the Ficks law of diffusion.
Explain the process of gas exchange and transport.
Describe the oxygen dissociation curve of
haemoglobin.
Describe various respiratory surfaces in animals.

OVERVIEW: TRADING PLACES

Every organism must exchange materials with its
environment.
Exchanges ultimately occur at the cellular level.
In unicellular organisms, these exchanges occur
directly with the environment.

For most cells making up multicellular organisms,

direct exchange with the environment is not possible.
Gills are an example of a specialized exchange system
in animals.
Internal transport and gas exchange are functionally
related in most animals.

RESPIRATION
Respiration is the process of gas exchange
between organism and its environment.
During respiration, oxygen from the
environment is taken up and delivered to
individual cells.
At the same time, CO2 generated during
cellular respiration is excreted into the
environment.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing - process of moving air from the
environment to the lungs and expelling air from the
lungs.
The respiratory system of mammals consists of the
lungs and a series of tubes.

Nostrils Nasal Cavities Pharynx Larynx Trachea

Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli
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A breath air enters the body through the nostrils

and flows through the nasal cavities.
As air passes through the nose, it is filtered,
moistened and brought to body temperature.

Nasal cavities - lined with a moist, ciliated

epithelium that is rich in blood vessels.
Cells within the epithelium produce mucus to
trap inhaled dirt, bacteria and other foreign
particles.

The back of the nasal cavities is continuous with

the pharynx.
An opening in the floor of the pharynx leads into
the larynx (Adams apple).
From the larynx, air passes into the trachea
(windpipe).
The trachea divides into two branches, the
bronchi each of which connects to a lung.

Both trachea and bronchi are lined by mucous

membrane containing ciliated cells- to trap
dirt, bacteria and other foreign particles.

10

The lungs are large, paired and spongy organs

occupying the thoracic (chest) cavity.
The right lung (three lobes); left lungs (two
lobes) - covered with a pleural membrane
(pm).
Pm forms a continuous sac that encloses the
lung (lining of the thoracic cavity).
The space between the pm is the pleural
cavity (pc) - contain liquid to provide
lubrication between the lungs and the chest
wall.
Inside the lungs is bronchi branch, give rise
to millions of tiny bronchioles in each lung.

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12

Each bronchioles ends in a cluster of tiny air

sacs, the alveoli.
Each alveolus is lined by an extremely thin,
single layer of epithelial cells Gasses diffuse
freely to the walls of the alveolus and into the
capillaries that surround it.

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The muscular floor of the

thoracic cavity is the
diaphragm.
The inner pleural cavity is
called the visceral
pleural membrane
whereas the outer
membrane is parietal
pleural membrane.

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FIGURE 43.24

Branch of
pulmonary vein
(oxygen-rich
blood)
Terminal
bronchiole

Branch of
pulmonary artery
(oxygen-poor
blood)

Nasal
cavity

Pharynx
Larynx

Left lung

(Esophagus)

Alveoli

50 m

Trachea
Right lung
Capillaries

Bronchus
Bronchiole

Diaphragm
(Heart)

Dense capillary bed

enveloping alveoli (SEM)
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Alveoli are well adapted for gas exchange

High surface area of capillaries
High surface area of alveoli
In alveoli
O2 diffuses into the blood
CO2 diffuses out of the blood

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FIGURE 43.24B

Branch of
pulmonary vein
(oxygen-rich
blood)
Terminal
bronchiole

Branch of
pulmonary artery
(oxygen-poor
blood)

Alveoli

Capillaries
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FIGURE 43.24C

50 m

Dense capillary bed

enveloping alveoli (SEM)

18

BREATHING MECHANICS

According to Boyles Law,

When the volume of a given quantity of gas
increases its pressure decreases

19

Breathing is the mechanical process of moving

air from the environment into the lungs and
expelling air from lungs.
Inhaling air is referred to as inspiration;
exhaling air is expiration.

20

MECHANISM OF BREATHING

Inhalation/inspiration

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

External intercostals muscles contract

while the internal intercostals muscle relax.
Cause the rib cage to move upward and
outwards.
The diaphragm muscles contract so the
diaphragm lowers and flattens.
Cause the volume of thoracic cavity
increase and the pressure decrease.
Higher atmospheric pressure on the outside
forces the air into the lungs.

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Exhalation/expiration

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The external intercostals muscles relax while the

internal intercostals muscles contract.
Cause the rib cage to move downward and
inwards.
The diaphragm curves upwards.
These action cause the volume of the thoracic
cavity to decrease and pressure increases.
Higher atmospheric pressure inside the lungs
forces the air out of the lungs.
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23

Inhaling diaphragm & external intercostal

muscles contract, internal intercostal relaxed,
volume of thoracic cavity increase, decreasing
the pressure in the lungs, air from outside get
inside.
Exhaling diaphragm & external intercostal
muscle relax, internal intercostal contracted,
volume of thoracic cavity decreases, increasing
the pressure in the lungs, air is expelled.

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FIGURE 43.27

Rib cage
gets smaller
as rib muscles
relax.

Rib cage
expands as
rib muscles
contract.

Lung
Diaphragm
1 INHALATION: Diaphragm

contracts (moves down).

2 EXHALATION: Diaphragm

relaxes (moves up).

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Tidal volume volume of air inhaled and

exhaled with each breath.
Vital capacity tidal volume during maximal
inhalation and exhalation.
Residual volume air that remains after a
forced exhalation.

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GAS EXCHANGE BETWEEN ALVEOLI AND

BLOOD CAPILLARIES

Each alveolus serves as a tiny depot from

which oxygen is loaded into the blood by
capillaries.

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GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS

The concentration of oxygen is greater in the
alveoli than in the pulmonary capillaries so,
oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood.
Carbon dioxide is more concentrated in the blood
than in the alveoli so, CO2 diffuses out of the
capillaries and into the alveoli.

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29

GAS EXCHANGE IN THE TISSUE

Oxygen is more concentrated in the blood than
in the body cells it diffuses out of the
capillaries into the cells.
Carbon dioxide is more concentrated in the
cells it diffuses out of the cells and moves
into the blood.

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31

FICKS LAW OF
DIFFUSION
Respiration involves the diffusion of gases
across plasma membranes.
The diffusion process is passive, driven only
by the differences in O2 and CO2
concentration on both sides of the membrane.
In general, the rate of diffusion between two
regions is governed by the Ficks law of
diffusion.

32

Rate of diffusion
R= D

A p
d
R = the rate of diffusion the amount of oxygen or
carbon dioxide diffusing per unit of time
D = the diffusion constant
A = the area over which diffusion takes place
p = the difference in concentration (for gases, the
difference in their partial pressures) between the
interior of the organism and the external
environment
d = the distance across which diffusion takes place
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Factors that affect the increment of R

(rate of diffusion)
I. Increase in surface area (A) highly folded
surface area.
II. Decrease of the diffusion distance (d)
III.Difference in partial pressure - higher gas
concentration difference between the inside
and outside respiratory surface.
The gas will diffuse faster if the difference in
pressure or the surface area increases.

34

GAS EXCHANGE
Oxygen in inhaled air
dissolves in a film of moisture
on the epithelial cell diffuse
across the epithelium blood
capillaries.
Carbon dioxide diffuses in
the opposite way, from the
blood capillaries across the
epithelium of the alveolus
into the air space of
the alveolus and out of the
body as exhaled air.

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The alveolar air and the blood capillary are

separated by only two cell layers.
The distance between the air and the blood is
only 0.5-1.5 m.
This allows rapid diffusion of the gases
(decreasing d in the Ficks law).

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37

DALTONS LAW OF
PARTIAL PRESSURE
According to Daltons law of partial
pressures
- in a mixture of gases the total pressure of
the mixture is the sum of the pressures of
the individual gasses.
Each gas exerts, independently of the others, a
partial pressure- the same pressure it would
exerts if it were present alone.

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GAS EXCHANGEPARTIAL PRESSURE

Dry air contains fractional composition of

78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon
and other inert gases and about 0.03 % carbon
dioxide.
The total atmospheric pressure of air at sea
level is 760mmHg.
Each type of gas contributes to the total
atmospheric pressure according to its fraction
of the total molecules present.
The fraction contributed by a gas is called
partial pressure.

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Thus, at sea level, the partial pressure of N2,O2

and CO2 are:
PN2, = 760 x 78.09 % = 593.5 mmHg
PO2 = 760 x 20.95 % = 159.2 mmHg
PCO2 = 760 x 0.03% = 0.2 mmHg
Each gas moves from the region of higher
partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
Increase in partial pressure ensures efficient
gas exchange (p in Ficks Law).

40

The partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolus

(105 mmHg) is lesser than the partial pressure
of the atmosphere (159 mmHg).
The blood that leaves the alveolus has a lower
partial pressure that is about 100 mmHg.
As blood passes through capillaries in the rest
of the body, oxygen leaves the blood and
diffuses into the tissues.
The tissue has even a lower partial pressure,
about 40 mmHg.

41

At higher altitudes with 20.95% oxygen, the

atmospheric pressure is only about
380
mmHg, so its PO2 = 380 x 20.95 % = 80
mmHg.
This reduced in partial pressure of oxygen
prevent the oxygen from entering the lungs.
This is because the partial pressure of oxygen
in the alveolus is higher, about 105 mmHg.

42

GAS TRANSPORT-OXYGEN

Transported
by
hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is a protein
composed
of
four
polypeptide chains and
four organic compounds
called the haem group.
At the center of each haem
group is an atom of iron,
which can bind to a
molecule of oxygen.

43

Iron atom
O2 loaded
in lungs

O2 unloaded
in tissues

O2

O2

Heme group
Polypeptide chain

44

In the lungs;
Due to differences in
partial pressure between
alveolus
and
blood
capillaries, hemoglobin in
blood load up with oxygen
forming oxyhemoglobin.
In the body tissues;
Oxygen
is
unloaded
(oxyhemoglobin
releases
oxygen)
forming
deoxyhemoglobin.
45

GAS TRANSPORTCARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is transported to the whole body
in three different ways.
I.

About 8% or 10% of the CO2 will remained

dissolved in the blood plasma to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
* forms when carbon dioxide combines with
water in blood (catalyze by enzyme
carbonic anhydrase), which then quickly
separated to bicarbonate and
hydrogen
ions.

46

II. About 20% or 30% binds to the hemoglobin to

form carbamino hemoglobin (HbCO2).
* The hydrogen ion will bind to the
deoxyhemoglobin
III. 72% or 60% more is transported in a form of
bicarbonate (HCO3-).
* Bicarbonate ion moves into the blood
plasma to lung.

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Tissue
(CO2)

Tissue
(CO2)

Tissue
(CO2)

Tissue Capillary Wall

Plasma
CO2

48

OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE

Is a graph showing the amount of oxygen that

hemoglobin carries at different oxygen pressures.

The degree of hemoglobin saturation is determined

by the partial pressure of oxygen, which varies in
different organs throughout the body.
When these values are graphed, they produce the
oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve. Notice
that the axes on the graph are: partial pressure of
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oxygen and percent saturation of haemoglobin.

OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE
In the lungs, the partial
pressure of oxygen is
approximately 100 mm Hg.
At this partial pressure,
haemoglobin has a high
affinity for oxygen, and is
98% saturated
In the tissues of other
organs at rest, a typical
partial pressure of oxygen
is 40 mm Hg. Here,
haemoglobin has a lower
affinity for oxygen and
releases some but not all of
its oxygen to the tissues

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OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE
When

haemoglobin leaves the tissues it is

still 75% saturated.

Oxygen-haemoglobin

dissociation curve is an
S-shaped curve, with a nearly flat slope at
high PO2's and a steep slope at low PO2's.

51

OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE

Production of CO2 during cellular respiration

promotes the unloading of O2 by haemoglobin in
active tissues.

CO2 reacts with water, forming carbonic acid and

lowers the pH which decreases the affinity of
haemoglobin for O2, an effect called Bohr shift (the
dissociation curve moves towards the right)
Thus,
where
CO2
production
is
greater,
haemoglobin releases more O2, which can be
used to support more cellular respiration.

52

OXYHAEMOGLOBIN
DISSOCIATION CURVE

53

RESPIRATORY SURFACES IN ANIMALS

Respiratory surfaces - The part of an animal
where oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide
diffuses out to the surrounding environment.
Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces
for exchange of gases between their cells and the
respiratory medium, either air or water.
Gas exchange across respiratory surfaces takes
place by diffusion.
Respiratory surfaces vary by animal and can
include the outer surface, skin, gills, trachea, and
lungs.
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RESPIRATORY SURFACES IN ANIMALS

55

RESPIRATORY SURFACES UNICELLULAR ORGANISM

The entire cell surface of unicellular organism
for e.g. amoeba act as respiratory organ.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide simply diffuses in
and out the cell surface, without requirement of a
specific organ.
This can only happens to unicellular organisms
due to their small size.

O2

CO2

56

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - WORMS

Animals that use skin as a gas exchange organ are
small sized / flat.
This characteristic provides a high ratio of
respiratory surface to body volume, allowing for
sufficient gas exchange for the whole body.
Skin-breathers also need to live in damp water
/moist places - facilitate the diffusion of gases
across the skin to the dense net of thin-walled
capillaries lying just beneath the skin.

57

FIG. 22-2A

Cut

Cross section
of respiratory
surface (the
outer skin)

CO2

Capillaries

O2
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RESPIRATORY SURFACES - GILLS

Gills are specialized respiratory organs of fishes
and many other aquatic invertebrates.
One problem that aquatic animals must deal with
is that the concentration of oxygen in water is
about 10,000 times less than that in air.
Thus, gills have to be very efficient to meet the
respiratory demands of aquatic animals.

59

The efficiency of the gills is due to the great

respiratory surface area compared to the
remaining body surface.
The gills are full of tiny blood vessels that
allow close contact with oxygen dissolved in the
surrounding water.
The requirement of having moist gills is not a
problem to aquatic animals. This factor allows
easier gas exchange.

60

Fig. 42-21

Coelom
Gills
Gills
Parapodium (functions as gill)
(a) Marine worm

Tube foot
(b) Crayfish

(c) Sea star

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FIG. 22-2B

Body surface

Respiratory
surface
(gill)

CO2
O2

Capillary

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RESPIRATORY SURFACES EXTERNAL GILLS

External gills
Gills that are not enclosed
within body structures.
Larvae of many fish and
amphibians have external
gills.
One example is the axolotl.
Disadvantage
Constant movement to avoid
oxygen depletion.
Easily damaged.

63

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - FISH

The efficiency of fish gills is
due to a simple adaptation
known as countercurrent
exchange.
=> oxygen is transferred from
the water that flows on the
surface of the lamella to the
blood that is flowing in the
opposite direction within the
lamella.
64

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - FISH

- As the low oxygenated blood enters the lamella, it travels in the direction
opposite to the water.
- It encounters "fresher" water with ever-higher oxygen concentrations A
steep diffusion gradient favors transfer of oxygen from the water into the
blood.
- If the blood flows with water in the concurrent flow, the concentration
difference between oxygen in water and oxygen in blood would fall so
rapidly.
65

- The net diffusion of oxygen would cease when the oxygen concentration
in the blood matched the water.

66

RESPIRATORY SURFACES TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM

In terrestrial habitats, gills are replaced because
I.
Air is less buoyant than water. Gills need
structural support of water. Because air is
less buoyant than water, gills will collapse
outside water.
II. Water
diffuses
into
air
through
evaporation. Gills provide an enormous
surface area for water loss through
evaporation.

67

RESPIRATORY SURFACES TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM

There are three main types of respiratory

organs used by terrestrial animals.
- Trachea, skin and lungs.

68

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - INSECTS

Insects have an extensive system of external
chitin reinforced tubes named trachea, which
branches throughout the body.
This system relies on a network of small tubes
that channels oxygen directly to the different
parts of the body.

Air sacs
Tracheae

External
opening

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RESPIRATORY SURFACES - INSECTS

The tracheal tubes
branch into smaller
and
smaller
tubes,
called tracheoles that
eventually
terminate
on
the
plasma
membrane of every cell
in the insect's body.
The
tips
of
the
tracheoles are closed
and contain fluid where
gas exchange happens.

70

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - INSECTS

Piping air directly from the external environment
to the cells works very well for insects because
their small body gives them a high surface area
to-volume ratio.
This system also eliminates the need of having a
closed circulatory system for transporting oxygen
as in higher animals.
Insects also prevent excessive water loss by
closing the spiracles (breathing pores).

71

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - LUNG

Main terrestrial vertebrate
have
lungs
which
are
internal sacs lined with
moist epithellium.
In contrast to the trachea
system of insects, lungs are
restricted to one location in
the body.
Therefore, there is a need for
a circulatory system.

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RESPIRATORY SURFACES - FROGS

- The oxygenation of their blood is
supplemented by the cutaneous
respiration - exchange of gases
through their moist skin.
- Amphibians breathe using positive
pressure. They create greater-than
atmosphericpressure
during
breathing.
- They perform this by filling their
buccal cavity with air, closed their
mouth and nostrils and then elevate
the floor of their oral cavity.
- This push the air down into the
trachea

73

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - MAMMALS

Reptiles and mammals breathe using negative
pressure (lower-than atmospheric pressure).
This is because they expand their lungs first in
order to fill it with air.
This type of breathing works like a suction
pump that pulls air into the lungs.

74

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - BIRDS

Because flying is a high energy activity, birds

generally have a high metabolic rate and
require a great deal of oxygen.

Thus, they have evolved a two-cycle breathing

process involving both lungs that involved
unidirectional air flow.
Bird lungs have two groups of air sacs, anterior
and posterior.
75

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - BIRDS

Anterior
air sacs

Posterior
air sacs

Lungs

INHALATION
Air sacs fill

Trachea

EXHALATION
Air sacs empty; lungs fill

On inhalation, both sets of air sacs expand. Inhaled air flows down
the trachea, bypasses the lungs, and fills up the posterior air sacs.
At the same time, the anterior air sacs fill with stale air from the
lungs.
On exhalation, both sets of air sacs deflate, forcing fresh air from
the posterior sacs into the lungs, and stale air from the anterior
sacs out through the trachea.
76

RESPIRATORY SURFACES - BIRDS

- Air takes two cycles of inhalation and exhalation to
pass through the system and out of the bird.
- Air passes through the lungs in one direction only

77

Unlike the blind-ended alveolus, the bird lungs

channel air through tiny air vessels called
parabronchi.
Air passes one way through the tubes while
blood flows in the opposite direction. This is
called the crosscurrent flow.

Due to the unidirectional air flow and crosscurrent blood flow made the avian respiratory
system is the most efficient among terrestrial
vertebrates.
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END
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